Behavior Challenges in Primary and Secondary Classrooms: The Educators’ Experiences
_______________________
A Dissertation
Presented to
The College of Graduate and Professional Studies
Department of Special Education
Slippery Rock University
Slippery Rock, Pennsylvania
______________________
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctorate of Special Education
_______________________
by
Jessica A. Stover
April 2026
Jessica A. Stover, 2026

Keywords: student behavior, behavior interventions, teacher well-being, professional
development, classroom management, PBIS

BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS
COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Committee Chair: Jesse Smith, Ed.D., BCBA
Assistant Professor of Special Education
Slippery Rock University
Committee Member: Ashlea Rineer-Hershey, Ph.D.
Professor of Special Education
Slippery Rock University
Committee Member: Jason Hilton, Ph.D.
Professor of Education
Slippery Rock University

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ABSTRACT
Teachers across the United States have reported an increase in disruptive student behaviors,
which create significant challenges for classroom management, instructional time, and teacher
well-being. While many schools provide resources intended to support teachers, there is often a
lack of time or professional development opportunities to implement these tools effectively. The
purpose of the study was to explore how teachers perceive current behavioral challenges, how
these challenges affect their instructional practices and emotional health, and what supports they
identify as most beneficial. A qualitative design using interviews and open-ended survey
responses was employed to gather detailed perspectives from teachers. The findings of the study
revealed key themes, including the impact of technology use on student behavior, the importance
of support, the influence of time constraints on behavior management practices and the need for
targeted professional development. These findings highlight how behavioral challenges affect
both instructional practices and teacher well-being. The results of this study have implications
for improving professional development, strengthening behavior interventions and informing
school policies. These findings contribute to the development of a safer and more supportive
environment for teachers and students.

Keywords: student behavior, behavior interventions, teacher well-being, professional
development, classroom management, PBIS

BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my children, Mark and Mary Catherine. Always remember that
you can achieve anything you set your mind to, and I will always be right behind you, cheering
you on. I love you!

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to sincerely acknowledge all the support that has been generously and graciously
given to me throughout this incredible journey.

I would like to begin by thanking my committee: Dr. Smith, Dr. Rineer-Hershey, and Dr. Hilton.
Thank you for your support and encouragement throughout this process. To Dr. Smith, thank you
for the time, guidance, and motivation for every chapter. Your insight and dedication made this
journey not only possible but meaningful.

To my colleagues who have supported me from the start, your encouragement has meant more
than you can imagine. I am truly grateful for your constant belief in me and for being such an
important part of my journey.

To my new SRU sister, Kristen, thank you for pushing me and being there every step of the way.
All the calls, guidance, and support have built a friendship I will cherish forever.

Lastly, to my family, who have always been behind me, believing I could do hard things even
when I doubted myself, thank you. To my husband, Tom, and to my two children, for inspiring
me every day, you have made all this possible. To my dad, aunts, uncles, and cousins, thank you
all for your unwavering support. I could not have done this without each of you. To my mom
who is watching from above, I hope I have made you proud.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT.....................................................................................................................................3
DEDICATION .................................................................................................................................4
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...............................................................................................................5
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………….11
LIST OF FIGURES..…………………………………………………………………………….12
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................13
Overview ........................................................................................................................... 14
Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................. 16
Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................... 17
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 18
Signficance of the Study ................................................................................................... 18
Theoretical Contributions ..................................................................................... 18
Practical Implications............................................................................................ 19
Implications for Teachers ..................................................................................... 19
Policy Implications ............................................................................................... 20
Research Implications ........................................................................................... 20
Delimitations ..................................................................................................................... 21
Definition of Terms........................................................................................................... 21
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE .................................................................................25
Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 25
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 25

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Need for the Study ............................................................................................................ 25
Public Education ............................................................................................................... 27
Special Education Law and IDEA .................................................................................... 29
Defintion of Behavioral Challenges.................................................................................. 33
Mental Health and Behavioral Screenings ........................................................................ 34
Classroom Environment and Learning ............................................................................. 35
Behavioral Classroom Management ................................................................................. 36
Administraion Support ...................................................................................................... 38
Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports .................................................................. 40
Teacher Perspective of PBIS ................................................................................ 41
PBIS in Special Education .................................................................................... 42
Teacher Well-Being .......................................................................................................... 43
Teacher Burnout and Attrition .......................................................................................... 44
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 45
CHAPTER 3: METHODS .............................................................................................................47
Overview ........................................................................................................................... 47
Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................... 47
Research Question ............................................................................................................ 47
Setting ............................................................................................................................... 48
Participants ........................................................................................................................ 48
Study Design ..................................................................................................................... 49
Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 50
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 51

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Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 53
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 55
Presentation of Results ...................................................................................................... 56
Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 56
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 57
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ...............................................................................................................58
Intoduction ........................................................................................................................ 58
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 58
Participant Overview ........................................................................................................ 58
Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 61
Self-Report Form .................................................................................................. 61
Interviews .............................................................................................................. 61
Field Notes ............................................................................................................ 62
Data Analysis Process ....................................................................................................... 62
Rigor and Trustworthiness ................................................................................................ 63
Findings............................................................................................................................. 63
Qualitative Findings .......................................................................................................... 64
Theme 1: The Impact of Technology Use ............................................................ 64
Summary of Theme 1................................................................................ 64
Theme 2: Support System in Schools ................................................................... 66
Subtheme 1: Administative Support ......................................................... 66
Subtheme 2: Collegial Support ................................................................. 68
Summary of Theme 2................................................................................ 68

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Theme 3: Effects of Time Constraints .................................................................. 69
Subtheme 1: Inconsistent Consequences Due to Time Demands ............. 71
Summary of Theme 3................................................................................ 72
Theme 4: Need for Targeted Teacher Training .................................................... 72
Summary of Theme 4................................................................................ 74
Quantitative Findings ........................................................................................................ 74
Quantitative Data Summary .................................................................................. 81
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 81
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION.........................................................................................................83
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 83
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 84
Interpretation of the Findings............................................................................................ 84
Theme 1: The Impact of Technology Use ............................................................ 84
Recommendation for Theme 1.................................................................. 86
Theme 2: Support in School Systems ................................................................... 87
Recommendation for Theme 2.................................................................. 88
Theme 3: Effects of Time Constraints .................................................................. 89
Recommendation for Theme 3.................................................................. 90
Theme 4: Need for Targeted Teacher Training .................................................... 92
Recommendation for Theme 4.................................................................. 94
Implications....................................................................................................................... 95
Implications for Instructional Practices ................................................................ 96

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Implications for Leadership .................................................................................. 96
Implications for Professional Development.......................................................... 97
Implications for Policy .......................................................................................... 98
Overall Recommendations .............................................................................................. 100
Limitations ...................................................................................................................... 101
Reccomendations for Future Research ........................................................................... 102
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 103
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................105
APPENDIX A: Perspective Teacher Email .................................................................................117
APPENDIX B: Demongraphic Survey ........................................................................................120
APPENDIX C: Self-Report Form ................................................................................................121
APPENDIX D: Approval Letter from School District ................................................................128
APPENDIX E: Letter to Assistant Superintendent ......................................................................129
APPENDIX F: Informed Consent Form ......................................................................................130
APPENDIX G: Audio/Video Release Consent Form ..................................................................134
APPENDIX H: Interview Questions ...........................................................................................135

BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Definition of Terms ............................................................................................ 21
Table 2. Six Principles of IDEA .......................................................................................30
Table 3. Alignment of Semi-Structured Interview Questions with Research Questions…51
Table 4. Participant Demographic Characteristics ........................................................... 59
Table 5. Percentage of Behavioral Challenge Ratings by Years of Experience .............. 75
Table 6. Percentage of Reported Behavioral Frequencies by Behavior Type ................. 76
Table 7. Professional Development Received by Teachers ............................................ 80

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BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Range of Negative Student Behaviors ............................................................... 78
Figure 2. Impact of Behavioral Challenges on Participants’ Well-Being ....................... 79

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CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Teachers across the United States have reported an increase in disruptive student
behaviors since the COVID-19 pandemic. According to a 2022 survey conducted by Education
Week, more than 70% of school leaders and teachers reported an increase in classroom
disruptions, including defiance, aggression, and general disengagement (Kurtz, 2022). There has
been a concerning increase in disruptive student behavior in classrooms, which can significantly
impact the learning environment for students and affect teachers, parents, and administrators
(Staff, 2024). While teachers and staff are provided with resources focusing on classroom
management and student behavior, they often lack the time, training, or support to effectively
implement them (Marder et al., 2023). Additionally, negative student behaviors can disrupt the
teaching and learning process, causing added mental and emotional strain, which is associated
with teacher burnout (Aloe et al., 2014).
Teacher-student interactions create both positive and negative emotions. These
relationships are more powerful than any other daily interaction, such as those with co-workers,
parents, and administrators (Hagenauer et al., 2015). For example, when teachers set clear
expectations and correct behavior fairly and respectfully, students are more likely to feel valued
and respected. In contrast, when a student is reprimanded in front of the class, it can lead to
feelings of shame or embarrassment, triggering negative emotions and potentially harming the
student-teacher relationship. Student development does not just transpire in the classroom, but
through proximal and distal interactions that overlap in multiple environments and with multiple
people (Bronfenbrenner, 2005). Additionally, a lack of administrative involvement and
consistency regarding student expectations can significantly impact how teachers respond to

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student behavior and the consequences they assign. This study aimed to gather teachers’
perspectives on student behaviors in their classrooms, as well as on the curriculum and
behavioral tools they find effective or ineffective during times of disruption.
Overview
To better understand teachers' perspectives on student behavior in their classrooms, this
study examined the dynamics of teacher-student interactions and classroom management, as well
as the curriculum and behavioral tools they viewed as effective or ineffective during these
interactions. Public schools in the United States are increasingly characterized by rising
behavioral challenges among students (Wright, 2023). These challenges are amplified by
concerns about inadequate support and teacher preparedness when working with students with
behavioral challenges. Public education operates within a tightly regulated environment shaped
by federal mandates such as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and Every
Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) (U.S. Department of Education, 2022). Schools often operate
under mandates that prioritize academic achievement and standardized testing, without the
corresponding focus on behavioral supports (U.S. Department of Education, 2025). While there
are behavioral mandates such as PBIS, restorative practices, and student codes of conduct, these
can vary by country, state, school district, and school type (public, private, or charter). In 2025,
$43 billion was allocated for K–12 formula grants for fiscal year 2024 through the U.S.
Department of Education (Wolfe, 2025). In comparison, the Bipartisan Safer Communities Act
provides $100 million annually for each of two grant programs (School-Based Mental Health
Services Grants and Mental Health Services Professional Demonstration Grants) from fiscal year
2022 to fiscal year 2026, representing a significant contrast compared to academic funding
(Federal Support for School Safety and Security, 2021).

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States have recognized the discrepancy between academic and behavioral mandates and
have implemented state-level programs to collect data. For instance, New York has added the
Dignity for All Students Act, requiring school districts to adopt policies for schools to be free of
bullying and discrimination, train staff, and annually report on school climate (Laws and
Regulations, 2015). Similarly, Tennessee passed HB 0322, which mandates safety measures in
schools, including installing alert/panic systems, funding for school resource officers and
behavioral help staff, and security upgrades (Fullerton, 2023). Pennsylvania’s Act 30, an
amendment to the Safe Schools Act of 1995, requires annual reporting to the Department of
Education, including all incidents of violence, weapons, alcohol, drugs, and tobacco possession
(Swanson, n.d.). In Pennsylvania school districts, the Pennsylvania Youth Survey is conducted
every two years for students in grades 6, 8, 10, and 12, as a preventive measure to identify
problem behaviors and examine the root causes of these issues (Strategic Prevention
Programming, 2023). In 2023, 78.4% of secondary students in Pennsylvania reported feeling safe
in school, a decline from 2021, when 82% of the student population felt safe (Strategic
Prevention Programming, 2023). Compared to the overall Pennsylvania average, the district
examined in this study showed stronger results, with 91.2% of students reporting that they felt
safe at school (Strategic Prevention Programming, 2023).
Discipline practices are one issue that raises significant concerns regarding fairness,
equity, and the rights of both teachers and students. Exclusionary discipline practices, such as
suspension and expulsion, which remove students from the classroom, are disproportionately
applied to students with disabilities and those from marginalized backgrounds, perpetuating
existing inequities (Graves et al., 2023). Teachers face the complex task of addressing the needs
of all learners, including those who exhibit behavioral challenges, while also maintaining a safe

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and effective learning environment for the whole class. In the absence of clear guidelines and
sufficient support, this tension can contribute to teacher burnout and the adoption of reactive
discipline strategies, outcomes that raise serious ethical concerns.
The lack of teacher training contributed to teacher stress and burnout, particularly when
high expectations are combined with limited support (Aloe et al., 2014). These challenges are not
isolated to one grade level or school, but were noted across both primary and secondary settings,
and in both general and special education, impacting instructional time, classroom climate, and
educator well-being.
Statement of the Problem
Although student behavior can arise from a range of factors, including medical,
environmental, or emotional causes, many teachers lack access to training and support
specifically focused on behavioral interventions, especially for students who seek attention from
adults or peers (Wink et al., 2021; Gimpel & Peacock, 2010). Without sufficient support,
teachers were more likely to experience burnout and find it difficult to respond with empathy
toward students exhibiting challenging behaviors in the classroom.
Hernandez, Hueck, and Charley (2016) conducted a study in the United States comparing
the attitudes of general and special education teachers toward inclusion. Their results showed
that special education teachers held more positive views about working with students with
disabilities than general education teachers. Similarly, Parchomiuk (2018) carried out a study in
Poland that compared the attitudes and interactions of special education teachers with those of
general education teachers. The study showed that special education teachers were more likely to
share both positive and negative experiences, which may influence how they view students with
disabilities. The research also looked at the connection between teachers’ empathy and their

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attitudes toward students with special needs. Recognizing students’ emotional and environmental
challenges is important, as this awareness can help teachers prepare for and lessen classroom
disruptions (Mahvar et al., 2018).
Since the passage of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 (IDEA), the
number of students with disabilities in general education classrooms has increased significantly,
promoting more inclusive educational environments (U.S. Department of Education, 2004a).
Additional training, which is required for special education teachers and concentrates on student
behaviors, may be valuable for all staff, including general education teachers, support staff, and
administrators. This would enable administrators to support teachers and staff, even when they
are not physically present in the classroom, by increasing awareness of available tools, their use,
and their contribution to teacher and student success.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate how teachers perceive challenging student
behaviors and how these behavioral challenges impact teachers’ well-being and instructional
practices in their classroom and identify supports that could help address these challenges.
Findings from this study were intended to guide improvements in professional development and
behavior intervention training programs. Improvements may include skills and resources needed
to manage challenging student behavior effectively. This study provides insight into the gaps
between policy expectations, professional development, and daily classroom realities by focusing
on teacher perceptions.
El Zaatari and Maalouf (2022) asserted that one of the most essential factors in effective
learning environments and school climate is school safety. Additionally, they highlighted student
relationships, extracurricular activities, peer interactions, and parental involvement as essential

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factors that influence effective learning environments. School safety consists of more than just
physical safety, but also mental and emotional safety; a feeling of belonging and respect. For
many students, the majority of their social interactions occur during school. When students feel
as if they belong at school, studies have shown decreased disruptive behaviors and emotional
distress, compared to other students who do not feel that they belong (Henry et al., 2021).
Research Questions
1. What types of behavioral challenges are educators currently experiencing in their classrooms?
2. How do educators perceive the causes of these student behavioral issues?
3. How do behavioral challenges impact teachers’ well-being and instructional practices, and
what supports would be or have been beneficial in managing these challenges?
Significance of the Study
This study addresses a growing concern in public education: the rising incidence of
student behavioral challenges and its impact on teacher well-being. While considerable attention
has been devoted to student discipline and teacher burnout independently, few studies have
examined how administrative support, professional development, and institutional policies
intersect to influence teachers' management of behavior in general education settings.
Theoretical Contributions
This study drew on Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory to gain a deeper
understanding of the multiple factors that shape teachers' experiences with student behavior.
Bronfenbrenner (1979) describes human development as being influenced by multiple layers of
environmental systems. Teachers' everyday experiences with student behaviors and their
responses are not shaped solely by individual skills or classroom dynamics within this

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framework, but instead, they are influenced by how these systems interact. This framework
highlights teacher experiences, not just isolated events, but the results of an interactive system.
Bronfenbrenner's model also applies to students who may demonstrate disruptive
behaviors in the classroom. This study recognized that behavioral challenges cannot be viewed in
isolation, but reflect a student's interaction with multiple systems, some supportive, others
potentially harmful. This perspective helps explain why behavior interventions must be systemic
and coordinated, rather than solely focused on student compliance.
Using Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory and focusing on teacher
perspectives, this study highlighted the systemic nature of behavioral challenges, and the
importance of multi-tier supports. While there have been studies that focus on student behavior
from a teacher's perspective, there are very few recent studies that address new behavioral trends
and interventions since COVID-19.
Practical Implications
The findings of this study provided practical insights for school administrators seeking to
create more effective classroom environments, mitigate teacher burnout, and address disparities
in how behavioral issues are addressed. The results may inform future training programs or
inform updates to behavior management policies at the school or district level. Ultimately, this
study added to our understanding of how to better support both teachers and students in the
education system.
Implication for Teachers
The insights gained from this research could lead to the creation of new resources and
professional development opportunities for teachers to understand student behaviors better and
address them effectively in the classroom. The results could help reduce behavioral challenges,

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increase knowledge of behavioral issues, and enable teachers to identify specific behaviors to
implement appropriate interventions or support. With the additional professional development,
teachers' awareness of their own empathy levels may change, which in turn may influence the
overall classroom environment.
Policy Implications
The data collected in this study may support school administrators in revising discipline
policies to prioritize restorative practices and Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports
(PBIS) over exclusionary measures such as suspension or expulsion. District-level policies could
also require the presence of on-site behavioral specialists, school psychologists, or behavior
intervention teams. Embedding behavioral expertise within schools has the potential to reduce
teacher stress and contribute to more positive and supportive classroom environments. Houchens
et al. (2017) examined teachers' perceptions of working conditions in schools implementing
PBIS schoolwide compared to those not implementing PBIS. Using the Kentucky survey,
Teaching Empowering, Leading and Learning (TELL), Houchens and co-researchers selected
151 non-SWPBIS schools to compare to the 151 SWPBIS schools that completed the
TELL. Information gathered on the TELL examined teachers’ perceptions of teaching
conditions and included Likert-style questions on a five-point scale. Teachers who taught in
PBIS schools noted clear student and faculty understanding of behaviors, and a stronger
atmosphere of professional trust and respect. These findings suggest that PBIS contributed to a
more supportive working environment where teachers felt supported and empowered.
Research Implications
The findings of this study provide a basis for further research into teachers’ perceptions
of student behavioral challenges. Future studies could build upon these results by expanding the

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sample size, examining diverse geographic contexts, or investigating the influence of
socioeconomic factors. Additionally, continued research focusing on administrators’ perceptions
of disruptive student behavior could provide valuable insight into the connections or disconnects
between teachers' and administration's views.
Delimitations
This study is delimited to educators in a K-12 setting, who are currently teaching in
public schools within Central Pennsylvania, during the 2025–2026 academic school year. This
study specifically centers on teachers’ experiences and perspectives regarding behavioral
challenges in their classrooms. Other voices, such as those of administrators, school counselors,
support staff, students, and parents, are not included in the participant group, but may be
addressed in future studies.
Table 1
Definition of Terms
Term

Definition
A leadership professional, such as a superintendent, director of special

Administrator

education, principal, assistant principal, or dean of students, responsible
for overseeing daily school operations and ensuring a safe, effective, and
supportive learning environment for students and staff (Everything You
Need to Know About Being a School Administrator, 2025).
A disability category under the Individuals with Disabilities Education

Emotional

Act (IDEA) characterized by conditions that significantly impact

Disturbance

educational performance, including difficulty maintaining relationships,
inappropriate behaviors, persistent mood issues, or physical symptoms

BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS
Term

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Definition
related to personal or school problems. These characteristics must be
present over a prolonged period (U.S. Department of Education, 2004b).
An educational right guaranteeing that students with disabilities receive

Free Appropriate

specialized education and related services at no cost to parents, designed

Public Education

to meet individual needs and prepare students for further education,

(FAPE)

employment, and/or independent living (U.S. Department of Education,
2017).
The standard instructional program designed for typically developing

General Education

students, guided by state educational standards and assessed through
annual state-mandated testing (Webster, 2019).
An educator knowledgeable about grade-level curriculum and academic

General Education

expectations for students in a typical classroom setting (What Does a

Teacher

General Education Teacher Do? Career Overview, Roles, Jobs | NSTA,
2025)
Disabilities most commonly observed in school settings, affecting

High-Incidence
approximately 10% of students, including learning disabilities, attention
Disability
deficit disorders, and mild intellectual disabilities (Eagleton, 2021).
The placement of students with disabilities in age-appropriate general
Inclusion
education classrooms with additional supports as needed (Lambert, 2008).

BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS
Term

23

Definition

Individuals with
A federal law ensuring students with disabilities receive special education
Disabilities
and related services and supporting early intervention services for infants,
Education Act
toddlers, and their families (U.S. Department of Education, 2004b).
(IDEA)
Disabilities that occur infrequently in school settings, affecting fewer than
Low-Incidence

1% of school-aged children, including sensory impairments, autism

Disability

spectrum disorders, and significant intellectual disabilities (Eagleton,
2021).
A principle under IDEA requiring that students with disabilities be

Least Restrictive
educated with nondisabled peers in general education settings to the
Environment (LRE)
greatest extent appropriate (U.S. Department of Education, 2017).
A multi-tiered, evidence-based framework designed to improve student
Positive Behavior
behavior, academic outcomes, and emotional well-being through
Interventions and
proactive strategies and consistent support systems (Center on PBIS,
Supports (PBIS)
2025).
An instructional program designed to address individual student needs
while promoting inclusion in general education when appropriate,
Special Education
including services for a wide range of disabilities that affect educational
performance (Benitez Ojeda & Carugno, 2022).
Special Education

An educator trained to support students with mild to moderate or

Teacher

moderate to severe disabilities and responsible for implementing

BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS
Term

24

Definition
Individualized Education Programs (IEPs), ensuring legal compliance,
and completing required documentation within mandated timelines
(Dragoo, 2024).

Summary
In summary, the study aimed to understand teachers’ perceptions of student behavioral
challenges in the classroom and identify the resources that are most effective in managing these
situations. The purpose of this study was to gain insight into teachers' needs when working with
students who exhibit disruptive behavior and to reduce stress for both teachers and students. This
research also fills a gap in the current literature by focusing on teachers’ views of student
behavior in Pennsylvania. Chapter 2 will provide an in-depth review of special education,
Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS), and how classroom behavior and
learning environments affect teachers.

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CHAPTER 2
Review of Literature
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the range of student behavioral challenges
that teachers commonly encounter in primary and secondary classrooms and to explore how
these challenges impact instructional practices, student learning, teacher well-being, and the
overall classroom environment. These behaviors can range from mild, such as interrupting
during instruction, to more severe, such as causing injury to oneself or others. Additionally, the
study evaluated the effectiveness of current support systems and resources available to educators
in managing these issues and promoting positive outcomes.
Grounded in the lived experiences and perspectives of teachers, this research aimed to
identify recurring patterns in student behavior across educational levels, examine the strategies
educators use to address these challenges, and assess what types of professional development or
institutional support they perceive as most beneficial.
Ultimately, this work intended to shape policy and practices in teacher training, school
leadership, and classroom management strategies in order to create a more positive and
productive learning environment.
Research Questions
1. What types of behavioral challenges are educators currently experiencing in their classrooms?
2. How do educators perceive the causes of these student behavioral issues?
3. How do behavioral challenges impact teachers’ well-being and instructional practices, and
what supports would be or have been beneficial in managing these challenges?
Need for the Study

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Classroom disruptions stemming from student behavioral challenges have increased
significantly in recent years, with 70% of teachers citing increased behaviors from 2019 to 2023,
yet there has been little corresponding expansion in support for educators and school staff (Staff,
2024). These behavioral incidents affect not only the student in crisis but also impact teachers
and other students by disrupting instructional time and creating a less safe and supportive
learning environment. Such disruptions are associated with negative academic, social, and
emotional outcomes, contributing to feelings of insecurity among both students and teachers
(Blank & Shavit, 2016).
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2025), one in five children
between the ages of three and seventeen has been diagnosed with a mental, developmental, or
behavioral disorder. However, with the right support and strategies, these students can thrive.
Furthermore, over 7.5 million students are currently served under the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in public schools (National Center for Education Statistics,
2024). Despite the growing prevalence of students with disabilities and behavioral needs, there
has not been a proportional increase in teacher preparation, professional development, or access
to effective classroom management strategies. This lack of preventative support is increasingly
cited by educators and school staff as a contributing factor to burnout, stress, and, ultimately,
teacher attrition (Ingersoll, Merrill, & Stuckey, 2014; Herman et al., 2020).
Research has shown that chronic exposure to behavioral disruptions and a lack of
effective support mechanisms can lead to emotional exhaustion, lower job satisfaction, and
decreased teacher efficacy (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). As teachers struggle to meet the
academic and behavioral needs of increasingly diverse classrooms, many report feeling
underprepared to manage students with emotional and behavioral disorders (Stormont, Reinke, &

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27

Herman, 2011). Without access to ongoing training in trauma-informed practices, positive
behavior interventions and supports (PBIS), and social-emotional learning frameworks, teachers
are left to navigate these complex situations alone, often leading to reactive rather than proactive
disciplinary approaches (Fisher, 2020).
Public Education
The first known American public school was the English Classical School, founded in
Boston, Massachusetts, in 1821. This institution later became known as The English High School
and served as a prototype for what Horace Mann would later define as the "common school" a
universal, publicly funded system open to all children (Kober & Rentner, 2020). These early
schools emphasized core subjects, including reading, writing, and arithmetic, and were designed
to educate students into virtuous, civic-minded citizens, regardless of their socioeconomic
background.
In the early 1900s, Elizabeth E. Farrell established the first ungraded classroom in New
York City, providing individualized instruction for students with developmental and behavioral
challenges (University at Buffalo, n.d.). As the first Inspector of Ungraded Classes, she helped
integrate special education into the public school system, laying the groundwork for more
inclusive educational practices. Farrell’s work transformed public education for exceptional
children, which led to the founding of the Council for Exceptional Children, which remains a
leading organization in the field (Council for Exceptional Children, n.d.).
By the mid-19th century, professionalization of teaching became a critical aspect of the
expanding school system. The establishment of normal schools, specialized institutions for
teacher training, began in the 1830s. Massachusetts again led the way, opening the first public

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28

normal school in 1839. These institutions marked the beginning of formalized teacher education
and reinforced the idea that teaching should be a respected and skilled profession.
Major social reforms continued into the 20th century. In 1954, the landmark Supreme
Court case Brown v. Board of Education overturned the precedent set by Plessy v. Ferguson
(1896), declaring that racial segregation in public schools was inherently unequal and, therefore,
unconstitutional (National Archives, 2024). This decision marked a pivotal moment in civil
rights history, laying the legal groundwork for educational equity.
Federal involvement deepened during the Great Society era with the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act (ESEA) in 1965. Signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson,
ESEA aimed to close achievement gaps for disadvantaged students by allocating federal funds to
public schools, particularly through Title I, which targeted schools in low-income communities.
The act also provided support for textbooks, teacher training, and special education programs
(U.S. Department of Education, 2025).
Further legislative progress came in 1975 with the passage of the Education for All
Handicapped Children Act (later renamed IDEA), which mandated that students with disabilities
have access to free and appropriate public education. The law provided federal support to states
to ensure educational protections and services for students with special needs and their families
(U.S. Department of Education, 2024).
In the early 21st century, accountability became a central focus of educational policy.
President George W. Bush signed the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) into law in 2002, a
reauthorization of ESEA that imposed rigorous standards for academic achievement. Under
NCLB, schools were required to administer annual standardized tests in reading and math, and
progress was measured by Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) benchmarks. The law aimed to

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29

close the achievement gaps between student groups, particularly among minorities and lowincome populations (The White House, 2002).
NCLB faced criticism for its overreliance on standardized testing and its use of punitive
measures against underperforming schools. In response, President Barack Obama signed Every
Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) in 2015, replacing NCLB. While ESSA maintained a commitment
to equity and continued standardized testing, it returned more decision-making authority to
states, allowing for more localized accountability systems and educational innovation (ESSA,
2015).
Special Education Law and IDEA
Special education law in the United States has evolved significantly over the past several
decades to protect the rights of students with disabilities and to ensure they receive a Free
Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) (U.S.
Department of Education, 2024). The legal foundation for special education was established
through a series of federal laws and court decisions that aimed to eliminate discrimination and
promote equal access to education. For example, in 1972 The Pennsylvania Association for
Retarded Citizens (PARC) sued the commonwealth of Pennsylvania after children with
intellectual disabilities were denied access to public education. The court ruled that these
students could not be excluded from public schools and that doing so violated their rights under
the Fourteenth Amendment. As a result, the state was required to provide free public education
and appropriate protections for students with disabilities. This case helped lay the groundwork
for later federal special education laws, including the Education for All Handicapped Children
Act of 1975, now known as IDEA.

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The cornerstone of special education law is IDEA, originally enacted in 1975 as the
Education for All Handicapped Children Act (Public Law 94-142) (U.S. Department of
Education, 2022). This legislation mandated that public schools provide FAPE in the LRE to
students with disabilities. It also required that each eligible student receive an Individualized
Education Program (IEP) tailored to their specific needs (U.S. Department of Education, 2022).
See Table 2 below for a detailed overview of the six principles of the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (Walsh, 2024).
Table 2
Six Principles of IDEA
#

Principle

Description

1

Free Appropriate Public

Every student with a disability is entitled to a free

Education (FAPE)

education tailored to their individual needs,
designed to provide meaningful educational
benefit.

2

Appropriate Evaluation

Students must receive nondiscriminatory,
comprehensive evaluations using multiple
measures to determine eligibility and educational
needs.

3

Individualized Education Program

Each eligible student must have a written IEP that
outlines present levels of performance, goals,
services, accommodations, and how progress will
be measured.

BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS
4

Least Restrictive Environment

31

Students with disabilities must be educated with
nondisabled peers to the maximum extent
appropriate, with removal from general education
occurring only when necessary.

5

Parent and Student Participation

Parents (and students, when appropriate) have the
right to participate in all decisions related to
identification, evaluation, placement, and
services.

6

Procedural Safeguards

Legal protections ensure that parents and students
can challenge decisions, access records, receive
prior written notice, and resolve disputes through
due process.

Prior to IDEA, many children with disabilities were either excluded from public
education entirely or placed in segregated settings without access to meaningful instruction.
Landmark court cases such as Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Citizens (PARC) v.
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1971) and Mills v. Board of Education of the District of
Columbia (1972) affirmed the rights of students with disabilities to public education and laid the
groundwork for federal legislation. Later, Gaskin v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (2005)
reinforced these rights by requiring Pennsylvania to improve access to inclusive, communitybased educational services for students with disabilities, ensuring compliance with IDEA and
emphasizing least restrictive environments (Gaskin v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, n.d.).
Unfortunately, in 2010, the advisory panel established under the Gaskin settlement, concluded

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32

that the provisions of the agreement had not been fully implemented (Elks, 2010). While some
improvements were noted, including increases in professional development and training
opportunities, gains in least restrictive environment (LRE) placement were minimal, particularly
for students with low-incident disabilities (Elks, 2010). The panel’s recommendations from the
2010 meeting included, making LRE a high priority for all children in Pennsylvania, promoting
meaningful inclusion, and ensuring continued parent education and ongoing support and
monitoring by the Department of Education (Elks, 2010).
In 1990, the law was renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, expanding
services and strengthening protections. IDEA has since undergone several reauthorizations, most
notably in 2004, emphasizing accountability, research-based instruction, and the alignment of
special education with general education reforms, including the No Child Left Behind Act
(Turnbull et al., 2015).
Additionally, laws such as Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 prohibit discrimination on the basis of disability
and extend protections beyond the scope of IDEA, including in areas such as extracurricular
activities, transportation, and postsecondary education (National Education Association, 2024).
Together, these laws ensure that students with disabilities have access to equitable educational
opportunities, appropriate services, and legal safeguards.
Definitions of Behavioral Challenges
Disruptions during instructional time are common in classrooms and can range from
minor disruptions to major disruptions. Teachers are prepared for minor disruptions and are
easily able to address and continue teaching the lesson with little negative impact on the

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33

classroom environment and students. Behavioral disruptions exist on a continuum and can have
varying degrees of impact on teaching and learning (Ødegård & Solberg, 2024).
Minor behavioral disruptions include behaviors such as task avoidance, talking back to
the teacher, walking around the classroom without permission, or talking over peers during
discussions. Moderate behavioral disruptions share similar characteristics but occur more
frequently and with greater intensity. These may involve persistent defiance, emotional
outbursts, or repeated refusal to follow instructions (Ødegård & Solberg, 2024). At the far end of
the continuum, major behavioral disruptions are defined as actions that result in significant harm
or distress to others, including behaviors characterized by physical aggression, bullying, or
antisocial conduct. Such behaviors not only threaten classroom safety but also require intensive
intervention and support (Ødegård & Solberg, 2024, p. 2).
In recent years, managing student behavior has become the most commonly cited concern
among public school teachers, many of whom report feeling underprepared to address these
challenges effectively (Baloglu, 2009). Among students receiving special education services,
approximately 30% are diagnosed with Disruptive Behavior Disorders (DBDs) such as
oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) or conduct disorder (CD) (Alperin et al., 2023). Students
with DBD often receive Special Education services under Emotional Disturbance (EDB). These
are pervasive, chronic, or severe conditions that impact students, who frequently receive schoolbased interventions and referrals due to the intensity and frequency of their behavioral needs
(Wang et al., 2012). These growing behavioral concerns demonstrate the urgent need for teacher
training and more consistent implementation of evidence-based classroom management
strategies.
Mental Health and Behavioral Screenings

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As previously noted, there has been a clear rise in behavioral disruptions in classrooms
across school settings. While these behaviors are often observed and documented, a key concern
remains: Are schools using effective screening practices to identify students who may need
mental health or behavioral support (Oliver et al., 2011)? Teachers are often the first adults in a
school to notice when a student is struggling, but many lack the training or background needed to
fully understand or respond to behavioral health concerns (Green et al., 2017). According to
Eklund et al. (2009), schools typically identify students in need of support in one of two ways,
either through referrals from staff members such as teachers or paraprofessionals (referred to as
“key informants”), or through the use of universal screening tools. However, both approaches
come with significant challenges.
Teacher observations and "key informant" reports can be inconsistent or inaccurate and
may be shaped not only by their professional experience but also by personal beliefs about
mental health, their stress levels, and even implicit biases (Green et al., 2017; Jennings &
Greenberg, 2009). As a result, some students, particularly those with internalizing symptoms like
anxiety or depression, may go unnoticed because their behaviors are less disruptive. Teachers
tend to focus more on visible academic or behavioral concerns, rather than less obvious mental
health struggles, and they may not feel equipped to interpret emotional warning signs in the
classroom.
Universal screeners offer a more structured approach. These tools may involve self-report
surveys, teacher reports, or data collection based on discipline records, and in theory, universal
screening can help schools catch students in need of services before problems escalate (Gould et
al., 2009). Research by Husky et al. (2011) showed that about one in five students screened were
identified as needing mental health support, but only a small number were actually receiving

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35

services. This points to a significant gap between identifying at-risk students and providing them
with the necessary support.
There are also practical limitations. Non-anonymous screenings can raise concerns about
confidentiality, and some parents may opt out or be hesitant to participate. Screenings also take
time and resources, which can strain schools already stretched thin (Green et al., 2017). Even
when students are identified, follow-ups can be weak. Lustig et al. (2022) found that only 5.4%
of students flagged through screening were connected to mental health services, and many still
showed signs of being at risk a year later.
Identifying students with mental health and behavioral needs and ensuring they receive
timely support is essential. Not only does it help the individual student succeed, but it also
contributes to a more stable classroom environment.
Classroom Environment and Learning
A teacher's core responsibility is to facilitate student learning within a safe, structured
environment. However, research consistently shows that learning is severely compromised in
chaotic or emotionally tense classrooms (Frenzel et al., 2018). Frenzel and colleagues conducted
interviews with 1,643 students in fifth to tenth grade, and 69 teachers during three points of the
school year. They report that emotions are not only transmitted one-way, but teachers and
students mutually influence each other, emphasizing the importance of shaping classroom
climate and learning environment (Frenzel et al., 2018). Chronic disruptions not only
compromise lesson delivery but can also deteriorate the school climate, weaken student-teacher
relationships, and hinder overall academic achievement.
These misbehaviors have long-term consequences, including exacerbating teacher
attrition, especially among early-career educators. Ingersoll et al. (2018) report that many novice

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36

teachers feel unprepared and unsupported in managing classroom behavior and find the resultant
stress a key factor driving them out of the profession. For instance, within three years, nearly
two-thirds of new teachers leave, many citing poor classroom management as a primary cause.
The role of classroom culture and emotional climate becomes clear when studying
student outcomes. Ma and Willms (2004) found that among seven school-level variables,
classroom disruption had the strongest negative correlation with achievement, far outweighing
other factors. Additionally, Côté-Lussier and Fitzpatrick (2016) showed that when students
perceived their classroom as safe and supportive, they experienced fewer depressive symptoms
and greater engagement, reflecting positive mental health outcomes.
Research also highlights a reinforcing cycle; teacher burnout and ineffective management
strategies lead to increased student misbehavior, which in turn exacerbates burnout, a cycle that
persists unless interrupted by effective interventions. For instance, emotionally exhausted
teachers often rely on reactive rather than proactive strategies, exacerbating disruptive behavior
in class.
Behavioral Classroom Management
Behavioral challenges continue to pose barriers to classroom management and effective
instruction, with approximately one-third of teachers reporting substantial interference due to
such behaviors (Aloe et al., 2014). Aloe et al. (2014) conducted a meta-analysis of 19
quantitative studies involving teachers across all grade levels to assess relationships among key
variables including student misbehavior and the three dimensions of teacher burnout which are,
emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment. The findings indicate
that behavioral challenges present a significant barrier to effective classroom instruction. The
authors suggest that enhancing teachers’ classroom management skills through targeted training

BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS
and professional development may mitigate these negative effects. If not addressed, these
disruptions can hinder carefully planned lessons, reduce instructional time, and contribute to
teacher stress and burnout.
When behavioral issues are persistent, educators may struggle to maintain student
engagement or to dedicate time to developing creative, differentiated instruction that meets all
learners' needs. While strong classroom management can buffer the impact of behavioral
challenges, such strategies are often narrowly focused on teacher conduct and responses.
However, teaching quality is shaped by a more complex interplay of variables, including
administrative support, student socio-emotional development, peer dynamics, and the broader
school culture (Fauth et al., 2020).
Proactive classroom management strategies are generally more effective than reactive
approaches because they focus on fostering a structured and positive learning environment that
prevents behavioral issues before they arise (Oliver et al., 2011). When teachers establish clear
expectations and maintain consistent routines, they create a classroom climate that naturally
discourages disruptions. These proactive strategies are particularly beneficial for students who
require additional behavioral support. Techniques such as offering verbal praise and using
prompts to reinforce on-task behavior have been shown to significantly improve student
engagement and success by 20-30%, especially when implemented with a higher praise-toreprimand ratio (Caldarella et al., 2020). When students clearly understand what is expected of
them and experience a predictable and supportive environment, they are more likely to selfregulate and remain focused, leading to fewer and less severe behavioral incidents (Day et al.,
2015).

37

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38

Effective classroom management not only fosters order and predictability but also
enhances time on task, a critical variable linked to academic achievement and student success
(Marder et al., 2023). However, this raises several key questions about teacher preparation and
institutional support: Are educators adequately trained in proactive, research-based classroom
management techniques? Are they receiving mentorship and ongoing professional development
focused on behavior intervention strategies?
A lack of administrative consistency or clear behavioral policies can lead to confusion,
diminish teacher authority, and send mixed messages to students. Teachers may hesitate to
enforce consequences if they fear being undermined by administration or parents, which can
destroy classroom control and diminish instructional time (Skiba & Losen, 2016).
Administration Support
Another important factor influencing student behavior and overall classroom climate is
the level of support teachers receive from school administrators during instances of serious
behavioral disruptions. Research underscores the value of consistent administrative presence in
classrooms, which is linked to higher academic achievement and more favorable perceptions of
principals as effective instructional leaders (Robinson et al., 2008). When principals and
administrators are actively engaged, teachers are more likely to feel confident in their roles and
take initiative in addressing classroom challenges. As Ertürk (2021) notes, teachers who feel
supported by their administrators are more inclined to "take an active role in making and
implementing creative and original decisions and developing risk-taking and problem-solving
skills" (p. 190).
Kurt and Duyar (2023) suggest a supportive school climate, one that promotes
psychological safety and encourages teacher initiative, helps explain the link between

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39

administrative support and teacher satisfaction. This quantitative study focused on public school
teachers and explored the relationships between organizational and psychological variables
through surveys. The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) was employed to measure
factors such as teachers’ satisfaction with their profession. A teacher’s belief that their school
valued their contributions and cared about their well-being was a strong positive predictor of job
satisfaction. Kurt and Duyar (2023) concluded that enhancing organizational support and
cultivating psychologically safe schools were critical strategies for improving teacher
satisfaction, commitment, and retention.
Administrative leadership can shape environments that strengthen teacher commitment
and increase job satisfaction, which demonstrates the importance of an engaged administration
(Kurt & Duyar, 2023; Li, Xu & Kim, 2025). Research also shows that social and institutional
support can reduce teacher burnout by helping educators manage stress, feel valued, and
maintain emotional resilience (Collie, Shapka & Perry, 2012).
Beyond instructional leadership, the emotional and psychological support provided by
administrators plays a critical role in teacher well-being. Offering validation, acceptance, and
guidance in managing stress and conflict contributes significantly to teachers' perceptions of
their work environment and overall job satisfaction (Bhanthumnavin, 2000; Ertürk, 2021). This
is especially vital for educators who regularly confront challenging student behaviors and rely on
administrators to offer support both inside and outside the classroom.
Ertürk (2021) found that a teacher's job satisfaction is strongly influenced by the level of
support they perceive from their school principal; as administrative support increases, so too
does satisfaction with their teaching role. Even the perception of support, whether it is frequently
acted upon, has been associated with higher job performance, improved morale, and greater

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40

professional engagement (Aarons et al., 2009). When educators feel genuinely supported and
valued by the administration, they are more likely to engage in problem-solving, implement
innovative strategies, and seek help when needed without fear of judgment.
Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports
Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is a research-based, tiered
framework aimed at enhancing student behavior, academic performance, and overall school
climate. Unlike punishment-centered approaches, PBIS emphasizes proactive prevention,
positive reinforcement, and data-informed decision-making to create supportive environments
for all students (Rholetter, 2024).
Developed in the 1980s at the University of Oregon, PBIS arose in response to
exclusionary disciplinary methods and was later mandated by the 1997 IDEA revisions, which
require the use of positive behavioral strategies for students with disabilities (Rholetter, 2024).
PBIS operates as a decision-making structure, not a fixed curriculum, that guides educators in
selecting, implementing, and monitoring evidence-based practices across all levels of schooling
(Rholetter, 2024; Sugai & Horner, 2009).
Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is a three-tiered framework
designed to promote positive behavior and improve student outcomes through a continuum of
support. Tier One, or Universal Support, targets all students and focuses on proactive strategies
such as teaching, modeling, and reinforcing appropriate behaviors (National Education
Association, 2020). Tier Two is intended for approximately 10–15% of students who require
additional support beyond Tier One. Research indicates that Tier Two interventions can
effectively reduce minor behavioral incidents, improve student attendance, and enhance
academic performance (Anderson et al., 2010). Tier Three provides individualized and intensive

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41

support for the 3–5% of students exhibiting chronic or severe behavioral challenges. At this
level, students often undergo Functional Behavior Assessments (FBAs) and receive customized
Behavior Intervention Plans (BIPs) to address specific needs (Eiraldi et al., 2019).
For authentic inclusion, professional development for PBIS must be deliberately adapted
to address the needs of students with severe disabilities, covering school-wide expectations, data
collection, reinforcement strategies, and structured supports tailored for these learners (Landers
et al., 2012). Students with disruptive behaviors need intensive support to ensure PBIS is
implemented with fidelity.
Teacher Perspectives of PBIS
School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS) helps teachers
and staff establish consistent expectations for student behavior, leading to a more positive school
environment (Sugai & Horner, 2002). When used consistently and effectively, SWPBIS is
associated with fewer office discipline referrals, which can improve how teachers view the
overall health of their school and support higher student achievement (Houchens et al., 2017).
Corbin et al. (2022) investigated the role of implementation climate in SWPBIS feasibility
among 348 Kindergarten to 5th grade teachers across 39 elementary schools. Using a four-item
version of the Feasibility of Intervention Measure (FIM), the School Implementation Climate
Scale (SICS), and the Tiered Fidelity Inventory (TFI), researchers documented teachers’
perceptions in schools with varying levels of implementation climate. They found that teachers
in schools with a more supportive implementation climate viewed SWPBIS as more feasible and,
in turn, achieved higher implementation averages, demonstrating that positive teacher
perceptions are associated with greater implementation fidelity.

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Teacher perceptions are also influenced by the program’s ability to address equity in
disciplinary practices. Teachers reported greater clarity in handling office referrals and
increasing confidence in making equitable decisions when an equity-focused PBIS approach was
used (Austin et al., 2024). Additionally, McIntosh et al. (2021) demonstrated that an equitycentered PBIS approach could reduce racial disparities in school discipline, highlighting the
critical role teachers play in enacting fair and consistent behavioral interventions.
Still, the implementation process is not without its challenges. Terrell and Cho (2023)
found that, despite improvements in school climate, many teachers reported feeling frustrated by
the lack of professional development, limited time to implement PBIS strategies, and insufficient
support and communication from school leadership. The study was conducted over the course of
one year and utilized both surveys and interviews to examine special education teachers’ and
school psychologists’ satisfaction with PBIS programs (Terrell and Cho, 2023). Their concerns
suggest that for SWPBIS to be fully effective, schools must invest in training, allocate time for
implementation, and ensure ongoing support for staff.
PBIS in Special Education
Teachers who work with students in special education often express a different
perspective on the effectiveness of PBIS. While PBIS is designed as a school-wide support
system, students in special education do not always engage with it in the same way as their
general education peers. Shuster et al. (2016) found that between 33.1% and 56.8% of students
receiving special education services were not fully participating in their schools’ PBIS programs.
The study noted that students with low-incidence disabilities faced additional barriers compared
to students with high-incidence disabilities. These students often spend significant time outside
the general education classroom, where behavior management is typically overseen by special

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43

education teachers using alternative systems that may not align with PBIS (Hawken & O'Neill,
2006).
Although state-level PBIS coordinators recognize the importance of including students
with disabilities, they have acknowledged that these students were not a central consideration
during initial planning phases (Walker et al., 2018). Kurth and Enyart (2016) highlighted that
school-wide PBIS frameworks often fall short in providing the necessary accommodations and
support for students with disabilities to fully access behavioral and academic content. For
example, students who use augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems may
lack the communication support required to participate meaningfully in PBIS activities.
Teacher Well-Being
Numerous studies have focused on the relationship between teacher well-being and
student achievement. Teachers' perceptions of student misbehavior have been directly linked to
increased emotional exhaustion, reduced job enthusiasm, and weakened teacher-student
relationships (Aldrup et al., 2018). These stressors are a significant factor contributing to the
growing number of educators leaving the profession. Continual behavioral challenges not only
diminish teachers' capacity to deliver effective instruction but also lower their satisfaction and
commitment to the teaching profession.
According to He et al. (2025), teachers often engage in "surface acting", displaying
emotions that differ from their true feelings, leading to burnout and emotional detachment from
students. This is especially problematic because student-teacher relationships characterized by
trust, warmth, and mutual respect are essential to student development. Such relationships are
particularly important for students who exhibit behavioral challenges, as they are often the ones
who benefit most from consistent, empathetic adult support.

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44

When teachers are emotionally depleted, they struggle to invest in the kinds of
connections that foster student engagement and achievement. Yet, research shows that students
who feel respected, understood, and emotionally supported by their teachers tend to demonstrate
higher levels of cognitive functioning and academic performance (Vandenbroucke et al., 2018;
Roorda et al., 2011). Addressing teacher’s well-being is not only essential for a healthy and
motivated workforce, but it is also a key lever for improving student outcomes and fostering a
positive school climate.
Teacher Burnout and Attrition
Emotional strain and physical safety are increasingly important aspects of teacher wellbeing within the school environment. Alarming data show that a significant number of teachers
have experienced violence from students. In one study, nearly half of the teachers surveyed
reported being subjected to physical aggression (Dzuka & Dalbert, 2007). Exposure to violence
is associated with higher levels of burnout, increased emotional exhaustion, and a decline in life
satisfaction (Aloe et al., 2014; Dzuka & Dalbert, 2007). These conditions create an environment
that makes it challenging for teachers to maintain a sense of personal safety and emotional
balance, both of which are essential for effective teaching.
Teacher burnout is increasingly recognized as a complex issue shaped by both individual
and systemic factors. Recent studies indicate that many educators continue to experience high
levels of stress, fatigue, and anxiety, with contributing factors including heavy workloads,
disruptive student behavior, and inconsistent support from school administrators (Cavallari et al.,
2024). Using structured focus groups, Cavallari et al. (2024) found that 76% of participants
described impacts on physical health and health behaviors, 62% described psychological
impacts, and 68% indicated impacts on relationships due to job demands.

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Longitudinal reviews highlight that burnout is not simply a short-term response to stress,
but is a persistent problem tied to classroom conditions, administrative support, and job demands
(Mijakoski et al., 2022; Hernández-Cruz et al., 2024). Hernández-Cruz et al., (2024) reviewed
five decades of research on teacher burnout, finding that studies have emphasized stress, selfefficacy, social support, and job satisfaction, but classroom environment, emotional intelligence,
and work–family conflict were not explored.
Burnout is closely connected to reductions in mental and physical well-being, including
symptoms such as anxiety, depression, and physical complaints (Agyapong et al., 2022).
Teachers who face chronic behavioral challenges in the classroom, limited resources, or
insufficient administrative backing are more likely to experience emotional exhaustion, reduced
job satisfaction, and a sense of professional inefficacy (Collie, 2023).
Student behavior has been identified as a significant factor in teacher turnover. Ingersoll
(2003) reported that one in four teachers left the profession due to challenges related to student
discipline. This ongoing issue contributes to widespread staffing shortages as schools struggle to
fill vacancies each year. In 2022, the National Center for Education Statistics noted alarming
trends, with 87% of schools reporting increased incidents of student misbehavior and classroom
disruptions. Additionally, student absenteeism is on the rise, further raising the inconsistency in
student instruction. Behavioral challenges in the classroom can interfere with the learning
process and contribute to increased teacher stress and burnout, which, in turn, can complicate
efforts to retain qualified educators.
Summary
Given the direct relationship between classroom environment, teacher well-being, and
student success, it is essential to investigate the specific behavioral challenges teachers face, the

BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS
strategies available to assist them, and the supports they find most effective (Fisher, 2020).
Understanding the behavioral challenges that teachers face and identifying supports that foster
positive teacher–student interactions can reduce teacher burnout and attrition while promoting
students’ positive development (Granger et al., 2024).

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CHAPTER 3
Methods
Overview
This chapter starts with a restatement of the study's purpose and research questions. It
also provides an outline of the methodology, including methods, participants, study design, data
collection, and analysis. Finally, the chapter describes how the research findings will be
organized and presented in subsequent chapters.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the range of student behavioral challenges
that teachers commonly encounter in primary and secondary classrooms and to explore how
these challenges impact instructional practices, student learning, teacher well-being, and the
overall classroom environment. These behaviors can range from mild, such as interrupting
during instruction, to more severe, such as causing injury to oneself or others. Additionally, the
study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of current support systems and resources available to
educators in managing these issues and promoting positive outcomes.
Grounded in the lived experiences and perspectives of teachers, this research aimed to
identify recurring patterns in student behavior across educational levels, examine the strategies
educators use to address these challenges, and assess what types of professional development or
institutional support they perceive as most beneficial (Tie et al., 2019).
Ultimately, this work is intended to shape policies and practices in teacher training,
school leadership, and classroom management strategies to create a more positive and productive
learning environment.
Research Questions

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1. What types of behavioral challenges are educators currently experiencing in their classrooms?
2. How do educators perceive the causes of these student behavioral issues?
3. How do behavioral challenges impact teachers' well-being and instructional practices, and
what supports would be or have been beneficial in managing these challenges?
Setting
The selected district for this study consisted of 663 professional employees (teachers,
nurses, counselors, and psychologists) across eight elementary schools, two middle schools, one
high school, and three alternative education programs, providing opportunities to gather
perspectives from teachers at various instructional levels. The district was located in Central
Pennsylvania, a semi-rural region characterized by its setting amid the Appalachian Mountains,
with areas of larger populations similar to those found in major cities. It is adjacent to a large
state university, which significantly contributes to the student enrollment size in the district
population. According to Tracy (2024), rigorous qualitative research attends diverse participant
perspectives, and contextual depth, to enhance the richness and credibility of findings.
Participants
This study used purposeful sampling to recruit participants who provided rich, relevant,
and experience-based insights into emerging disruptive classroom behaviors. Purposeful
sampling is appropriate for qualitative research because it allows the researcher to intentionally
select participants who have direct experience with the phenomenon under study (Tracy, 2024).
This study involved teachers currently employed in K–12 public schools in Central
Pennsylvania, United States, who hold a teaching degree and are qualified to instruct students
from kindergarten through 12th grade. Eligible participants had at least three years of teaching
experience and have worked in educational settings where they engage with students in

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49

classroom behavior management. A minimum of three years of teaching experience was required
so that the study can examine emerging disruptive classroom behaviors.
Teachers with at least three years of teaching experience are likely to provide detailed
observations of changes in student behavior over the course of their employment. Furthermore,
the breadth of knowledge these teachers possess can help uncover the root causes of the
questions being investigated and offer insights grounded in lived experiences and contextual
understanding.
Participants were recruited from a school district in Central Pennsylvania and invited to
participate via email invitations distributed by the superintendent using the district email
database (see Appendix A). Follow-up emails or direct outreach were conducted by the
researcher after one week. Individuals who do not meet the inclusion criteria were excluded from
participation. Participants could withdraw from the study at any time.
Although the district includes 663 professional employees, the anticipated sample size for
this qualitative study was between five and twenty teachers. A minimum of five participants is
required to ensure sufficient depth and diversity of perspectives for meaningful qualitative
analysis (Creswell & Poth, 2018). A maximum of approximately 20 participants is anticipated, at
which point data saturation is expected to occur, meaning no new themes or insights are likely to
emerge from additional interviews (Guest, Bunce, & Johnson, 2006; Tracy, 2024).
Study Design
The study employed a qualitative research design to develop a comprehensive
understanding of behavioral challenges in primary and secondary classrooms. Qualitative
research is particularly appropriate for exploring lived experiences, as it enables researchers to

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50

understand how people experience and respond to complex social issues in their everyday
settings (Tracy, 2024).
Data were collected using multiple methods to provide both contextual and experiential
depth. Participants first completed a demographic survey (see Appendix B) to provide
information on their background, including years of teaching experience. They then completed a
self-reported form (see Appendix C), which consisted of Likert-style questions, to document
teachers’ classroom experiences. Finally, participants took part in a semi-structured interview
with the researcher to further explore their perspectives and experiences.
Semi-structured interviews were conducted either in person or via Google Meet, allowing
for flexibility for participants. As Tracy (2024) emphasizes, semi-structured interviews offer
flexibility in the questions asked, allowing "the interviewees' complex viewpoints to be heard"
(p. 172), making them suitable for research involving personal experiences. Similarly, Ruslin et
al. (2022) note that semi-structured interviews enable participants to explore not only what they
think, but also why and how, through guided follow-up questions, providing deeper insight into
the research questions.
Procedure
After IRB and district administrative approval (see Appendix D) were obtained, an email
outlining the study was distributed by the superintendent to teachers within the school district,
using the district email database (see Appendix A). Depending on the participants’ preference
and availability, interviews were conducted in person or via Google Meet. Teachers who meet
the eligibility criteria and wished to participate replied to the email and received a response from
the researcher via email containing the meeting date and time, Google Meet link, if applicable,

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and included a brief description of the study and a link to a demographic survey (see Appendix
B). To ensure accuracy, interviews were recorded (Rutakumwa et al., 2019).
During the interview, participants joined using the given Google Meet link or in person.
After introductions, participants received an email containing a link to complete the Informed
Consent Form (see Appendix F), the Audio/Video Release Consent Form (see Appendix G), and
the Self-Report Form (see Appendix C). After participants completed and submitted the forms,
the interview began with verbal consent to record video, followed by ten open-ended questions
(see Appendix H) exploring their experiences and perceptions of student behaviors and their
current approaches to managing them. If participants did not consent to video recording, audio
consent was obtained instead to ensure their participation could still be included while respecting
their privacy, using Evernote. Follow-up questions were asked to clarify or deepen
understanding. Interviews were recorded with the participant's consent for later transcription and
analysis. The participant could stop the study at any time, if they did not wish to participate or
consent.
All audio and video recordings collected during the research were stored on a secure,
password-protected, and encrypted drive approved by Slippery Rock University. Only the
researcher and dissertation supervisor had access to these files. Recordings were used solely for
research purposes and were not shared outside the research team. Data were retained until the
completion and final approval of the dissertation, after which all recordings will be permanently
deleted.
Instrumentation
This study employed three researcher-developed instruments: a demographic survey, a
self-report form, and a semi-structured interview protocol. All instruments align with the study’s

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research questions and elicit information relevant to teachers’ experiences with student
behavioral challenges in K–12 classrooms.
The demographic survey (see Appendix B) collected background information necessary
to help understand participants’ responses. Items included years of teaching experience, grade
level(s) taught, and instructional setting. These questions were included to ensure participants
met eligibility criteria and to allow for comparisons across instructional levels.
The self-report form (see Appendix C) consisted of Likert-style items designed to capture
teachers’ perceptions of classroom behavior trends, perceived causes of behavioral challenges,
and the impact of these behaviors on their professional well-being. The form was developed
based on existing research on classroom behavior management, as well as the district’s student
handbook, providing structured data that complements what is learned from the interviews.
The semi-structured interview protocol (see Appendix H) allowed participants to describe
their experiences with student behavior in depth while maintaining consistency across
interviews. Interview questions were aligned with the study’s three overarching research
questions and designed to encourage reflection on observed changes in student behavior,
contributing factors, and perceived support. Semi-structured interviewing was selected because it
allows flexibility for follow-up questions while ensuring that key topics are consistently
addressed across participants (Tracy, 2024; Ruslin et al., 2022).
Table 3
Alignment of Semi-Structured Interview Questions with Research Questions
Interview Questions

Research Question(s)

Please tell me a little about your teaching background, such as your

RQ1

grade level, subject area, and years of teaching experience?

BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS
In your experience, what types of student behaviors have become

53

RQ1

more common or concerning in your classroom?
What do you believe contributes to these behaviors?

RQ2

How have these behavioral challenges affected your ability to teach

RQ1, RQ3

effectively?
In what ways, if any, have these behaviors impacted your emotional

RQ3

well-being or job satisfaction?
How do you typically cope with or manage stress that arises from

RQ3

dealing with challenging student behaviors?
Have you received any training or professional development related

RQ3

to managing disruptive behavior or supporting students’ socialemotional needs?
How do school or district discipline policies influence how you

RQ3

handle behavioral incidents in your classroom?
How do you think student behavior and school climate could be

RQ3

improved in your school or district?
Is there anything else you’d like to share about your experiences with

RQ1, RQ2, RQ3

student behavior or support systems that we haven’t discussed?

Data Collection
Data for this study was collected through a demographic survey, a self-report form, and
semi-structured interviews using open-ended questions, which allowed for flexibility in the
conversation while maintaining a consistent structure across interviews. The Self-Report Form

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54

was approximately 10 minutes to complete, using Q-Methodology Software, and the interview
was approximately 30 minutes and was conducted either in person or on Google Meet,
depending on participant preference and availability.
All participants were asked the same core set of questions (see Appendix H), designed to
explore their experiences with student behavior, perceived causes, the impact on their
professional well-being, and the types of support they have received or would find helpful.
Follow-up questions were asked based on participants’ responses, to clarify points or explore
ideas in greater depth.
Recordings were transcribed verbatim to ensure that the participants’ words, expressions,
and intended meanings are accurately captured and represented. Upon completion of
transcription, participants received a copy of their interview transcript as part of the memberchecking process. Participants were invited to review, clarify, edit, or expand their responses to
ensure accurate and authentic representation. This process enhanced the credibility and
trustworthiness of qualitative findings by allowing participants to confirm that their perspectives
have been accurately documented (Tracy, 2024).
After the member checking process was completed, the finalized transcripts were
imported into Atlas.ti, a specialized qualitative data analysis software designed to support the
organization and examination of complex textual data (Atlas.ti, n.d.). Within the Atlas.ti
platform, accompanying fieldnotes recorded during or immediately after each interview, were
integrated into the relevant transcript files. This integration allowed for a more holistic and
contextually rich analysis by pairing verbal data with observational and reflective notes from the
researcher (Tracy, 2024).
Data Analysis

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This study utilized a qualitative research design to explore educators' experiences with
behavioral challenges in primary and secondary classrooms. This approach allowed for
understanding of patterns in these challenges while capturing the depth of educators lived
experiences. The Self-Report Form was analyzed using Q- Methodology software, focusing on
teachers’ perceptions. Lutfallah and Buchanan (2019) discuss the use of Q-methodology and
illustrate that this online tool has been successfully used in various research contexts.
All transcripts and fieldnotes were consolidated within the Atlas.ti software where the
researcher engaged in multiple close readings of the material to become deeply familiar with the
data. An inductive coding process was employed, emphasizing an open and flexible interpretive
approach that was “interpretive, reflexive, and changeable” (Braun & Clarke, 2021, as cited in
Tracy, 2024, p. 230). During this initial or primary-cycle coding phase, key patterns and
recurring ideas began to emerge from the data.
Following the initial analysis, preliminary codes were refined and synthesized through
second-level coding by the researcher, during which themes were “explained, theorized, and
synthesized” (Tracy, 2024, p. 239). This iterative approach ensured that the analysis remains
grounded in participants’ experiences while allowing for deeper theoretical insight. During this
process, hierarchical codes are generated using the thematic categories created in the initial
coding to form groups during analysis (Tracy, 2024). Once the data were collected, it was
analyzed and presented using both visual and textual methods. Quantitative data from the selfreported surveys was summarized and illustrated using graphs to highlight trends and differences
in responses. Qualitative data, including open-ended survey responses and interview comments,
were analyzed thematically and described in paragraphs. The results section focuses on

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presenting findings, incorporating both graphical representations and narrative explanations to
provide a comprehensive understanding of the data.
Presentation of Results
Following the completion of the study, the researcher offered to share the results with
relevant stakeholders, including school administrators and participating teachers. This could
include a summary of the report or a brief presentation to discuss the findings in person. District
administrators may use the data to identify areas of need, inform professional development, and
implement targeted support to help teachers improve classroom practices and student outcomes.
The goal of this presentation is to inform stakeholders of the outcomes in a way that supports
data-driven decision-making and contributes to ongoing efforts to improve educational practice
within the school or district.
Limitations
One limitation of this study is its geographic focus, in a small region of Pennsylvania.
Since participants all work in schools within this specific area, their experiences may not reflect
those of educators in other parts of the country. Differences in school culture, available
resources, and community demographics can influence both the types of behavioral challenges
teachers face and the support systems in place. As a result, the generalizability of the study’s
findings to other regions or broader populations of teachers may be limited.
Additionally, self-reported scores rely on teacher perceptions, which may introduce bias
as the research focusing only on observable behaviors reported by teachers and does not include
student or parent perspectives. Scores are based on Likert-type scales, which may be interpreted
differently by each participant and may not capture all nuances of student behaviors. Participants

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may also provide responses they believe the researcher wants to hear due to the sensitive nature
of the questions, which could introduce response bias.
Summary
This chapter has outlined the methodology used in the study, including the research
design, participants, data collection instruments, and data analysis plans. By combining survey
data with in-depth interviews, the research aimed to explore both patterns in student behavior
and the lived experiences of teachers. The following chapters will present the study's findings in
detail.

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Chapter 4
Results
Introduction
This chapter presents the findings of the study examining the range of student behavioral
challenges teachers encounter in primary and secondary classrooms and how these behaviors
affect instructional practices, student learning, teacher well-being, and the overall classroom
environment. The study also explored the effectiveness of current support systems and resources
available to educators in managing these challenges.
The findings presented in this chapter are based on the analysis of data collected from
teacher participants. The results highlight recurring patterns in student behavior, the strategies
educators use to address these behaviors, and the types of professional development and
institutional supports teachers perceive as most beneficial.
This chapter is organized according to the major themes that emerged from the data. Each
theme is supported by participant responses and examples that illustrate teachers' lived
experiences managing student behavioral challenges in the classroom.
Research Questions
1. What types of behavioral challenges are educators currently experiencing in their classrooms?
2. How do educators perceive the causes of these student behavioral issues?
3. How do behavioral challenges impact teachers' well-being and instructional practices, and
what supports would be or have been beneficial in managing these challenges?
Participant Overview
This study included seven participants who were recruited from a semi-rural area in
Central Pennsylvania using purposive sampling. Of the initial email outreach, seven educators

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59

expressed interest in participating in the study. One educator was excluded for not meeting the
criterion of having more than three years of classroom teaching experience. The final sample size
for analysis consisted of six participants. Demographic characteristics were collected to provide
context for the findings, including age range, gender, education level, certifications, and years of
experience. Participants ranged in age from 25 to 55 years or older. The sample consisted
entirely of female participants (n = 6, 100%).
Participants were evenly divided by highest level of education, with three holding a
bachelor’s degree (n = 3, 50%) and three holding a master’s degree (n = 3, 50%). The majority of
participants had 3–5 years of experience (n = 3, 50%), while the remaining categories (6–10
years, 16–20 years, and more than 20 years) each represented 17% of the sample. Most
participants taught at the primary/elementary level (n = 4, 67%), with the remaining 33%
teaching at the secondary level.
Participants held diverse certifications, including Elementary (PK–4, K–6), English and
Communications (7–12), Special Education (K–12), and K–12 French, with some also holding
advanced degrees and a minor in Special Education.
Table 4
Participant Demographic Characteristics (n=6)
Variable
Age

Category

Frequency (n)

Percentage (%)

Under 25

0

0%

25–34

2

33%

35–44

1

17%

45–54

2

33%

55 or older

1

17%

BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS
Gender

Education Level

Years of Experience

Grade Level Taught

Subjects Taught

60

Woman

6

100%

Man

0

0%

Prefer not to say

0

0%

Bachelor’s Degree

3

50%

Master’s Degree

3

50%

Doctorate

0

0%

Other

0

0%

3–5 years

3

50%

6–10 years

1

17%

11–15 years

0

0%

16–20 years

1

17%

More than 20 years

1

17%

Kindergarten

0

0%

Primary/Elementary

4

67%

Middle School

1

17%

High School

1

17%

Other

0

0%

Language Arts/English

5

—

Mathematics

3

—

Science

3

—

Social Studies

3

—

Special Education

2

—

Foreign Language

1

—

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61

Data Collection
Data were collected using qualitative methods, with supplemental quantitative measures,
including a self-report survey, interviews, and field notes. These methods were employed to
provide a comprehensive understanding of educators’ experiences with classroom behavioral
challenges and how they affect their well-being and instructional practices. This multi-method
approach strengthened the depth and trustworthiness of the study.
Self-Report Survey
Qualitative and quantitative data were collected through an eight-question self-report
survey (see Appendix C) focused on daily classroom behavioral incidents and professional
development. Quantitative data included the frequency and types of negative or disruptive
student behaviors, as well as the frequency with which teachers requested assistance. Participants
answered questions using a range of numbers or a Likert scale with choices of Rarely (1),
Sometimes (2), Often (3), or Always (4), each equal to numeric score. The qualitative data
consisted of open-ended responses regarding professional development needs and the types of
training teachers believe would better support them in managing disruptive behavior.
The survey was distributed during each interview to ensure participants fully completed
the forms, with the opportunity to ask questions if needed. All six participants completed the
form.
Interviews
Data were also collected through semi-structured interviews with all six participants,
which included 10 questions. Each interview lasted approximately 20–40 minutes and was
conducted via Google Meet. An interview script (see Appendix H) guided the discussions while

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allowing flexibility for participants to elaborate on their experiences. Sample questions addressed
commonly observed student behaviors and perceptions of how student behavior and school
climate could be improved.
All interviews were one-on-one, video-recorded via Google Meet with participant
consent, and transcribed verbatim for analysis. To ensure confidentiality, participants were
assigned identification codes based on the order of their interviews, and all identifying
information, such as names, school names, or personal references, was removed from the
transcripts. Member checking was used for participants to review transcripts for accuracy before
analysis.
All recordings, digital files, and transcripts were securely stored on a password-protected
device. The researcher was the only one with access to the device and files. All files will be
deleted after the dissertation is completed and final approval is granted.
Field Notes
Field notes were recorded during interviews by the researcher to capture observations and
reflections. The researcher focused on behavioral indicators, focusing on participants’ tone,
emphasis and nonverbal cues. Field notes were used to supplement interview data and support
the interpretation of findings. The use of surveys, interviews, and field notes allowed for
triangulation of data sources, strengthening the credibility and depth of the study.
Data Analysis Process
An inductive coding approach was used to analyze qualitative data from interview
transcripts, open-ended survey responses, and field notes. All data were uploaded into Atlas.ti,
where the researcher conducted multiple close readings to become familiar with the content.

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During the first coding cycle, open coding was used to identify initial patterns, key phrases, and
recurring ideas in the data. Codes were generated directly from participant responses, allowing
themes to emerge naturally. This process remained flexible and iterative, reflecting an
interpretive and reflexive approach to qualitative analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2021, as cited in
Tracy, 2024, p. 230).
In the second coding cycle, the initial codes were reviewed, refined, and grouped into
broader categories. Similar codes were combined, and relationships between codes were
examined to develop more meaningful and organized patterns (Tracy, 2024). Through this
process, overarching themes and subthemes were identified, representing shared experiences and
perspectives among participants.
Hierarchical coding structures were then developed, with major themes supported by
related subthemes derived from the data. This systematic, iterative coding process ensured that
findings remained grounded in participants’ responses while allowing for deeper interpretation
and analysis (Tracy, 2024).
Rigor and Trustworthiness
Trustworthiness of the study was established through credibility and dependability
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Credibility was achieved through triangulation of multiple data sources,
including self-report surveys, semi-structured interviews, and field notes, as well as prolonged
engagement with the data during the coding process. Dependability was ensured through clear,
consistent documentation of data collection and analysis procedures.
Findings
This chapter presents the findings of the study, which explored educators’ perceptions of
behavioral challenges in their classrooms. Drawing on participants’ lived experiences, the

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analysis examined the types of behaviors observed in the classroom, the impact of these
behaviors on teachers both inside and outside the classroom, and the professional development
supports perceived as beneficial.
Qualitative findings are organized by themes that emerged from the data analysis and are
supported by participant responses and quotes from interviews and survey data. Four major
themes were identified from the analysis addressing aspects of the research questions.
Quantitative findings are organized by the frequency and type of student behaviors
reported in the self-report surveys, as well as teacher ratings based on experience. Data were
analyzed for each behavior category to highlight the most commonly occurring classroom
challenges. This analysis complements the qualitative themes by providing a numeric view of
how often specific behavioral challenges occur, allowing for a clearer understanding of trends
across participants.
Together, the qualitative and quantitative findings offer a comprehensive view of the
behavioral challenges teachers in this study faced, the factors contributing to these behaviors,
and the impact on instructional practices and teacher well-being.
Qualitative Findings
Qualitative data were collected through participant interviews. Each participant
responded to a set of 10 structured questions, with follow-up questions posed as needed to elicit
further detail and clarification. All participants completed the full interview protocol and
provided comprehensive responses, offering insight into their experiences with classroom
behavioral challenges.
Theme 1: The Impact of Technology Use

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Technology use was identified as a significant factor influencing student behavior in the
classroom. Participants consistently described technology as both a source of distraction and a
contributor to increased disengagement from academic tasks.
Several educators noted that students frequently preferred screen-based activities over
instructional content. Participant 1 reported, “A lot of them say school is boring and they just
want to be in front of the screen,” highlighting a shift in student motivation and engagement.
Similarly, Participant 2 described the growing presence of “technology-based behaviors,” noting
that they have become more noticeable over time.
Teachers also reported that even when technology was intended for educational purposes,
it often led to off-task behavior. Participant 4 stated, “The temptation to do other things is just
constantly there,” noting that students frequently accessed games or unrelated content instead of
completing assignments. This ongoing distraction has made classroom management more
challenging, with one teacher explaining that students often treat school-issued devices as
personal property and use them inappropriately during instructional time.
In addition to distraction, participants described how technology impacts students’
cognitive engagement and social interactions. Participant 2 noted that technology allows students
to remain disengaged while appearing occupied, explaining that it provides “a way to be
engaged, without needing to think.” Others expressed concern about students’ declining
interpersonal communication skills, suggesting that increased screen time may limit
opportunities for meaningful social interaction.
More concerning behaviors related to technology were also reported, including
inappropriate use of devices such as photographing peers without permission. Participant 2

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emphasized the potential harm of these actions, noting that students often do not understand the
consequences of such behavior.
Finally, participants highlighted the influence of technology use outside of school.
Participant 6 described how excessive nighttime device use contributes to fatigue and behavioral
challenges during the school day, stating that students are often “up all night on their phone” and
arrive at school agitated and disengaged.
Summary of Theme 1. This theme addresses research question 1 by highlighting
technology-related disruptions as a common behavioral challenge observed by educators. It also
informs research question 2, as participants perceived increased access to and reliance on
technology as a key factor contributing to student disengagement, distraction, and inappropriate
classroom behaviors.
Overall, the findings suggest that technology plays a complex role in shaping student
behavior, contributing to distraction, reduced engagement, and emerging behavioral challenges
within the classroom.
Theme 2: Support Systems in School
Participants emphasized the importance of support systems within their school
environments. Both administrative and collegial support were described as essential components
that influenced their ability to manage challenges, particularly related to student behavior and
classroom demands. Support not only impacted instructional effectiveness but also contributed
significantly to teachers’ emotional well-being.
Subtheme 1: Administration Support. Administrative support was frequently described
as a critical factor in participants’ navigation through difficult situations. Many participants

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expressed confidence in their school leadership, particularly when administrators were
responsive and actively involved in addressing student concerns.
Participant 1 shared:
“I feel comfortable reaching out to my principal or even putting in a referral and knowing
that she is going to support the situation, like contacting parents and all that stuff.”
This sense of trust in leadership reduced uncertainty and stress when handling
disciplinary issues. Similarly, Participant 6 highlighted the importance of visible and consistent
administrative action:
“I thankfully have a very supportive principal… with a student last year that was really
physical, she was right there like every incident that she could be… she followed through on the
policies that the district had aligned.”
Participants contrasted these positive experiences with prior environments where
administrative support was lacking. In such cases, the absence of support contributed to burnout
and attrition:
“There were a lot of really good teachers who quit or retired early because of that lack of
support with major discipline.”
Additionally, participants valued a collaborative, school-wide approach to problemsolving, demonstrated by Participant 5:
“If I don’t know the answer to something… I emailed you because I’m not quite sure
how I’m supposed to handle it… it’s kind of like a whole village mentality which I find helpful.”
Overall, administrative support was associated with increased confidence, consistency in
discipline, and a stronger sense of security in managing complex classroom situations.

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Subtheme 2: Collegial Support. Collegial support emerged as equally important,
particularly in fostering a sense of shared experience and emotional reassurance. Participants
described relying on trusted colleagues for immediate, informal support throughout the school
day.
Participant 5 explained:
I find my trusted colleague… right through the adjoining door into my room and I just
walk in and I’m like, ‘Okay, so here we go.’… it helps me to be able to talk about it and
see that the other person is also experiencing that same difficulty… it makes me feel
better to know I’m not alone.
This sense of shared understanding helped normalize challenges and reduce feelings of
isolation. Similarly, Participant 4 emphasized the importance of established, trusting team
relationships:
“The three of us have been teaching for a while… we have formed a relationship where we have
a very safe space… I just think about people who don’t have that team… having those supportive
teams is so essential.”
Collegial environments characterized by trust, openness, and mutual respect allowed
participants to discuss concerns without fear of judgment. These interactions were not centered
on negativity but rather on constructive dialogue and problem-solving.
The absence of such collegial networks, however, was perceived as a significant
disadvantage, reinforcing the importance of collaborative team structures within schools.
Summary of Theme 2. Theme 2 most directly addresses research question 3, with
participants clearly articulating the impact of support systems on their well-being and
professional practice. These findings demonstrate that both emotional support and collaborative

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69

problem-solving are essential in helping teachers cope with the demands of behavioral
challenges.
It is important to note that the sample consisted entirely of women, which may have
influenced the prominence and nature of the collegial support theme. Research in education
indicates that collegial relationships play a critical role in teachers’ emotional wellbeing and
professional functioning, particularly through shared experiences and stress support (Kaihoi et
al., 2022). Additionally, studies suggest that gender can shape how educators experience and
engage in professional relationships, with women often emphasizing relational and emotionally
supportive interactions in collaborative contexts (Graziano et al., 2024). As a result, the emphasis
on open communication, shared understanding, and emotional reassurance observed in this study
may reflect gendered patterns of collegial interaction. Future research including more diverse
samples could help determine whether these findings are consistent across different groups.
Together, administrative and collegial support shaped participants’ professional
experiences. While administrative support provided structural backing and policy enforcement,
collegial support offered day-to-day emotional reinforcement. The combination of both created a
supportive environment that enabled participants to manage challenges and sustain their roles
effectively.
Theme 3: Effects of Time Constraints
Another consistent theme across participant responses was the significant impact of time
constraints on teachers’ ability to effectively implement behavior management strategies.
Teachers described a work environment in which a limited instructional time, and competing
demands hinder their capacity to address student behavior in meaningful and proactive ways.

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Several participants highlighted how the structure of the school day itself creates
pressure. For example, Participant 6 highlighted how fixed scheduling limits flexibility, stating,
“And the days are not the same length, so we have to cram a lot more in.” This reflects the
broader challenge teachers face in attempting to balance academic instruction with behavioral
support within rigid time frames.
Seasonal factors and curricular demands also contribute to time-related challenges.
Participant 1 described an increase in student behavioral needs during certain months,
explaining, “I feel like especially like November, December, January, February, March… every
single year kids that you wouldn’t think would have behaviors get behaviors.” Despite
recognizing the value of the district's social-emotional learning resources, the participant
expressed frustration with the lack of time to implement them effectively: “I love Character
Strong… and we also don’t have enough time to teach that, let alone emotional regulation things
like the reset process.” The participant added that such interventions require depth and
consistency, adding, “I would love to be able to implement that… but it is like a lengthy
process… you really have to explain it to them.”
Interruptions and classroom distractions further compound time limitations. Participant 4
explained that instructional tasks are frequently prolonged, stating, “everything just seems to take
longer than it should because there is constantly something distracting someone… everything I
try to do I feel like takes at least twice as long as it could.” This loss of time reduces
opportunities for proactive strategies such as reteaching expectations. As the same participant
noted, “it’s really hard to have those reteaching times because the time is just… and by the time I
have time, I have forgotten.”

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In addition to instructional constraints, administrative tasks associated with behavior
management were identified as a major barrier. Participant 2 described the extensive time
required for disciplinary documentation, “that would take probably 20 minutes’ worth of
paperwork… I have to submit a detention form… reach out to the parent or guardian.” The
participant characterized this process as “a huge deterrent.” They explained that even when
behaviors technically warrant consequences, the time discourages follow-through. This results in
inconsistent enforcement of expectations, as illustrated by the admission, “I do not have the brain
power this year to do that.”
Finally, participants connected time constraints to overall teacher fatigue. Participant 2
raised a critical reflective question: “I think just one barrier in general is… why are teachers so
tired.” This statement underscores how time pressure not only limits behavior management
practices but also contributes to teacher burnout.
Subtheme 1: Inconsistent Consequences Due to Time Demands. A prominent subtheme
that participants described was how limited time contributed to inconsistent enforcement of
behavioral consequences. Teachers reported difficulty following through consistently and in a
coordinated way even with clear expectations in place.
Participant 1 explained how this inconsistency can occur across classrooms, noting,
“Maybe I gave them a warning, and then they go to their next class, and it’s never happened to
them in that class, and now they get a warning there.” This highlights how, without timely
communication, students may receive repeated warnings rather than face escalating
consequences. The participant also pointed to “the lack of consistent consequences and the
inability to be able to quickly and easily communicate” with other teachers as a key challenge.

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Participant 4 expressed a similar concern, again emphasizing “the lack of consistent
consequences and the inability to be able to quickly and easily communicate” student behavior
across staff. These comments suggest that inconsistency is not only an individual issue but also a
broader structural one, related to time and communication systems within the school.
Time demands also affected teachers’ decisions about whether to assign consequences at all.
Participant 2 acknowledged that repeated behaviors should result in disciplinary action, stating,
“If someone is on their phone three times in class, technically that is enough for a detention.”
However, they also admitted, “I do not have the brain power this year to do that,” pointing to
fatigue and limited capacity.
Overall, participants’ responses suggest that time constraints contribute to inconsistent
enforcement of consequences, both within and across classrooms. This inconsistency may
weaken behavior management efforts by reducing predictability and follow-through.
Summary of Theme 3. Theme 3 provides insight into research question 3, particularly
regarding how behavioral challenges affect teachers’ well-being and instructional practices.
Participants expressed their beliefs that time constraints limit instructional time, reducing
teachers’ ability to respond to student behaviors effectively and to pre-teach behavior
management strategies.
Additionally, the subtheme demonstrates how time constraints and workload can interfere
with follow-through, which leads to frustration and reduced effectiveness in maintaining
classroom expectations.
Theme 4: Need for Targeted Teacher Training
Participants consistently highlighted the need for more targeted and relevant training to
effectively address student behavior in the classroom. While professional development was

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available, many teachers felt that it did not adequately prepare them for the behavioral challenges
they encountered. Training often focused on instructional practices, leaving gaps in areas such as
behavior management, de-escalation, and student support. As a result, teachers described a
disconnect between the training they received and the realities of their daily classroom
experiences.
One major concern expressed by participants was the lack of training related to behavior
intervention and crisis response. Participant 2 explained, “I received no training personally
related to a safety plan, de-escalation techniques, or what to do in certain situations regarding
safety.” Although such training may have been available within the district, it was not
consistently or clearly provided to all teachers. This lack of preparation left some feeling
uncertain in high-stress situations, as the same participant added, “If a student was having a
physical crisis, I don't know how to respond… I would call for help.” These responses suggest
that teachers may rely on external support rather than feeling confident in their own ability to
manage serious behavioral incidents, underscoring the need for more comprehensive and
accessible training.
In addition to gaps in behavior-specific training, participants also described a mismatch
between professional development and their immediate classroom needs. Participant 7 noted that
“our professional development in the district is all based on instructional pieces of the day,” but
emphasized that “we can't even get to instruction a lot of times because we're managing
behaviors.” The participant went on to describe required training sessions as a “complete waste
of time” when they were not applicable to their role or classroom context. This highlights a
broader issue in which district priorities may emphasize academic outcomes, while teachers feel

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that behavioral support is a more immediate and pressing need. Without relevant training,
teachers may feel that their time is not being used effectively.
Despite these challenges, participants also identified examples of meaningful and
impactful training. Participant 5 described a positive experience with restorative practices,
stating, “I really have enjoyed the restorative circles… I didn't know anything about it… and I
really love the ownership piece.” These findings indicate that when teachers are provided with
practical, applicable strategies, they are more likely to engage with and value the training. It also
indicates that exposure to new approaches can positively influence classroom practice when
those approaches align with teachers’ needs.
However, even when teachers feel confident in their skills, implementing behavior
strategies can be difficult without broader support. Participant 4 noted, “it's really really
difficult… to teach these kinds of things in isolation,” pointing out the challenge of addressing
behavior without consistent school-wide practices.
Summary of Theme 4. Overall, the findings indicate that teachers benefit from targeted,
behavior-focused training that is directly applicable to their own classroom environments.
Participants emphasize the importance of practical strategies, preparation for crisis situations,
and professional development that reflects the realities of student behavior.
This theme addresses research question 3 by highlighting the gaps in current training, the
need for relevant and practical professional development. It also highlights how the lack of
targeted training affects teachers’ confidence and effectiveness in managing behavior, which in
turn influences their well-being and instructional time.
Quantitative Findings

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All participants completed the self-report survey at the beginning of each interview and
were recorded to ensure they completed the survey and that any questions could be answered and
used during the interview. The survey data reveal clear patterns in the frequency of behavioral
challenges reported by participants across experience levels. Overall, the majority of responses
fell within the “Rarely (1)” and “Sometimes (2)” categories, indicating that while behavioral
issues are present, many are not perceived as constant or severe daily.
Table 5 illustrates participants’ responses to the frequency of daily behavioral challenges
focusing on years of experience. Participants with 0-10 years of experience reported a higher
concentration of “Rarely” responses, with occasional “Sometimes” and fewer “Often” ratings.
This suggests that less experienced teachers may either encounter fewer high-frequency
behavioral challenges or may perceive and report them differently.
In contrast, participants with 11 or more years of experience reported a substantially
higher frequency of “Often” and “always” responses across multiple categories. This indicates a
greater perceived prevalence of behavioral challenges, which may be attributed to increased
awareness, higher expectations for student behavior, or cumulative exposure over time.
Table 5
Percentage of Behavioral Challenge Ratings by Years of Experience
Years of Experience Rarely (1)

Sometimes (2)

Often (3)

Always (4)

0–5 years

61%

22%

17%

0%

6–10 years

72%

17%

11%

0%

11–15 years

56%

19%

11%

14%

16–20 years

22%

22%

56%

0%

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Table 6 presents the behavior frequency by type of student behavior. Percentage analysis
of behavioral frequencies indicates that the most commonly occurring behaviors are low-level
disruptions, particularly talking out of turn (83% often) and disrupting others (83% often or
always). Technology-related behaviors, including non-educational use of electronics, were also
reported at relatively high frequencies (66% often or always). In contrast, more severe behaviors
such as physical aggression, threats, and safety violations were consistently reported as rarely
occurring (100%). These findings suggest that while extreme behaviors are uncommon, frequent
low-level disruptions present a persistent challenge for classroom management.
Table 6
Percentage of Reported Behavioral Frequencies by Behavior Type
Behavior

Rarely (1) Sometimes (2) Often (3)

Always (4)

Talking out of turn

0%

17%

83%

0%

Disrupting others

0%

17%

67%

16%

Cell phone use (prohibited)

67%

17%

0%

16%

Inappropriate attire

83%

17%

0%

0%

Yelling / screaming

33%

50%

17%

0%

Throwing objects

50%

50%

0%

0%

Throwing food/liquids

83%

17%

0%

0%

Throwing furniture

83%

17%

0%

0%

Failure to meet expectations

17%

50%

33%

0%

Non-educational electronics

17%

17%

50%

16%

Ignoring/refusing directions

33%

33%

34%

0%

Refusing directions (general)

50%

50%

0%

0%

BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS
Vulgar/offensive language

67%

17%

16%

0%

Leaving without permission

83%

17%

0%

0%

School disturbance

83%

17%

0%

0%

Causing fear/disorder

83%

17%

0%

0%

Prank disturbance

83%

17%

0%

0%

Taking pictures/videos

67%

17%

16%

0%

Unauthorized access (admin)

100%

0%

0%

0%

Fighting

83%

17%

0%

0%

Serious physical contact

83%

17%

0%

0%

Inappropriate intimate behavior 83%

17%

0%

0%

Accessing staff belongings

83%

17%

0%

0%

Unauthorized entry

83%

17%

0%

0%

Gambling

100%

0%

0%

0%

Coercion/theft

100%

0%

0%

0%

Threats (reputation/property)

100%

0%

0%

0%

Fire setting

100%

0%

0%

0%

False alarms

100%

0%

0%

0%

Weapons possession

100%

0%

0%

0%

Threats of violence

100%

0%

0%

0%

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Participants reported a range of negative student behaviors occurring in a typical school
day, with responses ranging from 0–5 to 16–20 incidents, as seen in Figure 1. The most common
range was 6–10 instances, reported by half of the participants, while the average across all

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78

respondents was approximately 10 behaviors per day. The distribution of responses highlights
variation in teachers’ daily experiences, showing that while disruptive behaviors are a consistent
feature of the school day, their frequency differs across classrooms. The concentration of
responses in the 6–10 range suggests a typical level of disruption experienced by many
participants, while the wider spread toward both lower and higher counts reflect differences in
classroom contexts and demands.
These findings align with the qualitative themes identified in this study, particularly
Theme 1: Impact of Technology, Theme 2: Support Systems in School, and Theme 3: Effects of
Time Constraints, as teachers described frequent disruptions that interfere with instruction,
require additional support, and are compounded by limited time to address behaviors.
Figure 1
Range of Negative Student Behaviors

Number of Participants

6

5
4
3
2
1
0
0-5

6-10

11-15

16-20

20 or more

Range of Behaviors (per day)

Figure 2 shows the impact of student behavioral challenges on participants' well-being.
Of the six participants, 50% (n = 3) reported that behaviors affect their well-being “a little”,

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79

suggesting a mild but present impact. Two participants (33%) indicated that behaviors affect
them “sometimes”, while one participant (17%) reported that behaviors affect them “often”,
indicating a more frequent and significant impact on their well-being. The distribution of
responses indicates that all participants experience some level of impact from student behavioral
challenges, though the intensity varies. The concentration of responses in the “a little” and
“sometimes” categories suggest that, for most participants, the effect is generally mild to
moderate rather than severe. However, the presence of one participant reporting an “often”
impact highlights that a smaller proportion experience more frequent and pronounced effects on
their well-being.
These findings align with qualitative themes related to Theme 2: Support Systems in
School, and Theme 3: Effects of Time Constraints, as they can contribute to fatigue, stress, and
decreased capacity for effective classroom management.
Figure 2
Impact of Behavioral Challenges on Participants’ Well-Being
6

Number of Participants

5

4
3
2
1
0

Not at all

A little

Sometimes

Often

A great deal

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Teachers consistently reported receiving professional development in classroom
management, behavior support, and social-emotional learning (SEL), as seen in Table 7. This
aligns with the qualitative findings, which highlighted teachers’ need for support in managing
everyday classroom behaviors effectively. However, gaps remain in critical areas such as deescalation techniques, anti-bullying programs, special education behavior interventions, and
Universal Design for Learning (UDL). These gaps may contribute to teachers’ perceptions of
being underprepared for more complex or high-stress situations, including crisis events, and
suggest the need for more targeted and practical professional development to support teacher
readiness.
When asked what additional professional development they would like to receive,
teachers identified training in behavior management, Safety Care, and the reset process as areas
of interest.
Table 7
Professional Development Received by Teachers
Professional Development Area

Received PD (n)

Not Received PD (n)

Classroom Management Strategies

5

1

Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS)

6

0

Conflict Resolution / Peer Mediation

6

0

Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) Training

6

0

Trauma-Informed Teaching

5

1

Special Education / Behavior Intervention Training

3

3

Safety Care

4

2

De-escalation Techniques

2

4

BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS
Anti-Bullying Programs

3

3

Cultural Competency / Diversity Training

6

0

Data-Driven Instruction

5

1

Progress Monitoring Training

4

2

Differentiated Instruction Training

4

2

Literacy Instructional Training

5

1

Math Instructional Training

4

2

Universal Design for Learning (UDL)

2

4

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Quantitative Data Summary
Overall, the findings illustrate a clear link between student behaviors, teacher well-being,
and the effectiveness of professional development. Teachers benefit from PD that is directly
relevant to managing daily classroom challenges, and gaps in training contribute to stress,
inconsistent behavior management, and reduced instructional time. These results support the
qualitative themes of time constraints, inconsistent consequences, the importance of targeted
training, and the need for structured support systems to enhance classroom management and
teacher effectiveness.
Summary
This chapter presented the analysis of educator interviews exploring behavioral
challenges in the classroom. During analysis, four main themes appeared: Impact of Technology;
Roles of Support; Time Constraints; and Targeted Training for Teachers. Participants
emphasized that limited time and insufficient training reduce their capacity to manage behavior
effectively, which leads to frustration and burnout. These results provide a foundation for the

BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS
following chapter’s discussion on strategies to improve support for educators and enhance
student outcomes.

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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to identify the student behavioral challenges that teachers
currently face in their classrooms and to examine how these challenges affect classroom
management, instructional practices, and overall teacher well-being. By focusing on educators’
perspectives, the study provides insight into which supports and strategies are perceived as
effective, as well as those that teachers believe could enhance their classroom environments.
Understanding teachers’ lived experiences allows for a deeper exploration of the day-to-day
realities of managing student behavior, including emotional factors that influence classroom
dynamics.
Based on the grounded theory framework, this study emphasizes the importance of
developing a theory that emerges directly from participants’ experiences. The findings highlight
the ways in which time constraints, inconsistent consequences, technology use, support systems,
and professional development intersect to shape teachers’ ability to maintain effective classroom
environments. By examining these factors through the lens of educators’ lived experiences, this
study provides insights to inform the creation of policies, professional development programs,
and school-wide practices that support teachers. Ultimately, the study seeked to contribute to the
development of strategies that promote safe, productive, and successful learning environments
for both teachers and students.
Building on the findings presented in Chapter 4, the following discussion interprets these
results in the context of existing literature and the study’s research questions. Each theme is

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examined to understand its implications for classroom management, teacher well-being, and
student outcomes, revealing practical applications and areas for future research.
Research Questions
1.

What types of behavioral challenges are educators currently experiencing in their

classrooms?
2.

How do educators perceive the causes of these student behavioral issues?

3.

How do behavioral challenges impact teachers' well-being and instructional practices, and

what supports would be or have been beneficial in managing these challenges?
Interpretation of Findings
The following section presents the interpretation of the findings from Chapter 4,
organized by theme. These themes reflect the lived experiences of educators in a semi-rural
district in Central Pennsylvania and offer deeper insight into the patterns identified in the data
analysis. By examining each theme, this section connects the study’s findings to the research
questions and relevant literature, thereby highlighting implications for classroom practice,
teacher well-being, and professional development.
Theme 1: Impact of Technology Use
The use of technology emerged as a significant behavioral challenge reported by many
participants of the study. Educators consistently noted the negative impact of technology on
student behavior and classroom environment; however, the extent of this impact varied by grade
level. Secondary-level teachers reported more frequent incidents of students using technology
inappropriately during class or throughout the school day, often distracting themselves and
others from instruction. Supporting these observations, Glass and Kang (2019) conducted a study
with 118 college students in two identical cognitive psychology courses. They found that while

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in-class technology use did not drastically affect overall classroom performance, it resulted in a
measurable decrease of approximately 0.5 grade points. Similarly, Rosen (2017) reported that
students accessed their phones an average of 60 times per day, spending a cumulative total of
220 minutes on them; even just 10 minutes of social media use was associated with moderate
levels of anxiety.
In contrast, elementary-level teachers reported that the behavioral impact of technology
was often observed at school as a consequence of its use at home. Students exhibited fatigue,
inattentiveness, and distractibility due to late-night device use or screen time-induced
overstimulation. These findings align with previous studies that found that insufficient sleep
resulting from evening technology use negatively affected both nocturnal sleep quality and
daytime functioning when surveying 255 adolescents (Johnson et al., 2016). Similarly, Hale and
Guan (2016), in a cross-national review spanning 12 countries, reported that 90% of studies
identified a negative relationship between screen time and sleep quality, highlighting the
widespread effects of technology on children’s behavioral and cognitive readiness in school.
These findings suggest that technology use, both in and out of school, contributes to student
behavioral challenges, directly addressing Research Question 1 and Research Question 2.
In relation to Research Question 1, which examines the types of behavioral challenges
teachers are currently experiencing, participants identified frequent distractions from personal
devices at the secondary level, which reduce student attention and participation and highlight the
need for clear guidelines and proactive classroom management strategies. In relation to Research
Question 2, which explores the causes of these behaviors, participants noted that elementary
students often exhibit fatigue and distractibility due to late-night technology use, reinforcing the
need for targeted interventions to address these underlying factors. Additionally, these findings

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address Research Question 3 by illustrating how technology-related disruptions influence
teachers’ overall well-being, as increased off-task behavior requires more time spent on
redirection, classroom management, and behavioral consequences.
Taken together, these findings highlight the complex role of technology in shaping
student behavior, suggesting that educators must adopt developmentally appropriate approaches
that foster engagement, focus, and a positive classroom environment.
Recommendation for Theme 1. Several recommendations can be made based on the
findings related to technology use to better support teachers and improve student behavior and
engagement.
First, districts should establish clear and consistent technology policies, that are grade
appropriate, across grade levels. For example, establishing designated device-free instructional
zones or scheduled technology-free periods within classrooms may help limit distractions and
support reductions in off-task behavior by clearly defining expectations for appropriate
technology use. Participants of the study detailed inconsistencies in how technology is managed
within the schools, particularly at the secondary level. Additionally, creating a district-wide cellphone policy would set clear expectations for students and teachers during class time.
Implementing school-wide expectations and consistent enforcement may reduce off-task
behavior and improve the classroom environment.
Second, educators would benefit from professional development focused on technology
management and implementation in their classrooms. Training could include practical
approaches for educators to monitor students' devices, teach students appropriate technology use,
and adopt preemptive strategies to address off-task behaviors. Providing teachers with tools may
increase their confidence and reduce the time spent on redirection and ramifications.

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Lastly, districts should explore limits on device use during instructional time, particularly
at the secondary level. Establishing proactive expectations and specific designated technology
time may help minimize distractions and additional time teachers spend on redirection and
consequences.
These recommendations address both behavioral and instructional challenges related to
technology use, ultimately supporting teacher well-being, student engagement, and effective
classroom practices.
Theme 2: Role of Support Systems
The findings of this study suggest that administrative and collegial supports were not only
beneficial but essential for teachers’ well-being and management of student
behavior. Participants’ experiences show that both administrative and collegial support function
as a protective factor that lessens stress associated with frequent behavioral disruptions.
Administrative support became evident as a critical component influencing teachers’
sense of security and professional confidence. As documented in earlier studies, Paletta et al.
(2017) found that schools with strong leadership created teachers who had greater job
satisfaction, higher levels of self-efficacy, and higher educational climate. When administrators
were responsive, consistent, and actively involved in addressing behavioral concerns, teachers
reported feeling empowered to enforce expectations and follow through with consequences. This
suggests that leadership practices influence the effectiveness of classroom management by
reinforcing consistency, accountability, and staff support. Similarly, prior research has shown
that administrators who provide emotional support, such as providing value and acceptance and
assisting teachers to cope with stress, conflict, and difficulties, affect teachers' perceptions and
job satisfaction (Bhanthumnavin, 2000; Ertürk, 2021). In contrast, the absence of administrative

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support was linked to frustration, burnout, and even teacher attrition, indicating its role in teacher
retention.
Collegial support, on the other hand, served as an important emotional and practical
resource. Teachers relied on trusted colleagues to process challenges, share strategies, and
validate their experiences. This shared understanding reduced feelings of isolation and
contributed to a more positive school climate. Smala et al. (2025) found that professionals who
are isolated and lack of social support can lead to a “sole-fighter” state of mind. The presence of
strong networks reflects on the importance of collaborative cultures in schools, where problems
can be discussed collectively rather than individualized.
These findings indicate that support systems are needed at both a structural and
interpersonal level. Administrative support provides accountability and discipline, while
collegial support offers informal reinforcement and emotional resilience. These two forms of
support build a more comprehensive supportive network that allows teachers to manage
behavioral challenges effectively.
When support systems are inconsistent or absent, teachers may struggle to implement
behavior management strategies, leading to increased stress and reduced effectiveness. This
directly connects to Research Question 3, as participants identified support as a key factor
influencing their well-being and their ability to respond to student behaviors. Knowing that they
are not alone in decision-making and have consistent support when issues arise contributes to
increased confidence and reduced stress.
Recommendation for Theme 2. One recommendation to enhance support is to strengthen
administrative support to improve teacher well-being. Many participants identified
administration responsiveness and follow-through as important to their confidence, as well as

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stress reduction. Schools should ensure that principals and administrators provide consistent,
visible support in addressing behavioral issues. Providing access to immediate support during
critical behavioral incidents allows teachers to feel as if they are not alone and can alleviate
teacher stress and increase safety. This will empower teachers to manage challenges more
effectively and reduce the feeling of isolation.
Another recommendation is developing a collaborative structure to foster collegial
support and emotional reassurance. Participants consistently described collegial networks and
their vitalization for emotional support and problem-solving during interviews. Creating these
structures and time can strengthen teachers’ social support, positively impacting their emotional
well-being and capacity to respond to student behaviors.
In summary, strengthening both administrative and collegial support systems is essential
to enhancing teacher well-being and effectiveness in managing student behavior, ultimately
fostering a more positive and productive learning environment.
Theme 3: Effects of Time Constraints
The findings from the study indicate that time constraints significantly shape teachers’
ability to implement effective behavior management strategies. Participants consistently
described how limited instructional time, seasonal and curricula demands, and classroom
interruptions create pressures that reduce opportunities for proactive behavioral support. These
constraints force teachers to prioritize immediate instructional tasks over preventive or
restorative practices, which may undermine consistent enforcement of classroom expectations.
The subtheme of inconsistent consequences highlights how time pressures directly affect
teacher decision making. Teachers reported difficulty following through with disciplinary actions
due to fatigue, workload, and competing priorities. This inconsistency can weaken classroom

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management by reducing predictability, potentially reinforcing negative student behaviors, and
creating a cycle of frustration for both students and educators. Moreover, the qualitative findings
suggest that these time-related challenges not only affect instructional delivery but also
contribute to teacher stress and burnout, as teachers expend significant effort managing
behaviors without sufficient time or support. As documented in earlier studies, a 2024 report by
the Pew Research Center, 84% of teachers reported that they do not have sufficient time to
complete all required tasks during the workday, and 40% indicated that they lack adequate time
for basic needs such as using the restroom or eating lunch (Flannery, 2024).
Quantitative data reinforce these interpretations, showing that frequent low-level
disruptions, such as talking out of turn or use of non-educational technology, are common daily
occurrences. These behaviors, coupled with time limitations, align with teachers’ reports of the
impact on well-being, as half of the participants indicated that student behaviors affected them “a
little” and one participant reported being affected “often.” This demonstrated that even when
behaviors are not extreme, the cumulative effect of managing frequent destructions within
constrained time frames contributes to teacher fatigue.
Theme 3 connects to Research Question 3, demonstrating the interconnectedness of time,
behavior management, and teacher well-being. Teachers’ ability to respond effectively to
behavioral challenges is not solely a matter of skill or knowledge but is fundamentally shaped by
structural temporal constraints. These findings suggest that interventions aiming to improve
classroom behavior and teacher well-being must address not only training and support but also
the allocation of time and workload that enable consistent, proactive behavior management.
Recommendation for Theme 3. A recommendation for theme 3 is to allocate dedicated
time for behavioral management and social-emotional learning instruction. Participants discussed

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the lack of time to teach students coping strategies or reteach skills, unless it was in the moment,
when the student was too dysregulated to understand the strategy. Creating a daily or weekly
schedule for social-emotional learning, behavior instruction, and reteaching expectations would
provide teachers time to implement proactive strategies rather than relying on reactive responses.
Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) was identified by multiple
participants as the primary school-wide behavior management framework; however, its
implementation was described as inconsistent. Teachers reported that limited instructional time,
competing demands, and workload constraints hinder their ability to implement PBIS with
fidelity. As a result of implementation in a real-life setting, the program delivered may differ
substantially from the original design (Fixsen et al., 2005). These modifications can be
problematic when they reduce or omit core components that are essential to program
effectiveness (Molloy et al., 2013). As a result, key components of the framework, such as
consistent reinforcement, data tracking, and proactive interventions, are not applied uniformly,
which may reduce its overall effectiveness in supporting student behavior and maintaining
classroom consistency. These findings align with prior research indicating that effective training
and technical assistance are essential for strengthening service delivery systems, though they
require adequate time, financial investment, and sustained administrative support to be
successfully implemented (Durlak & DuPre, 2008).
Another recommendation is to integrate technology to improve efficiency and increase
teacher participation. Using a behavior tracking tool or classroom management app can help
teachers document incidents and apply consequences more effectively, minimizing lost
instructional time. It would also promote more consistent behavior monitoring, addressing

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teachers’ concerns about not being aware when a student displays inappropriate behaviors in
other classes.
Theme 4: Need for Targeted Teacher Training
The findings from the study highlight a critical gap between the professional development
teachers receive and the behavioral demands they face in their classrooms. While participants
reported access to a range of training opportunities, the data suggest that these experiences are
often not targeted toward address real-time behavioral challenges. This disconnect indicates that
current professional development models may prioritize instructional strategies over practical
behavior management skills, limiting teachers’ preparedness for managing both routine
disruptions and intense situations.
Qualitative data revealed that teachers feel underprepared in key areas such as deescalation, crisis response, and behavior intervention. Participants described uncertainty in
handling severe behavioral incidents and a reliance on external supports, which suggests a lack
of confidence in independently managing these situations. This finding aligns with the
quantitative data, which show that only a small number of participants reported receiving
training in de-escalation techniques and specialized behavioral interventions. The absence of
consistent and comprehensive training in these areas may contribute to delays in response,
inconsistent practices, and increased stress among teachers.
Additionally, participants emphasized that much of the professional development
provided is not aligned with their immediate classroom needs. Training sessions were often
described as overly focused on instructional content, despite teachers reporting that frequent
behavioral disruptions, particularly low-level behaviors such as talking out of turn and disrupting
others, consume a significant portion of instructional time. Quantitative findings support this

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perception, with high frequencies of these behaviors reported across participants. This
disconnection suggests that without addressing behavior management as a foundational
component of teaching, efforts to improve instructional outcomes may be undermined.
The data also indicates that experience level influences teachers’ perceptions of
behavioral challenges and potentially their training needs. More experienced teachers reported
higher frequencies of behavioral issues, which may reflect increased awareness, cumulative
exposure, or heightened expectations. This suggests that professional development should be
differentiated, providing targeted support not only for novice teachers but also veteran educators
who may face evolving classroom dynamics and burnout.
Despite these challenges, the findings demonstrate that when teacher receive relevant,
practical, and engaging training, it can positively influence their practice. Participants who
experienced training in a restorative approach reported increased confidence and a greater sense
of their ability in managing student behavior. This suggests that effective professional
development should be context-specific and directly applicable to classroom realities.
Participants noted that behavior management cannot be addressed in isolation, reinforcing the
importance of aligned systems and shared practices across the school.
Theme 4 affirms that targeted, behavior-focused professional development is essential for
improving teacher confidence, consistency in behavior management, and overall classroom
effectiveness. The findings suggest that enhancing the relevance and accessibility, especially in
behavior intervention and crisis management, can help address both instructional and well-being
challenges identified across the study.
This theme directly supports Research Question 3 by illustrating how gaps in training
contribute to difficulties in managing behavior, increased stress, and reduced instructional time.

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Participants consistently described feeling underprepared to address both routine disruptions and
more serious behavioral incidents, which often led to hesitation or reliance on external support.
As a result, insufficient or a lack of follow-up on professional development contributes to a cycle
in which teachers struggle to manage behavior effectively within constrained timeframes,
ultimately impacting both instructional quality and teacher well-being.
Recommendation for Theme 4. One recommendation for theme 4 is to prioritize
behavior-focused trainings throughout the district, targeting classroom behavior management,
including proactive strategies, de-escalation techniques, and crisis response. Training should
consist of low-level disruptions reported by teachers while also preparing them for less frequent
but high-intensity situations. It should be consistent with teachers’ daily classroom experiences,
and include practical, ready-to-use strategies, modeling, and opportunities for teachers to
practice.
Professional development should be differentiated and grounded in practical application
to meet the needs of teachers at varying stages of experience. For novice teachers, training
should focus on foundational classroom management skills, including establishing routines,
setting clear behavioral expectations, and responding consistently to common disruptions such as
off-task behavior and noncompliance. This may be supported through structured induction
programs, mentoring relationships, classroom observations of experienced educators, and guided
practice through coaching. In contrast, veteran teachers may benefit from more advanced and
specialized professional development opportunities, such as training in trauma-informed
practices, restorative approaches, and strategies for managing complex or persistent behavioral
challenges. Additionally, data-informed collaboration and instructional coaching can support
experienced teachers in refining their practice and responding more effectively to evolving

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student needs. By tailoring professional development in this way, districts can ensure that
support is both relevant and responsive, strengthening classroom management across all levels of
experience.
A second recommendation is to provide educators with ongoing, sustained training
opportunities. Rather than a one-time workshop, professional development should be continuous
and supported through coaching, follow-up sessions, and professional learning communities
(PLCs). As documented in earlier studies, Darling-Hammond et al. (2017) emphasized the
importance of professional development that is sustained over time. This is also reflected in the
work of Fixsen et al. (2010), which found that the need for continued availability of key
implementation drivers, competency, organization, and leadership, was argued to be essential for
sustaining implementation over time. Ongoing support increases the likelihood of consistent
implementation. Professional development should be aligned with the existing school-wide
system, such as PBIS, to ensure consistency across classrooms. Schools should also monitor and
support implementation fidelity. To address time constraints that were identified in Theme 3, the
school should provide dedicated time during the workday for training, collaboration, and
implementation planning.
These recommendations emphasize that effective professional development must be
practical, relevant, and sustained. By aligning training with classroom realities and providing
ongoing support, schools can better equip teachers to manage behavior effectively, reduce stress,
and maximize instructional time.
Implications
The findings of this study have several implications for education practice, policy, teacher
preparation, and future research. Across all four themes, consistent patterns emerged: teachers’

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ability to effectively manage student behavior is shaped by a combination of conditions,
available supports, and the relevance of professional development.
Implications for Instructional Practices
The results suggest that classroom management is increasingly influenced by frequent,
low-level disruptions, particularly those related to technology use and student engagement.
These behaviors, while not severe, occur consistently and require ongoing teacher attention,
reducing instructional time. This implies that effective classroom practice must prioritize
proactive and efficient behavior management strategies that can be implemented within limited
timeframes.
Additionally, teachers must be equipped with practical tools that address both prevention
and intervention. Without such strategies, teachers may rely on reactive approaches, which can
contribute to inconsistent consequences and reinforce negative behaviors.
Implications for Leadership
The findings highlight the critical role of support systems in shaping teachers’
experiences. While some participants reported access to behavioral and administrative support,
inconsistencies in availability and implementation limited their effectiveness. This suggests that
schools must strengthen and standardize support structures to ensure that all teachers have access
to timely and reliable assistance when addressing behavioral challenges.
Furthermore, alignment across classrooms is essential. School-wide frameworks, such as
PBIS, have the potential to improve consistency; however, the findings indicate that inconsistent
implementation reduces their effectiveness. This underscores the importance of fidelity, shared
expectations, and ongoing support.

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Time constraints emerged as a significant barrier to effective classroom management.
Teachers reported that competing instructional demands, interruptions, and workload pressures
limited their ability to implement proactive strategies and follow through with consequences.
This has important implications for school scheduling, workload distribution, and instructional
priorities.
The findings suggest that without adequate time, even well-trained teachers may struggle
to manage behavior effectively. Therefore, schools must consider how time is allocated within
the school day, including opportunities for planning, collaboration, and relationship-building
with students. Addressing time as a structural resource is essential for improving both behavior
management and instructional quality.
Implications for Professional Development
The study reveals a clear need for more targeted, behavior-focused professional
development. Teachers reported that existing training often emphasizes instructional practices
while overlooking practical strategies for managing misbehavior, de-escalation, and crisis
response. This disconnect, limits teachers’ preparedness and confidence, particularly in highstress situations.
Teachers in the study described managing a range of student misbehaviors, from lowlevel disruptions such as off-task behavior to more serious behaviors requiring immediate
intervention. Additionally, participants noted a growing need for guidance on managing
technology-related misbehaviors, including misuse of devices, distraction from digital tools, and
challenges associated with monitoring student engagement. These findings highlight the
importance of professional development that not only addresses behavior management across
varying levels of intensity but also integrates practical strategies for leveraging and managing

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technology effectively in the classroom. Providing targeted training in these areas can enhance
teachers’ confidence, improve classroom management, and support more productive learning
environments.
These findings imply that professional development must be relevant, practical, and
sustained over time. Training should align with teachers’ daily experiences and provide
opportunities for application and feedback. Based on participants’ reports, professional
development should explicitly address the full range of student misbehaviors, from low-level
disruptions to more severe incidents. This allows teachers to differentiate their responses based
on the situation confidently.
Additionally, teachers expressed a need for concrete, actionable strategies, such as deescalation techniques, crisis response protocols, and consistent behavior management practices
that can be implemented in real time. Given the increasing presence of technology in classrooms,
professional development should also include guidance on managing technology-related
misbehaviors, promoting appropriate device use, and maintaining student engagement in a digital
learning environment.
Furthermore, preparation programs for pre-service teachers should place greater emphasis
on classroom management and behavioral support to better prepare educators before they enter
the profession.
Implications for Policy
The findings of this study highlight the need for policy-level changes that address the
structural and systemic factors influencing classroom behavior management. Current policies
often emphasize academic accountability while placing less focus on the conditions necessary for
effective behavior support. As a result, teachers may be expected to manage increasingly

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complex classroom environments without sufficient time, training, or resources. The following
implications outline key areas for policy improvement.
The study suggests that behavior management should be elevated as a central component
of educational policy. Given the frequency of low-level disruptions and their impact on
instructional time, policies must recognize behavior as a critical factor in academic success. This
includes integrating behavior support frameworks into school improvement plans and
accountability systems.
Policies should promote the development of comprehensive support systems within
schools, including access to behavior specialists, counselors, and paraprofessionals. Clear
guidelines for roles and responsibilities can ensure that teachers are not solely responsible for
managing complex behavioral challenges.
Additionally, policies must address the greater presence of technology in classroom
behavior management. Participants in the study noted challenges related to students’ misuse of
devices, distraction, and monitoring engagement with technology in the classroom. Therefore,
policies should set clear expectations for appropriate technology use and provide guidelines to
support teachers in managing digital behaviors. This includes tacking of daily referrals, digital
monitoring supports, and training on integrating technology in ways that promote engagement
while minimizing disruptions. By addressing technology at the policy level, schools can better
support teachers in navigating both traditional and technology-related behavioral challenges.
Furthermore, policies should encourage consistent school-wide practices to reduce
variability in behavior management across classrooms. Policies should support alignment with
established frameworks such as Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS), while

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emphasizing the importance of implementation fidelity through monitoring and accountability
measures.
Overall Recommendations
The findings of this study highlight the interconnected factors that influence teachers’
ability to manage student behavior effectively. Across the four themes: Impact of Technology
Use, Role of Support Systems, Effects of Time Constraints, and Need for Targeted Teacher
Training, it is evident that no single intervention will sufficiently address the challenges
identified. Instead, a comprehensive and systemic approach is required to improve classroom
management, teacher well-being, and student outcomes.
First, school districts should establish clear, consistent, and developmentally appropriate
policies regarding student technology use. As the findings demonstrated, technology is a
significant contributor to both direct and indirect behavioral challenges across grade levels.
Implementing structured guidelines, along with professional development focused on effective
technology integration and monitoring, can reduce off-task behaviors and improve student
engagement.
Second, strengthening support systems at both the administrative and collegial levels is
essential. Teachers in this study emphasized that consistent administrative support and
collaborative peer networks serve as critical protective factors against stress and burnout.
Schools should prioritize leadership practices that are responsive, visible, and consistent in
addressing behavioral concerns, while also fostering structured opportunities for teacher
collaboration and shared problem-solving.
Third, schools must address time as a critical structural resource. The findings indicate
that time constraints significantly limit teachers’ ability to implement proactive and consistent

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behavior management strategies. Allocating dedicated time for social-emotional learning (SEL),
behavior instruction, and collaboration can support more effective and preventative approaches.
Additionally, improving efficiency through tools such as behavior tracking systems may help
reduce the time burden associated with managing frequent disruptions.
Finally, professional development must be redesigned to better align with the behavioral
realities of the classroom. Teachers require targeted, practical, and sustained training in areas
such as classroom management, de-escalation, and crisis response. This training should be
differentiated based on experience level and supported through ongoing coaching and
collaboration. Furthermore, alignment with school-wide frameworks such as Positive Behavioral
Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is essential to ensure consistency and effectiveness across
classrooms.
Collectively, these recommendations emphasize the importance of addressing behavior
management that integrates policy, practice, and support systems. By aligning technology
policies, strengthening support networks, allocating time effectively, and providing meaningful
professional development, schools can create environments that better support both teachers and
students. Ultimately, these changes have the potential to improve instructional quality, enhance
teacher well-being, and foster more positive and productive classroom experiences.
Limitations
One limitation of this study is the small sample size of six participants, who all identified
as women. Including a larger or more diverse group of participants could increase the
generalizability of the findings to a broader population. Additionally, all participants were from
the same school district, which may limit the extent to which the results can be applied to other
districts or educational settings. Another limitation is that the study focused solely on the

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perspectives of teachers and did not include input from other key stakeholders, such as school
administrators.
Recommendations for Future Research
Future research could further examine how administrators and/or paraprofessionals
perceive their roles when working with students who exhibit severe behavioral challenges.
Comparing their perspectives with those of teachers may reveal important similarities or
differences in their lived experiences. Understanding these perspectives could help identify ways
to improve support systems for both educators and students.
Future studies could employ a dyadic design in which classroom teachers and their direct
supervisors are interviewed regarding the same specific behavioral incidents. This approach
would allow for a direct comparison of perceptions related to incident severity, appropriate
interventions, and adequacy of administrative support at the time of the event. Identifying these
perception gaps could provide more nuanced insight into misalignments in communication and
decision-making processes, informing more consistent and collaborative behavioral response
systems within schools.
Additionally, future studies could explore the effectiveness of focused professional
development programs focused on behavior management and strategies for supporting students
with significant behavioral needs. Research that examines how ongoing training and
collaboration among teachers, paraprofessionals, and administrators impact classroom
environments and student outcomes could provide valuable insights for school districts.
Finally, future research could include participants from multiple school districts and a
broader range of educational settings to increase the generalizability of the findings. Expanding
the number of participants would allow researchers to better understand how behavioral

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challenges are addressed across different schools and what types of supports are most effective in
promoting positive outcomes for both students and educators.
Conclusion
This study explored teachers’ perceptions of student behavioral challenges within a semirural district in Pennsylvania, with a focus on identifying the types of behaviors experienced, the
factors contributing to these behaviors, and their impact on teacher well-being and instructional
practices. Through a combination of qualitative and quantitative data, four key themes emerged:
the Impact of Technology Use, the Role of Support Systems, the Effects of Time Constraints,
and the Need for Targeted Teacher Training. Together, these findings provide a comprehensive
understanding of the multifaceted challenges teachers face in managing student behavior.
The results of this study indicate that while severe behavioral incidents are relatively rare,
frequent low-level disruptions significantly affect classroom environments and instructional
time. Technology-related distractions, inconsistent support systems, limited time, and
insufficiently targeted professional development collectively contribute to the complexity of
classroom management. These factors not only influence teachers’ ability to respond effectively
to student behavior but also impact their overall well-being, contributing to stress and fatigue.
Importantly, the findings demonstrate that these challenges are interconnected. Teachers’ ability
to implement effective behavior management strategies is shaped not only by their individual
skills but also by systemic factors such as time allocation, access to support, and the relevance of
training. As a result, addressing behavioral challenges in the classroom requires a comprehensive
approach that goes beyond isolated interventions.
This study contributes to the existing body of literature by highlighting the importance of
aligning professional development with classroom realities, strengthening school-wide support

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systems, and recognizing time as a critical resource in education. Additionally, the findings stress
the need for consistent implementation of frameworks such as Positive Behavioral Interventions
and Supports (PBIS) to ensure equitable and effective behavior management practices across
classrooms.
The findings of this study reinforce the critical need to view classroom behavior
management as a shared, systemic responsibility rather than an individual teacher burden. By
addressing the interconnected influences of technology, support systems, time constraints, and
targeted professional development, educational stakeholders can create more effective and
sustainable learning environments. Supporting teachers through intentional policy, practice, and
professional learning not only enhances their well-being but also promotes positive student
behavior and academic success. Continued attention to these factors will be essential in ensuring
that schools are equipped to meet the evolving needs of both educators and students.

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APPENDIX A: Prospective Teacher Email

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APPENDIX B: Demographic Survey
1. Age?
☐ Under 25
2.

☐ 35–44

☐ Female

☐ Prefer not to say

☐ 55 or older

Highest Level of Education Completed?
☐ Bachelor’s degree ☐ Master’s degree

4.

☐ 45–54

Gender?
☐ Male

3.

☐ 25–34

☐ Doctorate (Ph.D./Ed.D.)

☐ Other:

Total Years of Teaching Experience?
☐ 3–5 years

☐ 6–10 years ☐ 11–15 years ☐ 16–20 year

☐ More than 20 years
5.

6.

Current Grade Level
☐ Kindergarten

☐ Primary / Elementary

☐ High School

☐ Other: __________

☐ Middle School

Subjects Taught
☐ Language Arts / English

☐ Mathematics

☐ Science

☐ Social Studies

☐ Arts

☐ Physical Education

☐ Special Education

☐ Library

☐ Music

☐ English Language Learners

☐ Title 1

☐ STEM

☐ Family Consumer Science ☐ Foreign language ☐ Interventionist ☐ ESL
☐ Learning Enrichment/Gifted
7.

Certifications held?
________________________

☐ Technology Education

☐ Other:

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APPENDIX C: Self-Report Form
1. On average, how many instances of negative student behaviors do you observe in a typical
school day?
☐ 0–5

☐ 6–10

☐ 11–15

☐ 16–20

☐ More than 20

2. Which of the following disruptive behaviors and frequency do you observe in your classroom?
(Select all that apply)
☐ Talking out of turn / interrupting the teacher
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Disrupting or distracting others
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Use of cell phone or smart device in school when prohibited by school personnel
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Inappropriate attire (drug, alcohol, illegal activities advertised or promoted, symbols of hate)
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Yelling, screaming
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Throwing objects (snowballs, paper, objects, etc.)
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Throwing food/liquids
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Throwing furniture or heavy objects

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1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Continued failure to demonstrate school-wide expected behaviors
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Using electronics for non-educational purposes
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Ignoring, arguing with, and/or refusing to follow directions
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Refusing to follow directions in classroom, cafeteria, and/or other school spaces
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Using or demonstrating vulgar, perverse, harassing, and/or offensive language or gestures
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Leaving the classroom without teacher’s permission
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ School disturbance
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Any act placing others in unwanted fear or disorder
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Participating in or initiating a school disturbance of prank
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Taking of unsolicited pictures or videos
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Accessing administrative privileges without authorization

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1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Fighting or physical retaliation
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Actions involving serious physical contact where injury may occur
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Inappropriate or intimate behaviors on campus or at school-related events
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Accessing staff offices, desks, or belongings
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Entering any door other than the main entrances, after the school day starts
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Gambling activity
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Obtaining something through force or threats
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Threatening someone through violence, property damage, or harm to reputation
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Setting/igniting a fire by match, lighter, fireworks or other methods
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Activating a fire alarm or armed intruder whistle
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Possession of and/or use of weapons or look-a-likes on school property

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1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Threats to commit any offense involving violence
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Refusing to follow instructions
1 = Rarely, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always
☐ Other___________________________________

3. On a weekly basis, I need to call for assistance for my class
☐ 0–5

☐ 6–10

☐ 11–15

☐ 16–20

☐ More than 20

4. Which of the following training or professional development sessions have you received
related to managing negative or disruptive student behaviors? (Select all that apply)
☐ Classroom management strategies
I am not familiar with this
☐ Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS)
I am not familiar with this
☐ Conflict resolution/peer mediation
I am not familiar with this
☐ Social-emotional learning (SEL) training
I am not familiar with this
☐ Trauma-informed teaching
I am not familiar with this

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☐ Special education/behavior intervention training
I am not familiar with this
☐ Safety Care
I am not familiar with this
☐ De-escalation techniques
I am not familiar with this
☐ Anti-bullying programs
I am not familiar with this
☐ Cultural competency/diversity training
I am not familiar with this
☐ Data-driven instruction
I am not familiar with this
☐ Progress monitoring training
I am not familiar with this
☐ Differentiated instruction training
I am not familiar with this
☐ Literacy instructional training
I am not familiar with this
☐ Math instructional training
I am not familiar with this
☐ Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
I am not familiar with this

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☐ Other: __________________________________

5. Which of the following training or professional development sessions have you found
beneficial related to managing negative or disruptive student behaviors? (Select all that apply)
☐ Classroom management strategies
☐ Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS)
☐ Conflict resolution/peer mediation
☐ Social-emotional learning (SEL) training
☐ Trauma-informed teaching
☐ Special education/behavior intervention training
☐ Safety Care
☐ De-escalation techniques
☐ Anti-bullying programs
☐ Cultural competency/diversity training
☐ Data-driven instruction
☐ Progress monitoring training
☐ Differentiated instruction training
☐ Literacy instructional training
☐ Math instructional training
☐ Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
☐ Other: __________________________________

BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS

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6. What additional Professional development training would you like to receive?

_____________________________________________

7. How much do the disruptive behaviors you observe in your classroom affect your well-being
as a teacher?
Not at all

A little

Sometimes

Often

A great deal

BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS
APPENDIX D: Approval letter from School District

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APPENDIX E: Letter to Assistant Superintendent
Jessica Stover
Slippery Rock University
Jas1114@sru.edu
November 17, 2025
Danielle Yoder
State College Area School District
240 Villa Crest Dr.
State College, PA 16801
Dear Mrs. Danielle Yoder,
I am requesting permission to contact teachers within your district to invite them to participate in
my dissertation research study, which is being conducted as part of my graduate work at Slippery
Rock University. The purpose of this study is to explore teachers' perceptions of behavioral
challenges in the classroom. If granted permission, I will send a recruitment email to teachers
using their school-provided email addresses. Participation will be entirely voluntary, and all data
collected will remain confidential and used solely for academic research purposes. No school or
individual names will be included in the final report. Your approval will allow me to proceed
with contacting teachers and conducting the study in accordance with institutional and ethical
guidelines.
Thank you for considering my request.
Sincerely,
Jessica Stover
Doctoral Program in Special Education
Slippery Rock University

BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS
APPENDIX F: Informed Consent Form

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131

BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS

132

BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS

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BEHAVIOR CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSROOMS
APPENDIX G: Audio/Video Release Consent Form

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APPENDIX H: Interview Questions
1. Please tell me a little about your teaching background, such as your grade level, subject area,
and years of teaching experience?
2. In your experience, what types of student behaviors have become more common or
concerning in your classroom?
3. What do you believe contributes to these behaviors?
4. How have these behavioral challenges affected your ability to teach effectively?
5. In what ways, if any, have these behaviors impacted your emotional well-being or job
satisfaction?
6. How do you typically cope with or manage stress that arises from dealing with challenging
student behaviors?
7. Have you received any training or professional development related to managing disruptive
behavior or supporting students’ social-emotional needs?
If yes: What aspects were most/least useful?
If no: What kinds of training or resources would be most helpful?
8.

How do school or district discipline policies influence how you handle behavioral

incidents in your classroom?
9.

How do you think student behavior and school climate could be improved in your school

or district?
10.

Is there anything else you’d like to share about your experiences with student behavior or

support systems that we haven’t discussed?