IMPACT OF COACHING TOOLBOX ON SPECIAL EDUCATION
ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF A COACHING TOOLBOX ON PROFESSIONAL
GROWTH AND INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES IN SPECIAL EDUCATION
______________________
A Dissertation
Presented to
The College of Graduate and Professional Studies
Department of Special Education
Slippery Rock University
Slippery Rock, Pennsylvania
______________________
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctorate of Special Education
_______________________
by
Jennifer Do
June, 2025
© Jennifer Do, 2025

Keywords: special education, instructional coaching, coaching, staff development, special
education coaching

2

ABSTRACT
Instructional coaching supports teachers in curriculum, behavior, classroom management, and
emotional aspects. In special education, roles such as behavior specialists, teacher coaches, and
supervisors often function as instructional coaches. While various coaching methods are
documented in education literature, specific strategies for communication, documentation, and
challenging conversations in special education coaching are scarce. This study explores the
effectiveness of a coaching toolbox in enhancing professional development and support for
educators. It integrates principles of business psychology, emphasizing individual personalities,
diverse human interaction perspectives, and interpersonal skill development. A mixed-methods
design, employing both quantitative and qualitative data, was used to measure the impact of the
coaching toolbox. The study involved a pre and post-intervention design for the participants.
Assessments measured participant satisfaction, perceived impact, and changes in mindset and
gathered qualitative insights. Observational data from coaching sessions focused on the
application and effectiveness of specific coaching tools. This research aims to create a
comprehensive model for training special education staff in coaching, from direct instruction to
implementation, enhancing the effectiveness of coaching methodologies in special educational
settings.

3

DEDICATION
I dedicate this book to my daughter Madison. I want you to know how important it is to
achieve what you put your mind to. You have always been a special gift to us, and your presence
has brought me balance, joy, and purpose in my life.

4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I want to express my deepest gratitude to my husband and daughter, who have been
instrumental in my journey to complete this degree. This accomplishment would not have been
possible without their unwavering support, encouragement, and understanding. To my husband,
thank you for your patience and for picking up all the extras around the house. To my daughter,
your smiles and love have been a constant source of motivation.
I also want to extend my heartfelt thanks to my mom and dad. They taught me to be kind,
always put forth the most effort, and never stop going. Their endless love, wisdom, and sacrifices
have shaped who I am today. Thank you for instilling in me the value of education and
perseverance. You are missed beyond words. The coaching toolbox model was named in honor
of my dad.
Special thanks to the Watson Institute for the opportunities, encouragement, and support
you’ve given me throughout this journey. I am deeply grateful for everything that you did to
make it possible to reach this milestone. To my pillars of strength—thank you for lifting me up
when I needed it most. And to my dissertation committee, thank you for your guidance, time, and
cheering me along!
Onward and Upward always!

5

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................................... 3
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ 4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ 5
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ 10
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................................11
CHAPTER I .................................................................................................................................. 12
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 12
The Need for Coaching ..................................................................................................... 13
Components of Instructional Coaching ............................................................................ 14
Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................. 15
Research Questions and Sub Questions ............................................................................ 15
Definitions of Important Terms......................................................................................... 15
Significance of the Problem .............................................................................................. 18
Basic Assumptions ............................................................................................................ 19
Basic Limitations .............................................................................................................. 20
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER II................................................................................................................................. 23
Review of Literature ..................................................................................................................... 23
Introduction to Coaching Models in Education ................................................................ 23
Sweeney, Knight, and Aguilar .......................................................................................... 23
Applications of Instructional Coaching Across Subject Areas ......................................... 26
Digital Technology and Coaching..................................................................................... 27

6

Exploring Resilience and Growth: Insights from Brené Brown and Related Works ........ 28
Theoretical Foundations of Instructional Coaching .......................................................... 32
Integration of Formative Assessment and Coaching ................................................ 33
Critical Practices and Strategies in Coaching ........................................................... 36
Improving Instructional Coaching Models ....................................................................... 40
The Role of Feedback in Coaching ................................................................................... 45
Integrating Coaching into Teacher Training and Professional Development in Special
Education ...................................................................................................................... 50
Coaching for Specific Populations and Contexts.............................................................. 52
Linking Best Practices to the Yope Coaching Toolbox ..................................................... 56
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 58
CHAPTER III ............................................................................................................................... 61
Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 61
Action Plan: Intervention .................................................................................................. 61
Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 71
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 73
Site Permission.................................................................................................................. 74
Presentation of Results ...................................................................................................... 74
Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 75
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 76
CHAPTER IV ............................................................................................................................... 77
Findings......................................................................................................................................... 77
Restatement of Research Questions .................................................................................. 77
7

Participants ........................................................................................................................ 78
Qualitative Data Findings ............................................................................................................. 79
Observation Summary ...................................................................................................... 79
Initial Classroom Observation .......................................................................................... 80
Final Classroom Observation............................................................................................ 83
Coaching Session 1 Findings ............................................................................................ 87
Coaching Notes Session 1 ......................................................................................... 87
Coaching Feedback Survey Session 1 ...................................................................... 88
Educator Satisfaction Survey Results ....................................................................... 91
Coaching Session 2 Findings ............................................................................................ 93
Coaching Notes Session 2 ......................................................................................... 93
Coaching Feedback Survey Session 2 ...................................................................... 95
Quantitative Satisfaction ........................................................................................... 96
Coaching Session 3 Findings ............................................................................................ 96
Contextual Note on Participation .............................................................................. 96
Coaching Notes Session 3: Final Session ................................................................. 97
Coaching Feedback Survey Session 3: Final Session ............................................. 100
Quantitative Satisfaction ......................................................................................... 101
Post-Intervention Survey ................................................................................................ 103
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 105
CHAPTER V .............................................................................................................................. 107
Summary ......................................................................................................................... 107
8

Report of Results............................................................................................................. 107
Data Sources Overview........................................................................................... 108
Results Organized by Research Question ............................................................... 108
Implications......................................................................................................................110
Implications for Practice ..........................................................................................110
Recommendations for Further Research ..........................................................................112
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................113
References ...................................................................................................................................115
APPENDIX A: INVITATION TO PARTICIPATE ..................................................................... 122
APPENDIX B: DIRECT OUTREACH FOR STUDY PARTICIPATION ................................. 125
APPENDIX C: INFORMED CONSENT ................................................................................... 127
APPENDIX D: PRE-INTERVENTION ASSESSMENT .......................................................... 130
APPENDIX E: POST-INTERVENTION ASSESSMENT ......................................................... 132
APPENDIX F: COACHING FEEDBACK SURVEY................................................................ 134
APPENDIX G: STRUCTURED OBSERVATION FORM ........................................................ 135
APPENDIX H: SITE PERMISSION LETTER .......................................................................... 137
APPENDIX I: IRB APPROVAL ................................................................................................ 139

9

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Coaching Models, Focus, Strengths and Challenges Chart ............................................44
Table 2: Qualitative Findings From Initial and Post-Intervention Observations..........................86
Table 3: Themes From Coaching Session 1 ...................................................................................93
Table 4: Themes From Coaching Session 2 ...................................................................................94
Table 5: Themes From Coaching Session 3 ...................................................................................98
Table 6: Progression of Themes Throughout Coaching Sessions ..................................................99
Table 7: Summary of Pre-Intervention Survey Responses ...........................................................103
Table 8: Summary of Post-Intervention Survey Responses ..........................................................104

10

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Venn Diagram of the Yope Coaching Toolbox and Other Models ..................................49
Figure 2: Steps of the Coaching Process for the Yope Coaching Toolbox .....................................58

11

CHAPTER I
Introduction
Instructional coaching is a method of professional development that provides support and
improves the instructional practices of educators, namely teachers in the field of education. The
instructional coach's goal is to support staff in the classroom setting with all aspects of their role,
including curriculum, behavior, classroom management, and, at times, emotional support for
teachers. Several positions in the field of special education lend themselves to this role of
instructional coach, namely behavior specialists, teacher coaches, support teachers, and
supervisors. Literature exists regarding different coaching methods in the field of education;
however, specific research that targets communication, documentation, and challenging
conversations in special education coaching has not been conducted widely. While each
component is found in the literature, the challenge lies in integrating all these components to
create a comprehensive coaching model.
Applying business psychology principles has proven instrumental in implementing a
coaching model to train staff effectively. This approach considers individual personalities,
diverse perspectives on human interaction, and the development of interpersonal skills. There is
growing interest in extending these practices from the business realm to the field of education,
where they can be utilized to enhance the effectiveness of coaching methodologies. In this
researcher’s professional experience, transitioning from program coordinator to program director
revealed the challenges of implementing coaching strategies in an educational setting. The
frustration from encountering staff members who failed to adhere to previously provided
guidance accentuated the need for a more comprehensive approach to coaching. This transition
necessitated a shift towards a more introspective examination of coaching methodologies and the

12

development of a tailored model that facilitated genuine progress and meaningful conversations.
This experience prompted an extensive exploration of relevant literature, including works by
Brené Brown (2012) as a social researcher and other organizational psychologists. However, the
existing resources are needed to fully address the need for active listening, reflection, and
questioning within the coaching context. Subsequently, efforts were directed toward integrating
diverse perspectives and establishing a dedicated team to facilitate bi-weekly training sessions.
Practical demonstrations and direct engagement with staff members were employed to reinforce
the imperative of face-to-face communication and the prioritization of meaningful interactions.
The culmination of these initiatives resulted in the formulation of pre-coaching and postcoaching surveys and the introduction of tailored coaching sessions to address specific barriers
and challenges. While drawing upon existing literature, such as The Coaching Habit (2012) and
The Advice Monster (2019) by Michael Bungay Stanier, it became apparent that further
exploration and refinement were necessary to fully align coaching practices with the specific
needs of the special educational environment. This acknowledgment signified the
commencement of a deeper, more nuanced journey toward the evolution of effective coaching
practices within the described context.
The Need for Coaching
Training for preparing and retaining coaching staff is critical to the success of a coaching
program, in addition to mentors being assigned to coaches, as a mentor’s primary task relates to
coaching. It is also crucial to consider how to be an effective coach when one may lack the
necessary skills to guide someone. The need for mentoring or coaching in instructional programs
is evident in the current literature. Boer's (2023) article emphasizes the necessity of a coaching
model for training new teachers and highlights the Instructional Coaching Model used in other

13

professional development areas (pp. 231-234). Boer also points out that coaching can help lower
the risk of burnout (p. 231). One of the challenges mentioned in her paper is training such
coaches in this model. Her perspective involves integrating mentoring and instructional coaching
programs for new teachers. Creating an instructional coaching model can help support new
teachers, alleviate feelings of burnout, and retain staff.
Components of Instructional Coaching
The intricacies of instructional coaching are discussed in a review of literature by the
University of Oklahoma (K20 Center, n.d.). Instructional coaches work directly with teachers
and other building staff, providing direct access to everyday classroom practices that principals
or administrators may lack. Instructional coaching aims to enhance classroom practices and
student learning and improve classroom management to decrease student behaviors. Unlike a
workshop, instructional coaching involves working one-on-one with teachers and establishing a
direct relationship with them. The review stresses that instructional coaches are highly trained in
their areas and are seen as models for teachers rather than as supervisors. They can be viewed as
peer mentors (p. 4).
The K20 Center’s (n.d.) review highlights the positive effects of instructional coaching
with teachers. Coaching has been found to help to retain teachers and decrease burnout. Pairing
coaching with other forms of professional development has also proven effective, enabling
teachers to translate one-day workshops into practice with the help of instructional coaches. The
need for instructional coaching training is reiterated. Similarly, Kraft et al.'s (2019) research on
instruction and achievement found specific positive effects of instructional coaching. It
emphasized the importance of keeping coaching programs much smaller to pay attention to detail
rather than larger coaching models. Additionally, it was not found that there were equally

14

effective models compared to those presented in this literature review. This model was chosen
over others because it encompasses all the necessary components of instructional coaching, such
as working directly with teachers, building foundational knowledge on topics like behavior and
classroom management, and requiring high-quality training to ensure its effectiveness.
Statement of the Problem
Instructional coaches or other related staff are hired in special education to support
classroom staff. There is no significant research on how to train these staff to support the needs
of a special education teacher or classroom team. There is also a lack of research on using an
integrated model incorporating communication when one experiences difficulties, documentation
of coaching sessions, and coaching in a special education setting. A model incorporating these
factors does not currently exist for staff coaching in special education classrooms.
Research Questions and Sub Questions
1. What are the effects of implementing instructional coaching within a unique education
setting?
1.1 What instructional coaching model can be implemented to train coaches effectively
in this setting?
1.2 How does the implementation of the Yope Coaching Toolbox influence educators'
professional growth and instructional practices?
Definitions of Important Terms
Behavior-Specific Praise: Positive reinforcement targeted at specific behaviors to encourage
repetition of desired actions in the classroom (Dufrene et al., 2014, pp. 567-580).

15

Classroom Strategies Coaching (CSC) Model: A coaching approach that includes observation,
feedback, and instructional improvement strategies, focused on enhancing classroom
management and teaching techniques (Reddy et al., 2017, pp. 46-54).
Coaching Habit: A set of seven essential questions designed to facilitate meaningful
conversations and promote learning and self-discovery during the coaching process (Bungay
Stanier, 2016, pp. 186-190).
Coaching Toolbox: A set of personalized tools and resources designed to facilitate professional
growth and support for educators, focusing on communication, documentation, and challenging
conversations in special education settings (Boer, 2023, pp. 231-234).
Evidence-Based Practices: Teaching methods or interventions that are proven to be effective
based on rigorous research and data (Stahmer et al., 2015, pp. 182-185).
Feedback Loops: Regular check-ins between coaches and educators to provide and receive
feedback, facilitating continuous improvement (Hattie & Timperley, 2007, pp. 81-112).
Fixed Mindset: The belief that abilities and traits are static and unchangeable, often leading to
avoidance of challenges (Dweck, 2006, pp. 203-205).
Formative Assessment: An ongoing evaluation process used during instruction to monitor
student learning and adjust teaching methods accordingly (Reddy et al., 2017, pp. 46-54).
Grit: The combination of passion and perseverance in pursuit of long-term goals, emphasizing
resilience in the face of challenges (Duckworth, 2016, pp. 1-2).
Growth Mindset: The belief that intelligence and abilities can develop through effort,
perseverance, and feedback (Dweck, 2006, pp. 203-205).

16

Instructional Coaching: A professional development approach where instructional coaches
support teachers to improve their instructional strategies, classroom management, and curriculum
through feedback and reflection (Connor, 2017, pp. 78-83).
Problem-Solving Coaching: A coaching model focusing on developing the skills necessary to
identify, analyze, and resolve challenges in the classroom or educational setting (Leighton et al.,
2018, pp. 39-48).
Reflective Practice: The process of educators analyzing their teaching methods and classroom
interactions to improve instructional effectiveness (Vaughan Smith, 2020, pp. 14-15).
Summative Assessment: A method of evaluating student performance after instruction has been
completed, often used to determine final outcomes (Knight, 2012, pp. 75-76).
Unique Education Setting: In this dissertation, the term "unique education setting" refers
specifically to the Watson Institute, a specialized educational non-profit organization that serves
children and young adults with a variety of special needs, including autism spectrum disorder,
cerebral palsy, neurological impairments, and other developmental challenges. The Watson
Institute provides individualized education programs and therapeutic services designed to
address the diverse needs of its students, focusing on fostering independence, enhancing life
skills, and improving academic outcomes. Through its comprehensive approach, which includes
educational, psychological, and social support, the Watson Institute aims to create inclusive
environments that enable students to thrive academically and socially (The Watson Institute,
n.d.).
Visible Learning: A model developed by John Hattie that emphasizes making learning
outcomes visible and measurable, guiding teaching strategies to optimize student success
(Knight, 2019, pp. 1-16).

17

Significance of the Problem
The State of Pennsylvania Bureau of Special Education has implemented a program
called Attract, Prepare, and Retain (Bureau of Special Education). This model stemmed from the
concern regarding the number of applicants in the state's field of special education teachers.
Baseline data from the year one report states that:
Data from the Pennsylvania Teacher Information Management System (TIMS) show that
the number of initial special education licenses issued by the state decreased from 2014 to
2020, ranging from a high of 2,225 in 2015 to 1,663 in the most recent year (2020).
(Theobald et al., 2023, p. 1)
With these staggering numbers, the state initiative was needed. Early feedback from the current
programs and future analysis will determine whether the programs that have been implemented
have been beneficial in retaining staff. In addition, staff report leaving the field because they
were not properly trained or understood the needs of students in special education.
A critical facet of this initiative is the allocation of additional funding and resources to
support school psychologists and teachers in special education, while fostering career exploration
and learning opportunities to attract individuals to the field. Moreover, the initiative also
encompasses networking and mentoring prospective teachers (Bureau of Special Education n.d.).
However, it is crucial to critically consider the measures in place to retain existing special
education staff and adequately equip new teachers with the requisite skills and administrative
acumen for managing a special education classroom. While the current initiative offers
multifaceted support, examining whether it genuinely addresses comprehensive staff support in
special education is imperative.

18

Denton and Hasbrouck (2009) noted that while there has been a rise in instructional
coaching over recent years, there are many coaching approaches available. They discuss five
approaches in coaching, including “technical coaching, problem-solving coaching, reflective
practice coaching, team-building coaching, and reform coaching” (p. 159). The authors further
discuss that in some educational institutions, there is training specific to instructional coaches;
however, formal coaching is absent in day-to-day academia. Instead, instructional coaches may
attend workshops and learn tools to use on their own time. What is also challenging is that each
individual providing the training can have different approaches to coaching. It can be very
daunting for instructional coaches to learn what might work best for them in the long run when
working with other educators. Denton and Hasbrouck (2009) make light of formalizing training
programs for instructional coaches, thereby providing a means to certify them for instructional
coaching. They emphasize the importance of developing coaching models, validating models for
effectiveness, and generating research questions for coaching models (p. 171).
Basic Assumptions
Effectively implementing a coaching toolbox will positively impact both the educational
staff involved in coaching training and those receiving this training in the classroom. The
coaching toolbox is personalized to support specific variables found in the unique education
setting and, therefore, needs to be more effective than standard coaching methods. The coaching
toolbox will serve teachers who work with various students by age, grade, and program within
the school setting. The different educational environments will support learning about the
coaching toolbox and its implementation over the school year. Educators will also benefit from
reflective practices in the coaching toolbox, improving instructional skills and thus student

19

outcomes. Moreover, the adaptability of techniques and strategies from business psychology and
coaching to the educational context is a reassuring factor in the study's approach.
Basic Limitations
This study was conducted across multiple programs at the school. The sample size was
limited and specific to the programs at the school, which could affect the generalizability of the
findings to a broader population of educators. Differences in participants' prior experience,
motivation, and engagement levels could influence the outcomes, introducing variability that was
difficult to control. The timing of the study was also limited to the school year, or nine months.
There were also time constraints on those involved in the coaching and training. In-person
follow-up is also challenging during the school year as the writer is an administrator as part of
the program. Factors outside the scope of the study, such as changes in school policies, external
professional development opportunities, or personal life events of participants, could influence
the results. Data limitations were also evident. The information gathered from self-reported
surveys and feedback forms may be biased. Additionally, the effectiveness of implementing
coaching tools may differ based on the availability and quality of resources and support in
various settings.
Summary
This study explored the effectiveness of implementing a coaching toolbox as part of
professional development in a special educational setting. It presents a unique approach that
enhances professional development and support for educators in roles where coaching practices
are utilized. Specifically, it aimed to create a model for teaching special education staff to coach
through direct instruction, training, and implementation of the model. While existing literature
discusses various coaching methods in education, this study's focus on integrating

20

communication, documentation, and handling challenging conversations into a cohesive
coaching model is a novel contribution. Drawing from fields such as business psychology, this
study created an effective coaching model that considers interpersonal skills and personality
types, applying these principles to the educational context. In summary, this study addressed an
essential absence in the current body of literature by providing a comprehensive coaching model
tailored to special education settings. This model integrates essential components such as
communication and problem-solving skills, potentially enhancing professional growth and
instructional effectiveness.
In the following chapters, readers will find a structured exploration of the coaching
toolbox's development, implementation, and impact on special education settings. Chapter II
offers a detailed review of the literature, examining the theoretical foundations and key models
of instructional coaching with a focus on their relevance to special education. It delves into
existing research on coaching strategies, including resilience, growth mindset, and the unique
needs of educators working in specialized environments. Chapter III describes the methodology
used in this study, outlining the mixed-methods design, participant selection, and data collection
process, as well as the step-by-step implementation of the coaching toolbox within the school.
Chapter IV presents the results of the study, providing both quantitative and qualitative data
analysis to highlight the effectiveness of the coaching toolbox on professional growth and
instructional practices. Finally, Chapter V discusses the implications of the findings, offering
conclusions and recommendations for future research, with a focus on refining and expanding
coaching practices in special education to foster meaningful progress for educators and their
students. With a foundation established on the need for an effective coaching toolbox in special
education, we now turn to an examination of existing literature. Chapter II will explore various

21

theoretical frameworks and coaching models, providing insights that inform the design and
implementation of this study.

22

CHAPTER II
Review of Literature
Introduction to Coaching Models in Education
Instructional coaching has long been seen as a practical approach in educational settings,
a means to develop the practices of current teachers, and a way to support new teachers
welcomed into schools for the first time. Coaching plays a pivotal role in enhancing teacher
practices and enhancing student outcomes. Instructional coaches are on the front lines and have
direct access to teaching staff and teams daily; this approach helps administration and
supervisors understand what is happening in classrooms and the needs of the classroom staff.
Such proximity allows them to provide valuable insights to administration and supervisors about
classroom dynamics and emerging needs.
Sweeney, Knight, and Aguilar
Perspectives from Diane Sweeney, Jim Knight, and Elena Aguilar regarding instructional
coaching models are also explored. Diane Sweeney’s model, Student-Centered Coaching, is
considered the reverse of instructional coaching, where student outcomes are the priority. She
uses a formative assessment framework to highlight her model as goal-driven on student needs.
She relies upon a “continuum” for this coaching model where clear and measurable goals are
established and skill sets are targeted. Thus, this is where coaching is targeted (Sweeney, 2010, p.
9). Collaboration is present within this model for coaches and teachers to work together for the
collective good of the student (p. 26).
In her work, coaching takes place in cycles. These cycles last approximately one school
quarter, or nine weeks, involving data collection, analysis, and planning (Sweeney, 2010, p. 31).
Additional work was involved ahead of time when working in the school building, including

23

meetings with the principal, establishing expectations with all of those involved, and
conversations with teachers regarding their thoughts on coaching. When moving to a coaching
model that focuses on students, the core components of this model focus on teaching the staff
what they will need to learn in order to support the students in their classroom. Data drives
decision-making instead of an emotional reaction or perspective on students (Sweeney, 2010).
In her work, Sweeney also addresses the need for training staff who become coaches
(Sweeney, 2010, p. 161). In Chapter 9 of Student-Centered Coaching, Diane Sweeney
emphasizes the essential need for structured support systems to help instructional coaches
effectively transition from classroom teaching. Coaches often feel isolated or face unclear roles
and challenging school cultures, and Sweeney proposes targeted professional development to
meet these needs. Her approach includes coaching-focused sessions on data analysis, change
management, and collaboration with principals, all of which foster a shared understanding of
best practices. She also discusses the value of small-group observations, where coaches gain
insights from one another, and personalized one-on-one coaching for new coaches to help them
acclimate to their roles. Additionally, Sweeney advocates for “coaching labs” as a way for
coaches to observe and reflect together, promoting ongoing growth. Strong district-level support,
she notes, is vital for aligning communication and measuring the impact of coaching, with an
emphasis on treating coaching as a growth-centered, evolving process rather than a one-size-fitsall solution (p. 161-180).
Building on prior discussions of effective coaching practices, Jim Knight (2007) outlines
a collaborative coaching model that emphasizes building partnerships with teachers to foster
effective instructional practices and enhance student learning outcomes. Knight operates under
the “Partnership Philosophy” where teachers and coaches work together and support the teacher

24

in being autonomous in this process of coaching. There are seven principles included in this
practice, each of which guides the overall philosophy (pp. 37-56). While working on this
partnering philosophy, Knight was simultaneously involved in “Focusing on the Big Four;”
“behavior, content knowledge, direct instruction, and formative assessment (p. 139). Knight
parallels Diane Sweeney’s student-centered coaching approach in its strategic and outcomeoriented focus. Both Knight and Sweeney emphasize the importance of using targeted, impactful
areas to drive instructional improvement. Knight focuses on specific teacher instructional
practices, whereas Sweeney’s work goes further into student outcomes (Knight, 2007, pp. 139178).
Building on the targeted focus of both Knight’s and Sweeney’s models, Elena Aguilar’s
(2024) Transformational Coaching approach expands the coaching lens to include a strong
emphasis on building emotional resilience and promoting equity. Aguilar’s model addresses
instructional growth while also deeply supporting teachers’ well-being and personal
development, especially in navigating broader systemic issues. Elena Aguilar describes her
approach to coaching as a holistic, relational process focused on supporting both teachers'
professional growth and personal well-being. This model, Transformational Coaching, is rooted
in addressing what she calls the "Three Bs": behaviors, beliefs, and ways of being, reflecting her
belief that actual change occurs when coaches help teachers explore underlying assumptions and
emotional needs, not just instructional techniques. Aguilar highlights that many traditional
coaching models overlook the complexity of teachers as full human beings, which she argues is
essential for meaningful change. Central to her philosophy is the belief that every person—
teachers, students, and all community members—deserves to thrive. Transformational Coaching,
therefore, focuses on fostering connection, equity, and compassion, and positions coaching as a

25

tool not only for instructional improvement but also for building resilience, emotional
intelligence, and community within schools (Aguilar, 2024, p. 21-56)
Applications of Instructional Coaching Across Subject Areas
Building on Aguilar’s perspective that effective coaching requires a holistic approach to
support both personal and professional growth, research on literacy coaching further underscores
the importance of specialized knowledge in fostering student development. Similarly, extensive
research has been conducted into the role of literacy coaches, particularly in understanding child
development and the processes by which language skills evolve in students. Gallucci et al.
(2010) examined such experiences with a literacy coach. The study found that while
administration and supervisors look to instructional coaches as the “experts,” this is not
necessarily the case; instead, their research found that instructional coaches are continually
learning (p. 921). While the study focused on one literacy coach, it followed the coach’s learning
process through a specific model. It also demonstrated that while the literacy coach was seen as
an expert in this area, additional coaching was set up for him to learn this process. His process,
however, focused on literacy strategies as training at the school district supported him (Gallucci
et al., 2010, p. 951).
The same can be said for the field of mathematics. West (2017) conducted a study on a
mathematical coach. Specifically, West (2017) discusses content coaching. Initially centered on
math, content coaching now applies to all subjects. It is based on Lauren Resnick's knowledgebased constructivism theory, which emphasizes building on prior knowledge. The coaching
process includes “a three-part cycle: preconference, lesson implementation, and postconference,” each about 45-60 minutes long (West, 2017, p. 314). This cycle involves planning,
teaching, reflecting, and refining lessons based on student outcomes.

26

Digital Technology and Coaching
Expanding on the problem-solving theme, Leighton et al. (2018) also explored this
approach within the context of coaching, specifically involving digital technology. Problemsolving coaching is a structured approach to helping individuals or teams develop their ability to
identify, analyze, and resolve challenges effectively. This type of coaching focuses on building
problem-solving skills through guided practice and feedback. Leighton et al. (2018) suggested
that technology can assist in problem-solving such issues as time constraints. One way to involve
technology is to have online meetings or digital chat when there are time limitations (pp. 39-48).
While technology offers practical support, the concept and implementation of
instructional coaching itself can differ widely across districts. For instance, coaching models and
approaches vary, as seen in Mangin and Dunsmore's (2015) study, which focused on using a
literacy coach. Literacy coaches were given instruction and support on enacting and supporting
district teachers. While the training focused primarily on instruction for the literacy coaches,
what happened was surprising. They found that even if the coaches thought the approach was not
working or they were not supporting those they were to be coaching, they continued with the
coaching taught to them. The participants struggled to be flexible within the model. Therefore,
district goals, training, and practice must be aligned (Mangin & Dunsmore, 2015, pp. 182-186).
Instructional coaching is critical to teacher development, providing ongoing support and
professional growth opportunities for new and experienced educators. The research underscores
the effectiveness of coaching in various fields, from literacy to mathematics, demonstrating that
while coaches are viewed as specialists, they are also engaged in continuous learning. Effective
coaching models, such as content and problem-solving coaching, emphasize planning, teaching,
and reflective practices, fostering better lesson design and student outcomes. The integration of

27

digital technology further enhances problem-solving coaching by mitigating time constraints.
However, for coaching to be truly effective, there must be alignment between district goals,
training, and practical implementation, allowing for flexibility and adaptability to meet the
evolving needs of educators and students.
Exploring Resilience and Growth: Insights from Brené Brown and Related Works
To truly understand coaching, or how to coach, one must begin to explore working with
people—specifically, the concepts of shame and resilience, growth mindset, grit, and dignity.
Hicks (2018) explores the idea of dignity in her book aptly titled Leading with Dignity. In it,
Hicks (2018) states that “Vulnerability is where the truth lies” (p. 5). This suggests that
vulnerability is the essential starting point for effective coaching.
Building on this foundation, Brown, in several of her books, discusses the critical role of
addressing and understanding shame. She argues that by acknowledging our shame, we can lead
more authentic lives, further reinforcing the importance of vulnerability in the coaching process
(Brown, 2007). Brené Brown (2012) draws inspiration from Theodore Roosevelt's famous
speech "The Man in the Arena," using the phrase "being in the arena" to underscore the bravery
required to fully engage in life's challenges, even when failure and criticism are potential
outcomes. She employs this metaphor to emphasize the value of vulnerability and the willingness
to take risks, acknowledging that such efforts often come with discomfort and complexity
(Brown, 2012).
Circling back, Hicks's (2018) quote on vulnerability, therefore, supports our
understanding that being vulnerable and having real and honest conversations with others is
where the work in and of itself genuinely lies. It is the heart of learning how to interact with
others when we can be our true, authentic selves with one another. However, knowing the art of

28

communicating and giving feedback is essential to coach and coach successfully. Thereby,
“Leading with dignity demands that we pay close attention to the effects we have on others”
(Hicks, 2018, p. 9). In the role of coaching, coaches can have a profound effect on others;
however, with this responsibility comes the knowledge and awareness that they, in and of
themselves, are the model in the school building and with the teacher they are working with.
How we speak to another human being, how we carry ourselves, and how we present ourselves
all have to be at the forefront of our instruction in coaching. We must understand how we treat
others and their impact and know that we treat them with dignity.
In Hicks’s (2018) book, she presents the idea of the balcony perspective, proposing that
effective leaders should metaphorically step onto the balcony to gain a wider view of their
interactions and understand the broader impact they have on others. This perspective encourages
leaders, including coaches, to observe from a distance, reflecting on their behaviors,
communication styles, and the overall dynamics of their coaching engagements. By adopting this
viewpoint, coaches can cultivate greater awareness of how their actions influence others' dignity
and growth. Hicks (2018) asserts that this introspective approach fosters empathetic leadership
and facilitates more effective coaching relationships built on trust and mutual respect. Thus,
integrating the balcony perspective into coaching practices enhances self-awareness and
promotes a deeper understanding of the principles of dignity and a growth mindset in
professional interactions (Hicks, 2018, pp. 108-115).
Although Hicks's (2018) work is primarily focused on leadership rather than coaching,
the practices she outlines are nonetheless crucial and transferrable to instructional coaching.
Hicks (2018) created a model identifying key elements of dignity, such as “acknowledgment,
inclusion, safety, fairness, independence, understanding, giving the benefit of the doubt, and

29

accountability” (p.12). These elements are essential for fostering dignity in interpersonal and
organizational interactions, underscoring the significance of recognizing each person's inherent
worth and cultivating environments where everyone feels valued and respected. The model that
Hicks (2018) has developed provides an understanding of how to be present with others and how
to treat other human beings, but it is more than just how to treat them. There are elements to
interactions that make others feel as if they have been treated with dignity and other interactions
that make individuals think otherwise. The interactions where others feel seen and heard, as well
as understood, promote the concept of vulnerability because, inherently, an individual feels safe
to share their information with another individual.
Hicks (2011) also identifies what she calls the “Ten Temptations to Violate Dignity.”
These are common pitfalls that can undermine trust in relationships. Among these temptations
are tendencies like avoiding conflict and resisting feedback. When we give in to these
temptations, we create barriers in our interactions with others and avoid taking responsibility
when aspects of the relationship need improvement. Instead, we avoid what is happening around
us, not taking feedback and moving along as if everything seems fine.
In Hicks's (2018) book, she cites the work of Carol Dweck. Dweck's (2006) research
centers on fixed and growth mindsets. A fixed mindset is characterized by the belief that abilities
and traits are static and cannot be altered. These individuals tend to complain and do not involve
themselves in a problem-solving approach. On the opposite end, a growth mindset means that
individuals are optimistic. Failure is believed to be part of the growing process. Dweck’s (2006)
research set the stage for individuals to achieve at higher rates and be more successful by having
a growth mindset. There are people with fixed and growth mindsets in all fields; Dweck (2006)
gives examples of both mindsets in coaching and education. When a student in the classroom

30

seemingly is not completing work, and an educator has a fixed mindset that they will not change,
the educator is less likely to see results. Instead, if the educator has a growth mindset and delves
into a problem-solving approach with this student, they are more likely to see a change in
outcomes for this student (Dweck, 2006, pp. 203-205). The same can be true of sports coaches.
Hicks's (2018) work cites Dweck, stating, “It seems that there is a link between the
consciousness of dignity and the growth mindset” (p. 76). Dweck (2006) believes that
intelligence and abilities can be cultivated through effort. Hicks (2018) suggests through this
quote that by incorporating and having a growth mindset are open to the challenges that face
them and have a heightened awareness of the dignity of themselves and others. These individuals
stay positive and create a nurturing environment for those around them.
Communicating the importance of a growth mindset is crucial and falls to those who lead
and coach. When we revisit the idea of being the model, this falls into the understanding that, as
an instructional coach, we would want someone in this position to work from a growth mindset
instead of a fixed mindset. By extension, those they are working with would wish the same in an
individual to work on problem-solving instead of operating from a stance that things will never
change. Therefore, we need to set the tone, as our behaviors and actions influence those around
us (Hicks, 2018, p. 85). We are to create a safe space, honor dignity, welcome insights, and
encourage feedback. Without the element of trust, there is no relationship. All of these insights
lead to the development of trust within the relationship, which is the first element of being able
to coach.
Duckworth's (2016) concept of grit aligns with Carol Dweck’s growth mindset and
connects to the consciousness of dignity, as explored by Hicks (2018). Duckworth describes grit
as the combination of perseverance and passion for achieving long-term goals, highlighting the

31

importance of resilience and consistent effort in achieving success. Regarding Dweck's growth
mindset, individuals with grit believe in their ability to improve and demonstrate the dedication
and resilience needed to pursue their goals despite challenges. This perseverance can contribute
to a strong sense of personal dignity as individuals persistently strive towards their aspirations,
regardless of setbacks. Therefore, Duckworth's concept of grit reinforces the importance of effort
and persistence in personal development, aligning closely with the belief that growth and dignity
are intertwined through continuous effort and resilience (Duckworth, 2016).
In exploring vulnerability, dignity, growth mindset, and resilience, we uncover
foundational principles for effective instructional coaching. These concepts not only lay the
groundwork for building trusting relationships and fostering authentic dialogue, as highlighted
by Hicks (2018) and Brown (2012), but also provide a framework for guiding professional
development. Integrating Carol Dweck's insights on the growth mindset and Angela Duckworth's
concept of grit into coaching practices equips coaches with tools to cultivate perseverance and a
belief in continuous improvement among educators. Moreover, by prioritizing dignity in
interactions, coaches create environments where everyone feels respected and valued, essential
for nurturing professional growth. As we delve deeper into the theoretical foundations of
instructional coaching, these principles serve as cornerstones that inform and enhance coaching
strategies, ensuring they are practical and transformative in promoting educator development and
student success.
Theoretical Foundations of Instructional Coaching
Instructional coaching serves as a professional development approach to enhance
educator practices. Primarily, it is used to support teachers in learning effective classroom
management, instructional strategies, new methodologies, and evidenced-based practices tailored

32

to the classroom needs. It is a collaborative process that involves feedback, modeling, and selfreflection and fosters a role of continuous self-improvement. An instructional coach provides
guidance and resources to navigate their needs and the needs of their students. By promoting
collaboration and skill development, instructional coaching strengthens teacher efficacy and
enhances overall school effectiveness and student achievement.
Connor's (2017) article reviews elements of instructional coaching models. While there
are many models, and the models vary, common elements exist across the models. One element
involves teachers' responsibility for student success (Connor, 2017, p. 78). Connor (2017) refutes
this point, ensuring the audience understands that many things are outside a teacher’s control
regarding their students. The research suggests that even highly effective instruction supported
by coaching may not be equally effective for all students (pp. 80-81). A second element
discussed involved the communication between coach and teacher, implying that using
professional learning communities and peer coaching were supportive with communication (pp.
79-80). The last element involved “Observation and feedback are active ingredients of effective
coaching” (p. 80). While providing feedback and valuable feedback is necessary, Connor (2017)
notes that being able to provide feedback is challenging for coaches, and coaches may not always
know what practice would work best for the teacher (p. 82). This study is critical because while
common elements exist among coaching models, more research is needed on how to train
coaches to, in fact, coach effectively.
Integration of Formative Assessment and Coaching
Reddy et al. (2017) discuss the Classroom Strategies Coaching (CSC) Model as a
coaching approach (pp. 46-54). This model utilizes the Classroom Strategies Assessment System
(CSAS, another tool developed by the same authors) as part of their coaching model (p. 48). The

33

CSC model includes observing, creating plans, utilizing the CSAS, and providing feedback.
Their model also considers adult learning theory and social and behavioral literature (Reddy et
al., 2017, p. 47). In this article, a randomized controlled study found that elementary school
teachers who received the CSC intervention significantly improved their implementation of
targeted instructional and behavioral management strategies compared to a control group.
Teachers in the CSC group also noted more significant advancements in their practices.
Furthermore, the authors emphasize the necessity for further research to focus on specific aspects
of coaching and its impact on student behaviors (p. 53). They also suggest more formative
assessment methods and measuring student outcomes from instructional coaching in the
classroom. Their research highlights how formative assessment, coupled with coaching,
enhances educators' ability to monitor student progress, adjust teaching strategies in real-time,
and foster a responsive teaching environment.
In parallel to this research is Knight's (2019) article on visible learning and coaching.
Visible Learning is an educational concept developed by John Hattie, a prominent education
researcher from New Zealand. Visible learning refers to making learning outcomes visible,
measurable, and impactful (Knight, 2019, p. 2). Hattie conducted one of the most extensive
educational meta-analyses, synthesizing data from over “800 meta-analyses composing around
80,000 students” (p. 2). His research aimed to identify which factors impact student learning and
achievement most. Hattie identified several key factors that significantly influence learning
outcomes through his work. These factors include teacher-student relationships, feedback,
instructional strategies, classroom climate, and student self-beliefs. Hattie's research ranks these
factors by effect sizes, providing educators with evidence-based insights into what best enhances
student learning. Visible learning emphasizes the importance of teachers being evaluators of their

34

impact on student learning. It encourages educators to continuously evaluate and refine their
teaching practices based on evidence of what works best. By making learning visible through
effective assessment practices and feedback mechanisms, educators can better tailor their
instructional approaches to meet the needs of diverse learners and optimize learning outcomes.
Knight (2019) offers a framework for instructional coaching based on Hattie’s visible
learning model. The paper asserts that instructional coaching is a powerful means of translating
visible learning research into actionable strategies within the classroom. Coaches well-versed in
the principles of visible learning can support teachers in setting goals aligned with these
principles, implementing research-backed strategies, and continuously refining their practices.
This method ensures the effective implementation of visible learning to boost student learning
and engagement. The paper suggests that further research is needed to explore the specific
impact of instructional coaching on the application of visible learning and identify the most
effective strategies for integrating this framework into practical, goal-driven practices.
Nonetheless, it concludes that instructional coaching is a highly effective tool for connecting
educational research with meaningful classroom instruction (Knight, 2019, pp. 1-16).
Similarly, the article by Boer (2023) comprehensively reviews various instructional
coaching models. Boer's review delves into the diverse methodologies and frameworks utilized
in the field, offering insights into their effectiveness in fostering teacher growth and improving
classroom practices. By integrating insights from various coaching frameworks, Boer highlights
the necessity of flexible and evidence-based coaching methods tailored to meet the unique
requirements of educators and educational institutions. This review complements the earlier
discussions by contextualizing how instructional coaching models, including those focused on
integrating formative assessment and visible learning strategies, are implemented and refined in

35

educational settings. Moreover, Boer's (2023) analysis encourages further exploration into
refining coaching strategies to maximize their impact on professional development and student
outcomes, aligning with the broader goals of improving teaching quality and enhancing student
achievement in schools.
Critical Practices and Strategies in Coaching
Bungay Stanier's (2016) book is about transforming leadership and coaching through
simple, effective habits. Bungay Stanier (2016) focuses on defining coaching first and foremost
and teaching the core principles of The Coaching Habit. In his work, he narrows seven essential
questions to ask and use when working with others. These questions are designed to help coaches
and leaders facilitate effective conversations that promote learning, self-discovery, and action.
The questions include:
•

"What’s on your mind?" to focus the discussion on the coachee's agenda.

•

"And what else?" to encourage deeper exploration and uncover additional insights.

•

"What's the real challenge here for you?" to pinpoint the core issue.

•

"What do you want?" to clarify goals and outcomes.

•

"How can I help?" to offer support and empower the coachee.

•

"If you're saying yes to this, what are you saying no to?" to explore priorities and
trade-offs.

•

Finally, "What was most useful for you?" to foster reflection and learning from the
coaching conversation.

These questions are succinct yet powerful tools for cultivating meaningful dialogue and
driving positive change in personal and professional contexts (Bungay Stanier, 2016, p. 186).

36

Bungay Stanier's (2016) work sheds light on coaching in general from a business
psychology perspective. While it may not directly reference the field of education or
instructional coaching, the concept of coaching is still present. Part of coaching, of course,
involves asking questions and listening. However, it is not just about asking questions but also
about drilling down to the essential questions and letting the other person talk. It is about being
intuitive and knowing what to ask next to lead the individual a coach is working with to where
they want to get to or to elicit some insight or feedback from them on a specific matter. The art of
coaching also involves the art of communicating. More specifically, instructional coaches should
be taught to ask questions to get the needed answers. There are, of course, impacts and benefits
to this model or approach that Bungay Stanier presents. He incorporates other theoretical
workings into his book, including growth mindset and grit, and sustains the positives and
outcomes of effective communication in a coaching role.
Bungay Stanier (2019) then produced his work on giving advice when coaching.
Affectionately referred to as The Advice Monster, Bungay Stanier (2019) starts readers off with a
quiz to identify their monster (pp. 3-12). An advice monster is when an individual thinks they
know more than others. Reflecting more in-depth, when someone feels that they are better or
knows more than the other person, it significantly affects their relationship for the worse. It
hinders communication because of the assumption that one person knows more than the other,
leading to the attitude of "I'm going to tell you what to do because I believe I know better." When
used in coaching, we must “tame the advice monster” in a coaching role (Bungay Stanier, 2019,
p. 31). In the coaching role, the coach’s objective is not to dispense advice but to coach. Advicegiving is more aligned with direct instruction, which is not coaching. Direct instruction involves
telling the other person what to do or offering personal opinions on what to do. As Bungay

37

Stanier (2019) explains, coaching is about asking questions and collaborating with the other
person to understand what they need from the coach. He also outlines key strategies to prevent
the emergence of the advice monster.
Bungay Stanier (2019) also filters back through his initial work on the coaching habit
during this text. The coaching principles work simultaneously with giving advice; instead, after
individuals take the quiz to discover the elements of their “advice monster,” the reader can match
the profile with what to do with that profile. As he acknowledges throughout his text, it is
challenging for people to be quiet. To listen to someone else, reflect on what they have said, and
then ask a question to either follow up or a variety of questions to gain the needed information.
While it is not common in education, this practice of active listening is found in the therapy field.
Vaughan Smith's (2020) work Therapist into Coach discusses this concept of therapists
moving into the coaching field. Therapists move into coaching partly because they have already
been trained to listen and work with others. They have “aspects of coaching” such as the model
she describes, including “reflection, practice, and feedback” (p. 15). Therapists are trained to
work with others, which starts with the art of practice, receive feedback on our practice, then
reflect, and move right back into practice. It is not often found in the education literature that
such a practice exists; therapists are inherently taught a continuous cycle to self-reflect and pivot.
It is not necessarily the case that educators do not self-reflect; instead, it is not as familiar to
them as it is to a therapist (Vaughan Smith, 2020, pp. 14-15).
Active listening is natural for a therapist in a coaching relationship. Because it first and
foremost starts with the relationship. “As a coach, you will use all your skills in rapport building
and establishing contact with the client, meeting the client from an orientation of empathy and
positive regard” (Vaughan Smith, 2020, p. 53). This statement, in essence, describes the work of

38

Hicks (2018), Duckworth (2016), and Dweck (2006). Vaughan Smith's (2020) framework that
encapsulates all of these described practices and Bungay Stanier’s work. Coaching is also not
therapy; “It is a different process with a different intention” (Vaughan Smith, 2020, p. 65).
Similarly, Wang (2017) found that the concept of “teacher-centered coaching” played a
crucial role in effective coaching practices (p. 20). In her study, this approach focused on the
thoughts and feelings of the teacher. The coach played several distinct roles during the debriefing
sessions, including acting as a “facilitator, instructor, collaborator, and empowerer” (p. 28). The
role of facilitator includes “providing scaffolding questions to support teachers through their
thinking and reflecting” (Wang, 2017, p. 28). As an instructor, the coach shared specific teaching
strategies and ideas. In the collaborator role, the coach and teacher brainstormed and problemsolved together. As an empowerer, the coach affirmed the teacher's decisions and progress (pp.
28-32). The teacher, then, was at the center of this process and fostered more meaningful growth
for the individual.
In conclusion, instructional coaching is a powerful professional development strategy
designed to enhance educator practices by providing tailored support in classroom management,
instructional methodologies, and evidence-based strategies. This collaborative process involves
feedback, modeling, and self-reflection, fostering continuous improvement for educators.
Research, such as Connor's (2017) review, highlights common elements across coaching models,
emphasizing teacher responsibility for student success, the importance of communication, and
the challenge of providing effective feedback. Reddy et al. (2017) further demonstrate the
efficacy of integrating formative assessment with coaching through the Classroom Strategies
Coaching (CSC) model, significantly improving teachers' use of targeted strategies. Knight
(2019) also underscores how instructional coaching can effectively implement visible learning

39

principles, translating research into impactful classroom practices. Boer (2023) conducts an
extensive review of instructional coaching models, highlighting the importance of adaptable and
evidence-based strategies to enhance professional development and improve student outcomes.
This synthesis highlights the critical role of instructional coaching in bridging the gap between
educational research and practical classroom practice, ultimately enhancing school effectiveness
and student achievement. The next section of this literature review will explore various models
and approaches to instructional coaching. This examination will provide a deeper understanding
of how different frameworks and methodologies can be applied to support teachers effectively,
ensuring that the benefits of instructional coaching are maximized across diverse educational
contexts.
Improving Instructional Coaching Models
While visible learning encompasses a broad range of educational strategies and
principles, its incorporation of formative assessment practices makes it a model that supports
continuous improvement in teaching and learning. Therefore, while not solely a formative
assessment model, visible learning integrates formative assessment as a critical element to
enhance educational outcomes. Knight et al.’s (2015) research lays out an instructional coaching
cycle. He termed “identify, learn, and improve” in his cycle of coaching (p. 10). The paper
emphasizes the importance of precise and provisional explanations of teaching practices by
coaches and the need for teachers to see the strategies being implemented through various forms
of modeling, such as in the classroom, co-teaching, or watching videos (pp. 11-18). This model
of instructional coaching pairs the coach and teacher, working together with the same end goal:
student outcomes. However, it also considers specific teaching strategies and the modeling piece
to learn them. This model thinks the setup of a coaching framework lacks instruction on how to

40

implement this model effectively, namely giving feedback, pairing with staff, partnering to create
goals, and working together for the sustained outcome of student improvement.
Knight (2012), however, explores the cost of such programs and cites his instructional
coaching model. Coaching is seen as a very costly model for professional development due to the
time it takes to train both the coach and the educator. Knight’s study included three different
schools implementing the model in their setting. Grants were used to fund some of the
instructional coaches in these schools. He put together a framework for district leaders to truly
understand what is involved in implementing a coaching program and to have their framework to
work from when implementing such models (Knight, 2012, pp. 75-76).
Another model mentioned previously was the Classroom Strategies Coaching model. The
model is another type of formative assessment. Formative assessment evaluates progress while
something is still in development. The reverse of a formative assessment is a summative
assessment that looks at information after the fact, such as student test scores. Formative
assessment examines ongoing coaching, teaching, and training through an instructional coaching
model. Reddy et al. (2017) created an observation form for coaching as part of this model.
Kettler et al. (2019) measured the effectiveness and reliability of this observation tool called the
Classroom Strategies Assessment System- Observer Form (CSAS-O) (as cited in Reddy et al.,
2017, pp. 46-54). This observer form looks at engagement but not based on how long a student is
engaged. Instead, it seeks to document the interactions and what the teacher does to emphasize
students' engagement in the classroom. This rating system is lengthy compared to other
observation tools, but it examines behavior management and instructional management in the
classroom setting (Kettler et al., 2019, p. 120). The feedback provided by this tool provides

41

additional opportunities for coaching. It also guides coaches to observe specific elements of a
classroom setting, which can sometimes be challenging.
Reddy et al.’s (2019) earlier studies found that instructional coaching became more
popular in education settings because of the need for ongoing professional development. More
specifically, teachers need instructional coaching and real-time one-to-one interaction in their
classrooms to help them effectively apply new strategies, address challenges, and enhance
student learning outcomes. This study developed the CSAS and the CSAS observation form in
researching and creating a framework to effectively measure formative assessment throughout
the coaching process (Reddy et al., 2019, pp. 106-108). The study specifically looked at the
instructional coaching assessment model, an online rating system that can be utilized by
instructional coaches (p. 106). Overall, the instrument was supported in its validity and the
implications of using technology as a support in coaching.
Recently, Poulou et al. (2023) examined the implementation of the CSAS and feedback
from those involved in the process. This team translated this study into Greek elementary
schools. Poulou et al. (2023) found that teachers and administrators rated the CSAS positively
overall, finding it easy to use and helpful for informing professional development. Through the
interviews, teachers expressed “the CSAS feedback was particularly helpful with the use of
instructional practices” (Poulou et al., 2023, p. 7).
Fabiano et al. (2018) also investigated the CSAS-O and teacher forms. The results of the
study concluded that those who received the intervention of the CSAS all saw differences in
students' behavior as the outcome and the observation forms between teacher and coach were
more similar in that area. It was also found that instructional practices could have been enhanced
when comparing the teacher and coach observer forms. Notably, this type of formative

42

assessment proved valid and effective in classrooms with students exhibiting behavioral
challenges, providing timely insights into classroom dynamics and ensuring direct support and
instruction (Fabiano et al., 2018, pp. 299-302).
Throughout the research on models and approaches of instructional coaching, there
appear to be some things that could be improved. It seems challenging to effectively measure
formative assessment and all the tools utilized in coaching. When considering the summative
assessment aspect, challenges also arise in accurately measuring coaching outcomes. From there,
the issue of whether instructional coaching impacts instructional practices and students' behavior
in the classroom becomes a concern. Therefore, behavior should be considered as a distinct
element, separate from instructional coaching models.
Dufrene et al.’s (2014) study cites the need for direct behavioral coaching and
interventions in the classroom due to the changing needs of students that educators are facing.
Because of these challenges and challenging behaviors, Dufrene et al. (2014) conducted a study
on praise. Specifically, they looked at the need for educators to have behavior coaching related to
praise and more intentionally on behavior-specific praise. When teachers praise students known
to have challenging behaviors, their behavior improves. However, when teachers decreased or
eliminated behavior-specific praise, it was found that students' negative behaviors increased
(Dufrene et al., 2014, p. 576). Direct behavior praise and feedback to the teachers, of course,
could be helpful when coaching.
Similarly, Reinke et al. (2014) conducted a study involving coaching on behavior
supports in a classroom setting and implementing positive behavior support (PBS) in a classroom
setting. The practice of behavior support and planning for behaviors in a classroom directly
relates to classroom management. However, her study addresses the need for targeted

43

intervention for teachers regarding behavior management as it relates to classroom management.
Again, her study cites the need for additional instructional practices and evidence-based practices
for teachers in the classroom setting as they are encountering more challenging behaviors,
specifically students with emotional disturbances or other behavior disorders. The teachers need
to look at how classroom structure and effective classroom management are utilized to provide
the necessary training and support for students who are termed at risk. Her study concluded that
negative interactions and consequences with at-risk students decreased when using action
planning and feedback on behavior plans (Reinke et al., 2014, pp. 74-82).
When addressing students with challenging behaviors, it is essential to consider special
education within coaching models. Gunn et al.'s (2017) study explored the use of a behavior
training program for teachers implemented through a coaching approach. Although external
factors were at play, the study indicated that a specific coaching model incorporating behavior
skills training, as outlined by previous authors, was noteworthy (p. 275). This research
specifically focused on supporting a college student with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The
study highlights the importance of special education in addressing the needs of students with
ASD, particularly in managing behavioral difficulties, emotional dysregulation, and executive
functioning challenges.
Table 1
Coaching Models, Focus, Strengths and Challenges Chart
Model

Focus

Strengths

Challenges

Student-Centered
Coaching (Sweeney,
2010)

Focuses on student
outcomes; goal-driven
approach using
formative assessments.

Collaboration between
coaches and teachers;
data-driven decisionmaking.

Requires clear goals and
substantial data
collection; upfront work
with stakeholders.

44

Partnership Philosophy
(Knight, 2007)

Builds partnerships
between teachers and
coaches to improve
instructional practices.

Promotes autonomy for
teachers; focuses on 'Big
Four' (behavior, content,
direct instruction,
assessment).

Time-intensive; may
require cultural shifts in
schools to embrace
partnership models.

Transformational
Coaching (Aguilar,
2024)

Holistic approach
focusing on emotional
resilience, equity, and
well-being.

Addresses systemic
challenges and personal
growth; comprehensive
'Three Bs' model.

Balances instructional
focus with
personal/emotional
development; complex
to implement.

Classroom Strategies
Coaching (CSC) (Reddy
et al., 2017)

Integrates formative
assessments with
instructional and
behavioral strategies.

Evidence-based
approach with
observable
improvements in
strategies.

Lengthy observation
processes; requires
training on specific tools
like CSAS.

Visible Learning
Framework (Hattie, as
cited by Knight, 2019)

Evidence-based
strategies for
measurable student
outcomes.

Grounded in robust
research; supports goal
alignment and feedback.

Complex
implementation;
context-dependent
effectiveness.

Technical, ProblemSolving, Reflective,
Team-Building, and
Reform Coaching
(Denton & Hasbrouck,
2009)

Categorizes coaching
into varied applications
based on technical and
collaborative needs.

Flexible and adaptable
across contexts;
encourages varied
coaching techniques.

Requires formal training
to ensure consistency
and effectiveness.

Literacy Coaching
(Gallucci et al., 2010)

Specialized focus on
literacy skill
development and
coaching.

Enhances language and
literacy instruction;
provides specialized
support.

Limited in scope to
literacy coaching; may
not address broader
educational needs.

Yope Coaching Toolbox

Tailored model for
special education
integrating
communication,
documentation, and
challenging
conversations.

Designed for special
education; addresses
unique challenges and
professional growth.

Specific to special
education; needs further
validation for broader
application.

The Role of Feedback in Coaching
Creating a feedback-rich environment involves integrating specific, actionable, and
constructive input into conversations to foster growth and development. By fostering a culture
where feedback is exchanged openly and receptively, a continuous cycle of constructive
45

feedback is promoted. This loop enables participants to offer insights to each other, promoting
reciprocal learning and collective improvement. Such an environment enhances individual
growth and cultivates a collaborative atmosphere focused on achieving shared goals through
continuous feedback and improvement, making educators feel part of a supportive team.
When discussing feedback, it is essential to create feedback loops to facilitate regular
check-ins with individuals undergoing coaching and to evaluate the environments they foster. A
more detailed examination of the components and approaches to feedback is necessary. Hattie
and Timperley's (2007) research paper “The Power of Feedback” reviews evidence and
instructional practices regarding giving feedback. Furthermore, they propose a model for
providing feedback and ascertain that feedback should be given and utilized to ensure there are
no fragments in communication. They also lay out factors that can influence or impede feedback,
such as the timing of the feedback, the perception of the person receiving it, and whether the
feedback will be positive or negative. When looking at all of these, when someone gives
feedback, it is essential to understand that it must be clear, concise, and conceptualized (Hattie &
Timperley, 2007, pp. 81-112). Feedback in this regard is also generated from some assessment
that has occurred to give an individual the facts needed to conceptualize the situation and provide
feedback to the instructor.
Knight’s (2015) book, Better Conversations, integrates models from Brené Brown and an
understanding that conversation starts with empathy. Conversations also begin with listening. He
examines the dynamics of interpersonal relationships and the art of meaningful conversation,
stressing the significance of fostering reciprocal communication to enhance transparency.
Interestingly, while this book does not specifically address the topic of feedback, its entire focus
is on how to engage in meaningful conversations, which inherently include feedback. In a

46

broader sense, these conversations can naturally lead to, and sometimes include, the process of
giving feedback to others.
Similarly, Heath and Heath’s (2017) work examines the profound impact that specific
experiences and interactions can have on our lives, emphasizing how certain moments can lead
to extraordinary outcomes. Their insights into creating memorable and meaningful experiences
align well with Knight's principles in Better Conversations, particularly in coaching and
interpersonal interactions. In Better Conversations, Knight (2015) emphasizes the significance of
coaching conversations grounded in credibility, care, and connection. He encourages using
targeted communication strategies to build trust, support personal growth, and enhance
relationships. Knight's principles align well with those presented by the Heaths in The Power of
Moments. The intentional moments they discuss can create lasting impressions and facilitate
deeper connections between coaches and educators, enriching Knight's principles.
For example, Knight's approach to coaching involves providing specific, actionable
feedback that supports professional growth. This aligns with Heath & Heath’s (2017) concept of
"peak moments," where deliberate actions can significantly influence how individuals perceive
and engage with learning and development opportunities (pp. 11-23). Integrating the principles
from The Power of Moments into Knight's coaching framework could enhance the effectiveness
of coaching conversations by making them more impactful, memorable, and transformative.
In Stone and Heen's (2014) book Thanks for the Feedback, the authors draw on their
expertise in negotiation and communication to inquire into how feedback impacts personal and
professional growth. They argue that feedback is essential for learning and improvement but
often has challenges due to our emotional responses and interpretations. Stone and Heen (2014)
categorize feedback into appreciation, coaching, and evaluation. They emphasize that

47

understanding the type of feedback received is crucial for managing our reactions and leveraging
feedback for growth. The book provides practical strategies and insights on receiving feedback
more openly, including techniques for managing emotional reactions, interpreting feedback more
accurately, and using feedback constructively. Their approach offers psychological research to
encourage a shift towards understanding and viewing feedback as a tool for personal
development and learning how to harness its potential effectively.
Understanding feedback is multifaceted, and it is crucial to consider how people work
best in understanding and receiving feedback. This question is often raised in busy and
challenging settings like early intervention and early childhood special education. McLeod et al.
(2019) study supports the idea of coaching as a model and examines whether it is helpful to
include other practices when coaching. They focused on settings where teachers often struggle to
receive feedback. The study examined sharing videos in email to support receiving feedback in
early childhood and special education settings. They found that training and video-based e-mail
were, in fact, effective at improving instructional practices in these content areas (pp. 199-200).
Fostering a feedback-rich environment is crucial for promoting growth and development
in educational settings. Integrating specific, actionable feedback into professional conversations
cultivates a culture of openness and continuous improvement among educators. Hattie and
Timperley's (2007) research on effective feedback practices, Knight's (2015) emphasis on
empathetic coaching conversations, and the transformative potential of intentional moments
discussed by Heath and Heath (2017), educators can enhance their ability to receive, interpret,
and apply feedback effectively. Moreover, Stone and Heen's (2014) psychological approach in
Thanks for the Feedback provides valuable strategies for managing feedback reception and
leveraging it for personal and professional growth. By integrating coaching into teacher training

48

and professional development programs, educational institutions can create structured
opportunities for educators to receive targeted feedback, refine instructional practices, and foster
collaborative learning environments. This holistic approach supports professional growth and
enhances student learning outcomes by ensuring instructional practices align with research-based
feedback strategies. Figure 1 shows a comparison between the Yope Coaching Toolbox and other
coaching models.
Figure 1
Venn Diagram of the Yope Coaching Toolbox and Other Models

49

Integrating Coaching into Teacher Training and Professional Development in Special
Education
This analysis has explored the complexities of instructional coaching. Particularly within
special education settings, where students face significant behavioral, emotional, social, and
executive functioning challenges, the practice of coaching becomes uniquely demanding. While
multiple approaches and assessments are available and widely applied in general education, as
evidenced by this literature review, these models often require adjustments to meet the distinct
needs of special education environments. The unique nature of special education settings, which
serve students with diverse and complex needs, underscores the importance of adapting existing
coaching models.
A specific approach to instructional coaching designed explicitly for special education
was not identified in the literature. While many general education coaching practices can be
applied in special education, they must be adapted to address these additional considerations.
Foremost among these is the integration of coaching into the training of teachers and its
alignment with professional development strategies. This ensures that coaching not only
enhances teaching practices but also directly supports the specialized needs of both educators
and students in special education contexts.
When thinking about integrating coaching into training and professional development in
a special education setting, it is essential to understand where these teachers are coming from and
what happens daily in their setting. In their research on coaching, Gersten et al. (1995)
experienced the anxiety teachers had in both general education and special education settings
when it came to being observed and receiving feedback. The goal of this study was to address
outcomes related to students; however, what they found more that they were dealing with was

50

the anxiety of the educators throughout this process and the lack of training in current research
and methodologies in the classroom (pp. 63-64).
Shernoff et al.’s (2017) study looks to understand and “reduce the gap” from what is
found in research in general education and special education and use it to apply it in a classroom
setting (p. 459). This qualitative study explored themes related to working with a coach, whether
positive or negative, and what made specific coaches or coaching models most effective. The
teachers overall found that it was helpful to work with a coach. They also were concerned or
listed concerns when engaging in this process. Again, the anxiety from the teachers was noted.
Other concerns noted included a coach not understanding what it was like in their specific
classroom setting or perhaps not understanding the needs of the students in the classroom (p.
477). This study’s findings align with the perspective of many teachers and administrators:
implementing a coaching model should be effective for the teacher receiving the coaching.
The multicomponent training model emerged as a promising approach in instructional
coaching research (Brown et al., 2014). Brown et al.’s study examined this model's use in a
unique education setting. It was evident from the outset that special education teachers need to
employ evidence-based practices with their students due to the significant needs of students in
their classrooms. The multicomponent training involving didactic training with follow-up
training activities proved highly effective. The study's results demonstrated that teachers could
effectively instruct students in the special education setting. These strategies could be used to
train teachers who might not have the necessary background in special education, instilling a
sense of reassurance and confidence. When targeting skills, this type of training could be
incorporated into in-service time because it takes a short time to implement (Brown et al., 2014,
pp. 347-362).

51

Brown et al.'s (2014) research brings up an essential point: general education classrooms
generally function very differently from special education classrooms. Because of the nature of
these classrooms and the chaos that can sometimes ensue, it is essential to consider when
feedback is being delivered and if teachers are in a place of hearing it, listening to it, processing
it, and then pivoting to change their practice if needed. Rock et al.’s (2009) article explores the
use of bug-in-ear technology to support the professional development of teachers. Although not
directly focused on a specialized classroom environment, this article presents valuable insights
that could be applied effectively within a special education setting. In this situation, the
observing person provides feedback in a virtual context through bug-in-ear technology. The
study's results implied that the bug-in-ear technology was a “practical and efficient way to
provide immediate job-embedded feedback,” resulting in additional positive outcomes (Rock et
al., 2009, p. 29).
Coaching for Specific Populations and Contexts
There are many different methodologies and philosophies of coaching. However, when
coaching in special education, it is essential to look at the perspective of the staff involved and
those who would be part of the coaching model. When coaching with this population, there is a
different skill set that is necessary due to significant student behavior disorders, emotional
dysregulation, social and emotional difficulties, as well as executive functioning issues, to name
a few. It is essential to understand that the staff working with these populations have specialized
training to provide students the supports they need to be successful.
In the course of conducting this literature review, it became apparent that a particular
coaching model employed in the field of special education warranted greater attention than other
traditional instructional coaching models. Instead, the researcher sought literature discussing

52

coaching around problem behaviors in students with autism, utilizing evidence-based practices
with students with autism, and ideas to use when coaching the special education population.
Stahmer et al. (2015) discuss the need for teachers in special education settings to have access to
evidence-based practices. It has been well documented that the diagnosis of autism and its
comorbidities have been significantly on the rise within the past decade. Even with intensive
training and coaching, many teachers struggled to implement the interventions with high fidelity,
especially the more complex naturalistic strategies like Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) (p.
182). According to the authors, the presence of special education classrooms within general
education settings necessitates that schools re-evaluate their current teaching methods and
consider implementing coaching models in these environments (Stahmer et al., 2015).
Currier et al. (2012) note that the Maryland State Department of Education attempted to
train the Montgomery County public school system staff in responsibility pathways (RAP). This
training involves understanding prosocial behavior and addressing difficulties in youth. The
training targeted special education teachers working with at-risk students or youth with
significant behaviors. Coaching was provided to the staff, and sessions were focused on
components of using the RAP system. The authors noted that special education teachers need
access to specialized training to work with students with challenging behaviors (Currier et al.,
2012, pp. 28–30). Behavior problems are a significant source of research when it comes to the
special education setting, as well as research tied to coaching teachers in problem behaviors
among students with autism. Pas et al.’s (2016) study involved providing teachers with
professional development and coaching in classroom management, as well as guided practice in
a mixed-reality simulator (TeachLivE™) (pp. 3641-3642). Observations revealed statistically
“…significant improvements in the tallied observations of teachers’ use of proactive behavioral

53

expectations” (p. 3646). This study presents an intriguing integration of coaching within a mixed
reality setting; however, it raises important questions about the necessity of this technological
approach. Specifically, one might question why coaching cannot be applied to special educators
in the same manner as it is within general education settings. The need for technology in
coaching special education populations warrants further examination.
It could be argued that traditional instructional coaching models may not be directly
effective for special educators, which might explain the exploration of technology-enhanced
approaches. Other research has ascertained that coaching has also worked with web-based or
mobile apps to coach special education teachers. One such case study by Wilczynski et al. (2017)
addresses students with behavior problems and the need for teachers to receive direct instruction
through coaching. This study showed effectiveness when web-based training was combined with
coaching and feedback. Additionally, coaching feedback was helpful. Currently, teachers need
additional background knowledge and specific topics or targeted interventions to utilize with
students in the special education populations (pp. 433-443).
Another study by Ruble et al. (2013) evaluated the effectiveness of the Collaborative
Model for Promoting Competence and Success (COMPASS) intervention in improving
educational outcomes in children with autism (pp. 566-567). COMPASS is a manual consultation
intervention that targets core deficit areas in autism (social skills, communication, and
independence) by developing individualized teaching plans with teachers (p. 566-567). The webbased consultation proves to be effective. The article cites that “…for at least 30 years, research
has lagged behind in offering alternative and innovative solutions that impact teacher
behavior…” (p. 571). Ruble et al. (2013) also state,

54

…it is unsurprising that conferences and workshops, with their relative ease of delivery,
continue to be a primary mode of training for classroom teachers of students with autism.
Without supported models for improving teacher instruction, the gaps in knowledge
about autism and limited use of research-supported classroom interventions will continue.
(p. 571)
Law et al. (2019) studied technology-enabled training programs like Map4speech. Such
programs can potentially serve as an innovative solution to the shortage of ASD professional
training. By providing mobile-app-based instruction, practice, and individualized feedback and
coaching, this approach can significantly improve intervention fidelity more efficiently and costeffectively than traditional in-person training methods (pp. 1–10). This promising development
offers hope for the future of special education.
As discussed throughout this chapter, there are numerous methodologies and approaches
to coaching. However, when coaching in special education, it is crucial to consider the
perspectives of both the staff involved and the unique needs of the students. Special education
settings, which can include general education classrooms, private licensed schools, approved
private schools, partial hospitalization programs, and residential treatment facilities, require
coaches to possess specialized skills due to the significant behavior disorders, emotional
dysregulation, social-emotional difficulties, and executive functioning issues that these students
often present. Despite the various challenges, integrating evidence-based practices and targeted
coaching strategies is essential. Studies highlight the need for specialized training and innovative
approaches, such as web-based coaching, to enhance coaching effectiveness in special education.
However, a distinct, universally accepted coaching model explicitly tailored for special educators

55

still needs to be discovered. This gap underscores the need for further research and development
in this area.
Transitioning to the challenges and successes of implementing coaching, it is crucial to
thoroughly examine the practical aspects of how coaching models are applied in diverse
educational settings. Understanding these challenges and successes can provide valuable insights
into refining coaching strategies to support teachers and improve student outcomes. This
comprehensive understanding will equip educators with the knowledge and tools they need to
navigate the complexities of coaching in special education. When coaching a teacher, it is
important to recognize that successes and challenges are inevitable. In their book, Young et al.
(2021) discuss various scenarios that may arise during the coaching process and offer guidance
on managing them effectively. They devote an entire chapter to strategies for working with
coaches, focusing on optimizing the coaching experience and addressing potential issues as they
emerge. Although they do not specifically categorize challenges and successes, their approach
emphasizes the importance of navigating difficulties, including interpersonal conflicts, that may
occur during the coaching relationship.
Linking Best Practices to the Yope Coaching Toolbox
The review of literature in Chapter 2 highlights several best practices in instructional
coaching that serve as the foundation for developing effective coaching strategies in diverse
educational settings. Key practices include fostering collaborative relationships between coaches
and educators, leveraging formative assessments to guide instructional improvements, and
addressing challenges such as teacher burnout and the integration of professional development
with day-to-day teaching practices. Models such as Student-Centered Coaching, the Partnership

56

Philosophy, and the Classroom Strategies Coaching (CSC) Model emphasize personalized, datadriven approaches to improving teacher practices and student outcomes.
Building on these evidence-based practices, the Yope Coaching Toolbox was designed as
a tailored framework to address the unique challenges of instructional coaching within special
education. The Yope Coaching Toolbox serves as the independent variable in this study,
encompassing five core components that align with best practices identified in the literature:
communication strategies, documentation tools, behavioral support frameworks, managing
challenging conversations, and professional development integration. Each component addresses
specific gaps highlighted in instructional coaching research, such as the need for targeted
strategies to manage behavioral and emotional challenges in special education classrooms.
For example, the communication strategies in the Yope Coaching Toolbox are designed to
foster open and respectful dialogue, building trust and collaboration between educators and
coaches. Similarly, the documentation tools provide a structured approach to tracking progress
and aligning coaching activities with measurable goals. The toolbox also includes frameworks
for delivering constructive feedback, navigating sensitive discussions, and implementing
evidence-based behavioral supports. These components not only reflect the best practices
discussed in Chapter 2 but also adapt them to the specific needs of educators working in special
education.
The Yope Coaching Toolbox represents an innovative application of these principles,
bridging the gap between instructional coaching models and the unique requirements of special
education settings. Its implementation within this study provides an opportunity to evaluate how
these tailored strategies influence educators' professional growth, instructional practices, and
overall effectiveness in addressing student needs.

57

Figure 2
Steps of the Coaching Process for the Yope Coaching Toolbox

Conclusion
The literature review highlights the effectiveness of various instructional coaching
models in enhancing teacher practices and improving student outcomes. Key findings include the
positive impact of the Classroom Strategies Assessment System (CSAS) model on instructional
58

and behavioral management strategies and the importance of adult learning theory in coaching
models. Sweeney’s Student-Centered Coaching model supports these findings by emphasizing
measurable student goals, using formative assessments to tailor instruction, and fostering
collaboration between coaches and teachers to address student needs directly. Similarly, Knight’s
Partnership Philosophy underscores the role of collaborative dialogue and mutual respect in
building strong teacher-coach relationships, essential for implementing sustainable instructional
changes (Sweeney, 2011; Knight, 2007). Aguilar’s Transformational Coaching model further
contributes by focusing on emotional resilience and equity, advocating for an approach that
considers teachers’ well-being and addresses systemic challenges within coaching relationships.
Together, these models reinforce the importance of adaptable, evidence-based approaches
tailored to the unique demands of each educational context, especially in special education
settings where individualized support is critical (Aguilar, 2024).
The findings from this review suggest that developing a comprehensive coaching model
requires integrating evidence-based practices like those outlined in the visible learning
framework to ground interventions in robust research. Additionally, incorporating formative
assessment and real-time feedback mechanisms, as highlighted in the works of Sweeney and
Knight, enhances coaching effectiveness by facilitating continuous monitoring and instructional
adjustments. Addressing interpersonal skills and communication, evident in Aguilar’s work, is
also crucial to fostering successful coach-teacher relationships and effective professional
development.
Future research should explore the specific coaching components that significantly
impact student behaviors and outcomes, particularly in special education contexts. Research
could focus on identifying effective strategies for integrating formative assessment and

59

instructional coaching across educational settings and examining the long-term effects on teacher
retention and burnout. Finally, developing digital tools and technologies to support coaching
practices offers promising solutions to address time constraints and expand accessibility to
coaching interventions. Informed by these insights, the next section of this dissertation will detail
the research design, data collection, and analytical methods for evaluating the effectiveness of
instructional coaching models in education. This methodology will provide a robust foundation
to assess coaching’s practical applications and its impact on teacher practices and student success
across diverse educational contexts. Having explored the theoretical underpinnings and best
practices in instructional coaching, Chapter III outlines the methodology used in this study. This
next chapter will detail the research design, data collection, and specific steps taken to implement
the coaching toolbox at the school.

60

CHAPTER III
Methodology
Action Plan: Intervention
This chapter outlines the methodology used to address the central research question:
What are the effects of implementing instructional coaching within a unique education setting?
To explore this, the study also examines two sub-questions: What instructional coaching model
can be implemented to train coaches effectively in this setting? and How does the
implementation of the Yope Coaching Toolbox influence educators' professional growth and
instructional practices? These questions guide the mixed-methods approach utilized in this study,
combining quantitative data collection, such as pre- and post-intervention surveys and feedback
surveys, with qualitative methods, including classroom observations and notes during coaching
sessions.
The research design employed a mixed-methods approach to provide a comprehensive
understanding of the impact of instructional coaching. Quantitative data from surveys measured
changes in educators’ professional growth and instructional practices, while qualitative data from
observations and coaching sessions will capture nuanced insights into the coaching process. The
unique education setting, which serves students with diverse needs, provided the context for
evaluating the effects of instructional coaching and the implementation of the Yope Coaching
Toolbox. Participants included supervisors, instructional coaches, and behavior specialists who
were integral to the intervention's design and outcomes.
The Yope Coaching Toolbox served as the central instrument for this study, providing
tools for communication, documentation, feedback, and addressing challenging conversations.
This toolbox is tailored to meet the specific needs of special education settings, incorporating

61

strategies that align with professional development goals. To address the first sub-question, the
study evaluated how the instructional coaching model integrates with training programs to equip
coaches effectively. To address the second sub-question, the intervention examined how the
toolbox impacts educators’ practices, focusing on strategies to enhance their ability to meet
behavioral, emotional, and instructional challenges.
The action plan began with identifying coaching needs through surveys and classroom
observations, followed by collaboratively defining measurable goals with educators. The Yope
Coaching Toolbox was then implemented, and progress was monitored through formative
assessments. Strategies were continuously refined based on data-driven insights to ensure
alignment with the needs of educators and students. Data collection included pre- and postintervention surveys, feedback surveys, observational protocols, and coaching session notes to
provide a holistic understanding of the coaching process and its outcomes.
Finally, data analysis integrated statistical methods to assess quantitative findings and
thematic coding to analyze qualitative data. This combination allowed for a comprehensive
evaluation of the intervention's effects on educators' professional growth and instructional
practices. Limitations of the study, such as the unique context of the setting and potential biases
in self-reported data, are acknowledged. This chapter provides a detailed framework for
addressing the research questions and evaluating the implementation of instructional coaching
within a unique education setting.
The doctoral dissertation investigated the efficacy of implementing a coaching toolbox
model, herein called the Yope Coaching Toolbox, in enhancing professional development and
instructional practices among educators within special education settings at a specialized
educational organization in western Pennsylvania. This school serves children and young adults

62

with a range of complex needs, including autism spectrum disorder, cerebral palsy, neurological
impairments, and other developmental disabilities. Its mission is to provide high-quality,
individualized programs that empower students to succeed academically, socially, and
emotionally through a comprehensive support system tailored to each child’s unique needs (The
Watson Institute, n.d.).
This school was an ideal setting for this research, with programs such as autism-specific
education, therapeutic day schools, and vocational training. Integrating academic instruction with
services like occupational therapy, speech therapy, and behavioral support provides a holistic
approach to student development. This multidisciplinary environment ensures that students
receive the support they need to make meaningful progress in academic and social-emotional
domains.
The school’s commitment to individualized instruction aligns with the goals of this study,
making it an appropriate setting to evaluate the effectiveness of the Yope Coaching Toolbox.
Educators and staff at the school are highly trained to work with children with special needs,
which allowed the Yope Coaching Toolbox to be implemented in a way that directly addresses
the challenges these educators face. This structured, specialized setting offers a unique
opportunity to assess how tailored coaching tools can support professional growth and improve
teaching practices in special education.
Furthermore, the school is part of the broader special education community, focusing on
implementing innovative strategies that can be shared and replicated in similar educational
settings. This research can significantly impact not only the school but also special education
practices in a wider context, helping educators meet the diverse needs of students with learning
and behavioral challenges (The Watson Institute, n.d.). Additionally, the school includes several

63

programs. For the purposes of this study, participants from two programs were utilized. The
study employed a mixed-methods approach to gather comprehensive insights into the impact of
personalized coaching interventions facilitated by the Yope Coaching Toolbox. Using a mixedmethods approach was ideal for this study because it allowed for a comprehensive exploration of
the impact of the Yope Coaching Toolbox, combining both quantitative and qualitative data to
assess changes in instructional practices and professional development in special education
settings. This approach provided a balanced view of outcomes, offering measurable data to
assess the effectiveness of coaching interventions while capturing participants' nuanced
experiences and insights.
Quantitatively, pre- and post-intervention surveys and feedback surveys allowed for
comparisons, helping to determine shifts in educator confidence, perceived effectiveness, and
satisfaction with instructional practices. This aligns with previous research indicating that
quantitative metrics are valuable in gauging objective improvements in professional development
and instructional outcomes (Reddy et al., 2017). Qualitative data, such as observational notes,
provided context and depth, offering insight into educators’ experiences with the toolbox and
highlighting areas for refinement. Qualitative methods are especially valuable in special
education, where unique classroom dynamics and individual teacher-student interactions may
impact the coaching toolbox’s effectiveness in ways that numbers alone cannot capture (Aguilar,
2024; Knight, 2019). Combining these methods supported a rich understanding of the coaching
toolbox’s impact, addressing both observable outcomes and personal reflections from
participants. This approach aligned well with the study’s goals, providing a holistic assessment
of the Yope Coaching Toolbox and ensuring the findings are statistically robust and grounded in
practical, real-world applications.

64

The Yope Coaching Toolbox is a structured set of resources to enhance coaching
effectiveness, supervision, and professional growth within special education. Each component
serves a specific purpose to ensure a comprehensive, practical approach to instructional support.
The Coaching Compartment outlines the primary elements of instructional coaching. This
section helps coaches understand their role and equips them with strategies to support educators
effectively. Following this, the Application component details practical methods for
implementing these coaching techniques in real-world educational settings, emphasizing that the
coaching strategies are theoretical, actionable, and impactful.
Tying the Applications Together integrates various coaching practices to form a
consistent and aligned approach. This section underscores the importance of continuity and
coherence in coaching efforts, ensuring educators experience a well-coordinated support model.
Expanding on this, Applications and The Coach’s Role explores the coach’s responsibilities in
applying these strategies effectively, including guidance on adapting the approach to fit the
unique needs of each educator. To align coaching efforts with specific objectives, The Toolbox
and Coaching Goals map out how each component contributes to professional growth and
instructional improvement. Diving into Communication follows, emphasizing the importance of
effective communication in coaching. This section provides tools and techniques to facilitate
open, constructive conversations, helping coaches build a foundation of trust and clarity with
educators.
Navigating the Advice Trap addresses a common pitfall in coaching: the tendency to offer
direct advice rather than guiding educators through reflective questioning. This component
encourages coaches to empower educators to find solutions, supporting a growth-oriented,
autonomous approach. Prioritizing Skills offers guidance on identifying and focusing on

65

essential skills that significantly impact professional development, allowing coaching sessions to
be targeted and effective. Active Coaching promotes hands-on, interactive methods, such as
observation, feedback, and collaborative planning, to foster real-time growth and immediate
application of strategies. Recognizing that not all educators may be receptive initially, Resistance
to Coaching provides strategies for managing reluctance and fostering openness, encouraging a
more positive coaching experience.
Relationships and Dignity highlight the significance of building respectful relationships
that honor the dignity of each educator. This section sets a foundation of trust, ensuring that
coaching interactions are supportive and collaborative. For situations involving group coaching,
Multiple Members offers strategies for managing the dynamics of team settings, focusing on
balancing attention and support when working with multiple educators or staff. To help coaches
address the root of instructional challenges, Getting to the Actual Problem encourages
identifying underlying issues rather than merely addressing surface-level symptoms. This
component is designed to promote meaningful, lasting change in instructional practices. Finally,
Not Just Telling but Following Up emphasizes the importance of follow-through in coaching.
This section ensures that suggestions are implemented effectively and educators receive ongoing
support to maintain progress. Overall, the Yope Coaching Toolbox equips coaches with a
comprehensive, practical set of tools to facilitate professional growth and enhance instructional
practices in special education. This approach ensures that coaching is not only actionable and
goal-oriented but also respectful of individual relationships and responsive to educators' unique
challenges.
Building on this structure, each component of the Yope Coaching Toolbox was developed
into professional development sessions that addressed specific coaching skills and strategies.

66

These sessions guided participants through each toolbox aspect, offering theoretical knowledge
and practical applications to enhance their instructional practices. Below is a detailed outline of
each component, providing a clear framework for the professional development content to be
delivered through online platforms like Microsoft Teams or in-person training. The professional
development sessions were structured to systematically introduce each component of the Yope
Coaching Toolbox, ensuring that participants gained a comprehensive understanding of the
model and its application in their roles. The series began with a session on Relationships and
Dignity, establishing the importance of building trust and respect in coaching relationships. This
foundational session emphasized how dignified, respectful interactions set the stage for effective
coaching by creating a supportive environment where educators feel valued and motivated.
Following this, participants were introduced to The Toolbox Image and The Coaching
Compartment, which provide an overview of the coaching framework and the primary elements
of instructional coaching. These sessions helped participants understand the structure of the
toolbox and its application in special education. Next, sessions on Application and Tying the
Applications Together focused on the practical implementation of coaching techniques.
Participants learned how to apply coaching methods directly within their educational settings and
how to integrate these applications to form a cohesive and aligned approach to instructional
support. The session on Applications and The Coach’s Role guided participants in adapting these
strategies to meet the unique needs of each educator, enabling them to customize their coaching
approach.
The professional development series also included specific sessions on essential coaching
skills. Diving into Communication taught participants effective communication techniques to
foster open, constructive conversations with educators. Navigating the Advice Trap addressed

67

the tendency to give direct advice, encouraging coaches to use reflective questioning to empower
educators to find their solutions. Subsequent sessions covered Prioritizing Skills and Active
Coaching, equipping participants with the ability to identify key skills that will significantly
impact educator growth. The Active Coaching session focused on engaging in real-time, handson coaching practices, including observation and feedback, to support immediate learning
application. Resistance to Coaching was addressed in a dedicated session, where participants
explored strategies for overcoming resistance and building rapport with educators who may be
initially hesitant.
For participants working in team settings, the Multiple Members session guided
managing group dynamics and balancing support across multiple educators. To strengthen
problem-solving skills, a session on Getting to the Actual Problem focused on identifying
educators' underlying challenges, helping coaches address root issues instead of merely treating
surface symptoms. The series concluded with Not Just Telling but Following Up, emphasizing
the importance of follow-through in coaching. This final session underscored the value of
ongoing support and accountability, enabling coaches to ensure that strategies and commitments
are implemented effectively over time.
Each session incorporated presentations, interactive discussions, role-playing exercises,
and follow-up tasks to reinforce learning. This structure ensured that participants gained a
theoretical understanding of each component and practical experience, with opportunities to
apply these skills within a supportive learning environment, either online via Microsoft Teams or
in person, depending on the training format.
The research was conducted in phases over 12 months. The study began with a thorough
literature review of existing coaching models and tools applicable to educational settings. This

68

phase, spanning the first three months, informed the development of a coaching toolbox tailored
to address specific professional development needs and instructional challenges identified in the
literature.
Following the Yope Coaching Toolbox development, the study proceeded to a pilot
implementation phase over nine months. During this phase, a small group of educators from
diverse programs within the school participated in professional development using the newly
developed Yope Coaching Toolbox. Qualitative data were gathered through observational data
from coaching sessions to assess the initial impact and refine the toolbox based on participant
feedback. Quantitative data collection included pre-and post-intervention assessments, coaching
feedback, and continued qualitative data collection through observations and coaching sessions.
Data analysis, slated for months nine to 12, encompassed analyses of quantitative data
and thematic analysis of qualitative data to identify recurring themes and insights. The final
phase involved synthesizing findings into a doctoral dissertation and disseminating research
outcomes through presentations and publications. Overall, this methodology examined how the
Yope Coaching Toolbox influenced educators' professional growth and instructional practices in
the specialized context of special education at the school, contributing valuable insights to theory
and practice in educational coaching.
The participants in this study consisted of supervisors, behavior specialists, and
instructional coaches who work within special education settings. To ensure that the Yope
Coaching Toolbox is both relevant and impactful, participants needed to meet certain
qualifications. Specifically, individuals should have at least one year of experience working
directly with students in special education. This experience criterion was designed to ensure that
participants possessed foundational knowledge and familiarity with the unique challenges and

69

needs of special education. Additionally, eligible participants were those currently holding
positions that involve instructional practices or professional development, such as supervisors,
teachers, behavior specialists, and instructional coaches. An essential requirement for
participation was a genuine interest in coaching and a willingness to incorporate new strategies
into their professional practices. These criteria aimed to select participants who could fully
engage with the coaching toolbox and apply its strategies in their work.
The recruitment process involved contacting a special education program in western
Pennsylvania. To initiate contact, an invitation to participate in the study (Appendix A) was
distributed. Direct outreach was also made to administrators and the program directors
(Appendix B), who helped identify potential candidates based on the criteria provided. Each
invitation briefly outlined the study’s purpose, highlighting the professional development
opportunities and potential benefits for participants. Those who expressed interest received
further details, emphasizing the study's goals and the anticipated outcomes of participating in
coaching sessions.
Upon expressing interest, participants received an informed consent form (Appendix C)
outlining all necessary details about the study. This form will explain the purpose of the study,
including the research objectives and the potential contributions to instructional practices in
special education. The document described the activities involved, such as attending professional
development sessions, engaging in follow-up coaching, and participating in data collection
through feedback sessions. Participants were also informed of the expected time commitment,
with a clear breakdown of the duration of each session and any follow-up components. To ensure
confidentiality, the consent form specified that all data collected will be used solely for research
purposes, and all identifying information would be anonymized in reports and publications.

70

Additionally, participants were reminded that their involvement is entirely voluntary, and they
have the right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.
Potential participants had the opportunity to review the informed consent form
thoroughly and be encouraged to ask questions about any aspect of the study. Consent was
documented through signed forms, either on paper or electronically, depending on the
participant's preference. For those opting for electronic consent, a secure online platform
collected signatures safely and confidentially. Throughout the study, participants were reminded
of their rights, including their right to withdraw. Follow-up communications provided updates on
the study’s progress, reiterating the confidentiality measures in place to ensure participants feel
informed, supported, and respected throughout their involvement. This approach to participant
selection, recruitment, and informed consent prioritizes ethical considerations and respects the
autonomy of all individuals involved. By carefully outlining participant qualifications and clearly
communicating the study’s structure, the research team ensured that participants were well-suited
for the study and fully aware of their role within it. This respectful and transparent process aimed
to create a positive research environment where participants felt valued and empowered to
contribute to the study’s objectives.
Data Collection
Data collection for this study encompassed a variety of sources to fully understand the
impact of the Yope Coaching Toolbox on educators in a special education setting at the school.
Quantitative data were primarily gathered through surveys administered, pre- and postintervention (Appendices D and E) and feedback surveys (Appendix F), measuring participant
satisfaction, perceived impact of the Yope Coaching Toolbox, and changes in mindset regarding

71

professional growth and instructional practices. These questions explored participants'
experiences, perceptions of the coaching process, and changes in instructional practices.
This study began with a pre-intervention survey. This survey was administered to
participants before implementing the Yope Coaching Toolbox, either online or in person. The
survey targeted special educators at the school who serve in instructional leadership roles and
who participated in the study. The primary purpose of this pre-intervention survey was to gather
baseline data on participant satisfaction, their perceived professional growth, and their current
instructional practices. This baseline information was crucial for comparing changes after the
coaching intervention.
During the implementation of the coaching toolbox, observational data were collected.
To gather accurate and meaningful observational data, a structured observation form (Appendix
G) was developed to guide observers in documenting the impact of the Yope Coaching Toolbox
on instructional practices and professional development. The observation form focused on
specific, measurable areas that align with the objectives of the coaching toolbox, ensuring that
the data collected reflects the targeted outcomes. Key areas of observation included
implementing coaching techniques, communication and engagement with students, adaptability
in responding to diverse student needs, behavior management, and reflective practices. These
areas were selected to provide a comprehensive view of how educators apply the strategies
introduced in the coaching toolbox. Qualitative data were additionally gathered by the use of a
feedback survey after each coaching session as well as notes taken during coaching sessions.
The observations were conducted by trained observers with a background in special
education and instructional coaching. Observers received thorough training on using the
observation form, emphasizing understanding each criterion and the types of behaviors or actions

72

that should be documented. This training included techniques for minimizing observer bias, such
as focusing on objective, observable actions rather than subjective judgments and maintaining
neutrality in descriptions. By following standardized guidelines, observers will be able to collect
data consistently, contributing to the reliability of the findings.
A post-intervention survey was conducted after the full implementation of the Yope
Coaching Toolbox. This survey was administered to the same group of special education
educators who participated in the pre-intervention survey. While both surveys measured similar
domains—satisfaction, mindset, and instructional practices—the questions and format were not
identical. The post-intervention survey was specifically designed to assess perceived changes
resulting from the coaching intervention and to evaluate the overall impact of the Yope Coaching
Toolbox on educators’ professional development and instructional effectiveness. Although the
surveys were not the same, comparing pre- and post-intervention responses offered meaningful
insights into the outcomes of the coaching implementation.
Data Analysis
Data analysis for this study involved a structured approach to make sense of the diverse
data sources collected. Quantitative data, including pre- and post-intervention surveys and
feedback surveys measuring participant satisfaction and perceived impact, underwent statistical
analysis. Qualitative observational data were analyzed using thematic analysis with assistance of
generative AI tool ChatGPT. The researcher entered qualitative notes on the structured
observation forms, the initial and final classroom observations, and the open-ended coaching
feedback survey responses into ChatGPT, prompting the AI to identify recurring codes. The
researcher then conducted a detailed review of the codes identified by ChatGPT to ensure
accuracy and consistency with what was observed, and then the researcher grouped common

73

codes into themes. Using AI streamlined the process, and the entire approach helped to identify
recurring themes and patterns in participants' experiences with the Yope Coaching Toolbox,
offering profound insights into the qualitative impacts of the intervention on instructional
practices and professional development. By integrating quantitative and qualitative analyses, this
methodology aimed to comprehensively understand how the Yope Coaching Toolbox influences
educators' practices and growth within the specialized context of special education at the school.
Site Permission
Site permission was granted by the Watson Institute (Appendix H). The school does not
have its own Institutional Review Board (IRB); however, the study has been aligned with the
ethical guidelines and standards of Slippery Rock University's IRB, where necessary approvals
for human subjects’ research have been obtained (Appendix I). To initiate access to stakeholders,
participants, and data sources at the school, formal requests were submitted detailing the study's
objectives, methodologies, and anticipated impacts. This approval ensures that the research is
conducted ethically and follows the policies and protocols of Slippery Rock University and the
school.
Presentation of Results
The results of this study were disseminated through multiple channels to ensure broad
impact and accessibility. First, the findings were presented during the dissertation defense and
submitted to the university's digital repository, making them accessible to other researchers and
practitioners. Key findings may also be published in peer-reviewed academic journals to
contribute to the broader research on instructional coaching and special education. Additionally,
the results will be shared at educational conferences, allowing for dissemination among
educators, researchers, and policymakers. Insights from the study will be integrated into

74

professional development workshops and training sessions at the school and other educational
institutions, focusing on applying the successful elements of the Yope Coaching Toolbox to
improve teaching practices and student outcomes. Participants in the study will receive a
summary report, providing feedback on the impact of the coaching toolbox and offering
recommendations for further application. The findings may also be shared through webinars and
online platforms, making them accessible to a wider audience and facilitating broader
discussions. Collaboration with the school was essential for using the results to inform future
coaching initiatives and instructional strategies within the institution.
Limitations
The study has limitations that should be noted. For instance, the sample used in the study
comes exclusively from the school, which may limit how applicable the findings are to other
educational settings. Additionally, the study relied on self-reported data from surveys, which may
introduce response bias. This means participants may provide socially desirable answers rather
than accurate reflections of their experiences. Time constraints within the academic calendar also
impacted the depth and duration of coaching sessions and data collection efforts, potentially
influencing the comprehensiveness of the study's results. Furthermore, variations in participants'
prior experience, motivation levels, and engagement with the Yope Coaching Toolbox could
introduce additional variability into the outcomes measured. Lastly, external factors such as
changes in educational policies or unforeseen events within the school could affect the study's
implementation and interpretation of results. Recognizing these limitations is essential for
accurately interpreting and applying the study's findings effectively within special education
coaching practices.

75

Conclusion
The action plan for this intervention provided a structured and thorough approach to
evaluating the efficacy of the Yope Coaching Toolbox within a specialized educational setting.
By focusing on a well-defined participant group, implementing a comprehensive training series,
and utilizing a mixed-methods approach for data collection, this study aimed to gather valuable
insights into the impact of targeted coaching interventions on professional development and
instructional practices. The diverse and rigorous data collection methods, including pre- and
post-intervention surveys, observational data, and ongoing follow-up sessions, offered a nuanced
view of the toolbox's effectiveness in real-world educational environments. Additionally, careful
attention to minimizing bias, ensuring validity and reliability, and maintaining ethical standards
throughout the study process reinforces the credibility of the findings.
This research has the potential to not only enhance the practices of educators within the
study site but also to contribute valuable knowledge to the broader field of special education
coaching. By sharing the results through various academic and professional platforms, this study
aimed to inform future coaching initiatives and instructional strategies, promoting evidencebased practices that address the complex needs of educators and students in specialized settings.
As we transition to the next chapter, the focus shifts to presenting and analyzing the findings,
which will offer insights into the actual impact of the Yope Coaching Toolbox on enhancing
instructional efficacy and fostering professional growth among participants. With the
methodology defined, including participant selection and intervention details, we move on to the
study's findings. Chapter IV presents an analysis of the quantitative and qualitative data
collected, offering insights into the coaching toolbox's impact on professional growth and
instructional practices.

76

CHAPTER IV
Findings
Restatement of Research Questions
This research study aimed to explore the impact of implementing a coaching toolbox
explicitly designed for staff working in special education settings. While instructional coaching
has been widely used across educational contexts, there is a clear gap in models that address the
unique needs of special education classrooms, particularly around communication,
documentation, and navigating challenging conversations. This study examines how the Yope
Coaching Toolbox, a model created to meet these needs, supports professional growth and
improves instructional practices. The following research questions were proposed:
1. What are the effects of implementing instructional coaching within a unique education
setting?
1.1 What instructional coaching model can be implemented to train coaches
effectively in this setting?
1.2 How does the implementation of the Yope Coaching Toolbox influence educators'
professional growth and instructional practices?
This research used a mixed-methods approach to investigate the measurable outcomes and lived
experiences of special educators participating in the coaching process. The ultimate goal was to
develop a comprehensive, practical, and sustainable coaching framework that enhances educator
effectiveness and improves outcomes for students with complex needs.
Results were collected and analyzed in a mixed-methods format. The flow of the
coaching toolbox began and ended with an observation, and then six weeks of alternating a
training session and an in-person training session on the topic of coaching. Staff completed a pre-

77

and post-intervention survey as well as Coaching Feedback forms that included open-ended and
Likert scale questions. The questions in the form asked the participants to rate their level of
confidence and communication as well as problem-solving abilities. Other open-ended questions
asked about professional goals. The Coaching Feedback form assesses the observer/trainer in this
study regarding the implementation of materials and checks for knowledge on information
covered in the training during active coaching sessions. Observations were also completed by the
trainer/observer at the beginning and end of the study.
Participants
The participants in this study included five professionals employed in a special education
setting: one behavior specialist, three supervisors, and one instructional coach. During the study,
these participants all used the Yope Coaching Toolbox to work with teachers in a coaching
capacity. All participants were Caucasian females between the ages of 30 and 45, each with at
least one year of experience working at a specialized school in western Pennsylvania. An initial
information session was held to outline the study timeline and expectations, during which the
consent form was reviewed and clarifications were provided as needed. One potential participant
withdrew following this session, temporarily reducing the number of participants. However,
within a short period, additional confirmations increased the total number of participants to five.
These fluctuations reflected the dynamic nature of the school year, particularly during March,
which appeared to be a notably stressful period for staff due to increased demands and
responsibilities.

78

Qualitative Data Findings
Observation Summary
Qualitative data were coded using the generative AI tool ChatGPT and analyzed for the
initial observations. These observations were conducted prior to the full implementation of the
Yope Coaching Toolbox to establish a baseline understanding of current practices. Coordinating
schedules proved challenging due to participants' workload and the time constraints of the
academic calendar. Observational data collected early in the study indicated that while
participants were present in classrooms, they were not consistently engaging in active coaching
practices. This observation prompted reflection on the degree to which instructional coaching
was being implemented with fidelity. Notably, of the behavior specialists invited to participate,
only one actually participated; others cited heavy caseloads and additional responsibilities that
prevented them from allocating time for participation in the research. These contextual factors
contributed essential insights into the practical realities of implementing a coaching model within
a specialized educational environment.
Three rounds of coaching sessions were conducted to understand how participants
supported instruction, interacted with students and staff, and began utilizing components of the
Yope Coaching Toolbox. While each classroom setting was unique regarding age range and
student needs, several themes emerged across observations that speak to the strengths present
and the areas where coaching practices are still developing. These observations revealed a
commitment among study participants and the teachers they were coaching to enhance teaching
strategies, reflecting a willingness to embrace new methodologies. The varying age ranges also
necessitated differentiated approaches tailored to diverse learning styles. As participants engaged
in collaborative discussions, they were able to share best practices and resources, leading to a

79

more cohesive understanding of practical coaching techniques. This ongoing professional
development indicates a promising trajectory for future classroom instructional improvements.
Initial Classroom Observation
The following section extends the abovementioned findings and focuses more
specifically on what was observed during the initial classroom walkthroughs. These
observations, conducted before the coaching intervention, revealed limited evidence of structured
coaching behaviors. While staff were engaged in classroom responsibilities, direct instructional
coaching strategies—such as modeling, goal setting, or feedback—were infrequently observed.
The lack of visible coaching interactions underscored the need for a more formalized and
intentional coaching framework. These baseline findings helped shape the direction and
emphasis of the Yope Coaching Toolbox as the intervention progressed.
Classroom management across observations was generally consistent and supported by
routines, posted expectations, and visual systems. Teams used a variety of strategies to maintain
structure, including job boards, visuals, schedules, timers, and countdowns. In several rooms,
staff demonstrated calm and proactive responses to student behaviors. Students appeared familiar
with the flow of the day and knew what was expected of them. Even in classrooms where
significant behaviors were observed, staff responded with consistency and regulation strategies,
which helped maintain safety and predictability.
Instructional delivery varied depending on the time of day and classroom activity. Several
observations occurred during lunch or transition times, which limited opportunities to observe
formal instruction but offered insight into how staff communicated with and supported students.
Many classrooms demonstrated differentiated instruction through communication systems,
including LAMP, Proloquo2Go, visual boards, iPads, and verbal prompting. While visuals were

80

present in most settings, some—such as coaching cues, data tracking charts, or procedural
reminders—were designed primarily for adult reference, while others, like visual schedules,
behavior prompts, or task strips, were intended for direct student use. Instructions were typically
provided clearly, and staff adjusted expectations based on students’ individual needs.
Student engagement during the initial classroom observations—conducted across five
instructional settings prior to the coaching intervention—was mixed. These baseline observations
were intended to document the presence or absence of coaching practices and gather contextual
information related to student engagement, staff interaction, and instructional routines. In some
classrooms, engagement was high, with students participating in structured activities, centers, or
hands-on tasks. In other settings, particularly during less structured times such as lunch or
passive video watching, participation dropped noticeably. Staff presence and prompting often
played a key role in maintaining student involvement. Peer-to-peer engagement was limited, and
most student interactions occurred with staff members rather than classmates. This may reflect
both the developmental needs of the students and the nature of the observed classroom activities.
These early observations were necessary to establish a baseline of existing practices before
implementing the Yope Coaching Toolbox.
Regarding coaching toolbox utilization, most participants were not yet observed actively
engaging in coaching behaviors with other staff. Participants sometimes covered a classroom or
worked directly with students during the observation, limiting their ability to demonstrate
coaching. One participant was observed providing encouragement and feedback to a team
member, which aligns with the early use of the toolbox. However, in general, participants were
still in the beginning stages of implementation. The coach's role was not always clearly defined

81

in the moment, and there was minimal evidence of modeling, debriefing, or strategic use of
coaching tools during these visits.
Adaptation and integration of coaching practices into classroom routines had not yet
occurred at the time of observation. This appeared to be due to a combination of timing in the
implementation process, high staff responsibilities, and competing demands in the school day.
Participants seemed to be balancing their work with the added role of coaching, which may have
impacted how and when they applied strategies from the toolbox. The lack of clearly visible
coaching behaviors during this early phase reinforces the importance of establishing and
communicating a clear structure and providing ongoing support around how coaching is
expected to look within the classroom context.
Student outcomes were observed through behavior, task participation, and response to
staff instruction. Many students demonstrated independence with daily routines and responded
well to consistent adult support. While several students required intensive behavioral or
communication support, classrooms had tools and systems to address these needs. Understanding
of instructional content was demonstrated through completing routine-based tasks, following
directions, and initiating known activities. Staff made frequent adjustments based on students'
communication or regulation needs, and most appeared to be working within developmentally
appropriate expectations.
Finally, one of the most consistent themes observed across classrooms during the initial
pre-intervention phase was the strength of the staff-student relationships. These early
observations provided a concrete starting point for understanding existing instructional practices
and professional culture, key components aligned with the study’s research questions,
particularly RQ 1.2, which examines how implementing the Yope Coaching Toolbox influences

82

educators' professional growth and instructional practices. Staff teams were calm, responsive,
and connected to the students they worked with. There was a sense of mutual respect and
enjoyment, and many teams were observed smiling, laughing with students, and approaching
their work with care. While the coaching process was not yet fully established, the presence of a
strong staff culture and student-centered mindset served as a critical foundation for future
coaching efforts and professional growth. This initial snapshot was essential in identifying
strengths to build upon and areas where coaching could support more intentional instructional
practices.
Final Classroom Observation
The classroom observations reflected well-established foundational practices across the
observed environments. Clear expectations, visual schedules, and smooth transitions created a
calm and predictable classroom atmosphere. Educators consistently used behavior supports and
structured routines that maintained student focus and minimized disruptions. These practices
supported the creation of learning environments where students appeared regulated and ready to
engage.
Instructional delivery was also noted as a strength. An observer recorded clear, structured
teaching and evidence of differentiated instruction responsive to student needs. Educators
adjusted based on behavioral cues and provided varied activities such as individual work and
gross motor time. These strategies aligned with best practices for students requiring specialized
support and contributed to increased access to learning opportunities.
Student engagement levels varied across classrooms. In some observations, students fully
participated in academic and physical tasks, with no students on the periphery. In others,
engagement was described as partial or needing improvement, suggesting a need for more

83

dynamic or individualized approaches. Strengthening engagement strategies may help boost both
behavior and academic performance.
Use of the Yope Coaching Toolbox was discussed by participants during postintervention feedback surveys and coaching session notes, aligning with Research Question 1.2,
which examines how implementation of the Toolbox influences professional growth and
instructional practices. While educators reported applying components such as action plans and
engaging in challenging conversations—indicating a conceptual understanding of the coaching
tools—these strategies were not consistently observed during the final classroom observations.
This discrepancy between self-reported use and observable implementation highlights a potential
gap between planning and practice. These findings draw from both qualitative observation data
and coaching documentation, pointing to the need for continued modeling and support to
strengthen fidelity of implementation. Future coaching cycles and check-ins may serve as a
necessary bridge to ensure that educators not only understand but fully integrate the Toolbox
strategies into their instructional routines.
Student outcomes also presented a mixed picture. Understanding of instructional content
was observed in all classrooms, but behavioral responses varied. In one setting, notable
improvement in student behavior was reported; in another, no change was observed. This
variability highlights the need for ongoing monitoring of how coaching and instruction translate
into measurable student growth.
Overall, classrooms demonstrated positive environments with kind, caring staff and wellmanaged routines. Observers highlighted strengths such as calm classroom climates and staff
flexibility. Growth areas included improving peer-to-peer communication, boosting engagement
levels, and increasing the observable use of coaching strategies. These findings will inform

84

ongoing professional development and coaching efforts to build on strengths while addressing
areas of need.
When comparing the use of the Yope Coaching Toolbox from the initial to the final
classroom observations, several concrete shifts—and continued gaps—were noted. During the
initial observation, evidence of Toolbox integration was minimal and largely conceptual. For
example, while participants had attended initial coaching sessions, strategies like action planning
and reflective questioning were not visible in the classroom. In one classroom, a teacher was
engaged in direct instruction but did not reference or use any action plan, and there was no
evidence of co-regulation, modeling, or feedback loops with support staff. Another participant
discussed the value of challenging conversations during coaching but did not appear to apply
conflict-resolution strategies when staff disagreements emerged during the observation.
By the final observations, some progress was evident. In two classrooms, staff were seen
referencing written coaching action plans posted by their desks, and one teacher initiated a
structured staff huddle to clarify roles before a group lesson—both signs of emerging use of
Toolbox elements. However, in other settings, coaching behaviors remained inconsistently
implemented. One participant, for example, shared in post-surveys that reflective questioning
helped her reframe staff discussions, but in practice, team conversations still leaned toward
directive instruction rather than collaborative problem-solving. These findings suggest that while
some educators moved from planning to partial implementation, others remained in the
conceptual stage. This highlights the importance of ongoing support and modeling to promote
full integration of Toolbox strategies into daily instructional routines.
Post-intervention classroom observations, conducted after the full implementation of the
Yope Coaching Toolbox, revealed a noticeable shift in how participants described their use of the

85

framework. These observations were conducted as part of the formal data collection process and
served as a direct comparison to the initial baseline observations. Participants frequently referred
to specific elements of the Toolbox, such as action plans and challenging conversations,
indicating increased familiarity with its components. However, despite this growth in awareness,
observable implementation during instructional time remained inconsistent. In two classrooms,
for instance, educators mentioned using reflective questioning and planning tools in
conversations with the researcher, but these strategies were not evident during live instruction.
This suggests that while participants were beginning to internalize the coaching framework, full
and consistent application within their teaching practice had not yet been fully realized.
Table 2 provides a summary of the qualitative findings from initial observations, postintervention observations, changes between the two observations, and the priority for continued
support.
Table 2
Qualitative Findings From Initial and Post-Intervention Observations
Behavior / Coaching
Element
Use of Action Plans

Initial
Observation

Post-Intervention
Observation

Not observed Verbally referenced
by most; posted in 2
rooms

Change Noted
↑ Conceptual
use

Priority for
Continued
Support
High – modeling
needed

Reflective Questioning Not observed Discussed in surveys, ↑ Awareness
not observed in
practice

High – practice
needed

Modeling of Strategies Absent

Rare, 1 observed
instance

Minimal
growth

High – direct
coaching needed

Challenging
Conversations (with
teams)

Reported in surveys;
hesitance in practice

↑ Self-reported Medium – needs
attempts
role clarity

Not
referenced

86

Behavior / Coaching
Element
Coaching Language /
Terminology

Initial
Observation
Absent

Visible Coaching Tools Not present
(charts, visuals)
Peer-to-peer Coaching Not
(non-supervisory staff) attempted

Post-Intervention
Observation

Change Noted

Increasingly present in ↑ Familiarity
discussion

Priority for
Continued
Support
Low –
progressing

Present in 2 rooms

↑ Visual
presence

Medium –
reinforce use

Emerging concern,
minimal observed
practice

↑ Awareness of High – systems
challenge
needed

Coaching Session 1 Findings
Coaching Notes Session 1
After the initial training session, a coaching session took place. The first coaching session
revealed a range of perspectives, priorities, and questions from participants as they began to
engage with the Yope Coaching Toolbox. A common theme that emerged through thematic
analysis of notes was a desire for clarity regarding what coaching is and how to realistically fit it
into the day-to-day flow of a specialized school setting. Participants expressed interest in better
understanding the coach's role, especially when juggling their primary responsibilities alongside
supporting classroom teams. While some staff were eager to jump in and start practicing, others
expressed hesitancy or uncertainty around how to begin.
Participants asked for concrete examples of what coaching “looks like” in action. They
said seeing side-by-side comparisons of coaching versus helping, supporting, or leading would
be helpful. There was also discussion around what qualifies as “coaching” when the staff
member is embedded in the classroom. The coach participant expressed questions like, “Am I
coaching if I’m redirecting?” or “What if I’m modeling without labeling it as such?” These
questions reflect the early stages of implementation and the need for shared language and
expectations.
87

Another theme that surfaced during post-intervention data collection was the emotional
toll staff experienced, particularly in the spring semester. Multiple participants noted feeling
overwhelmed and shared that coaching, while valuable, sometimes felt like “one more thing” on
an already full plate. This context is especially important when considering that the final round
of observations and coaching sessions occurred in March, when staff often manage IEP season,
behavioral regressions, and general fatigue. These seasonal demands may have influenced how
participants could engage with or apply new coaching practices. Recognizing time of year as a
variable highlights the need for flexible implementation pacing and stronger supports during
high-stress periods. Additionally, participants expressed challenges in navigating coaching when
they were not in a supervisory role. Several were cautious about giving feedback or modeling
strategies in classrooms led by peers, citing a desire not to overstep or create discomfort. This
reflects a thoughtful awareness of team dynamics and reinforces the importance of establishing
clear agreements around roles, permissions, and feedback structures when implementing a
coaching model.
Coaching Feedback Survey Session 1
Five participants were surveyed following the first structured coaching session. The data
included open-ended responses related to session objectives, coaching techniques, tool use,
perceived value, discussed challenges, next steps, and satisfaction. Responses were analyzed
using open coding followed by thematic grouping. All names and identifying information were
removed following the IRB protocol.
1. Clear Objectives and Collaboration. Participants consistently identified clear goals
for the session, such as:
•

Reviewing classroom observations

88

•

Acquiring the coaching binder

•

Identifying student-specific strategies

•

Clarifying documentation within the coaching framework

Post-intervention coaching surveys and session notes (data sources for RQ 1.2) revealed
that educators entered each meeting with explicit, jointly set goals—an indicator of the “identify”
phase in Knight’s coaching cycle and the goal-driven focus endorsed by Sweeney’s studentcentered coaching (Knight et al., 2015; Sweeney, 2010). Typical objectives included (a)
reviewing classroom-observation data, (b) acquiring or organizing the coaching binder, (c)
selecting student-specific strategies, and (d) clarifying documentation procedures within the
Toolbox. One participant summarized this collaborative stance: “To review our shared analysis
of the classroom and discuss feedback.” The presence of co-constructed goals supports Hattie
and Timperley’s (2007) finding that clear success criteria and feedback loops accelerate
professional learning, and echoes Boer’s (2023) conclusion that alignment between coach and
teacher optimizes session time and boosts implementation fidelity.
2. Active Listening and Reflective Coaching Practices. A specific example from the
coaching feedback survey was, “Reflection – providing a resource binder with supporting
strategies.” Participants consistently referenced coaching techniques rooted in active listening,
reflective questioning, and collaborative dialogue. For instance, one educator described the coach
as “asking a lot of questions, prompting thought,” while another highlighted “reflection and
affirmation.” These comments align with Knight’s partnership principles (Knight, 2015) and
Bungay Stanier’s seven-question framework that positions listening ahead of advice-giving
(Bungay Stanier, 2016). Such reflective dialogue is also central to Aguilar’s transformational
coaching, which emphasizes inquiry over directive feedback (Aguilar, 2024).

89

3. Use of Coaching Toolbox Resources. Participants noted using a variety of tools from
the Coaching Toolbox, including:
•

Gap Analysis Worksheets

•

Action Planning Templates

•

Supervision Meeting Forms

Survey responses indicated growing use of specific Yope Coaching Toolbox tools—Gap
Analysis Worksheets, Action-Planning Templates, and Supervision Meeting Forms. This toolbased scaffolding mirrors the formative-assessment cycle recommended by Reddy et al. (2017)
in the Classroom Strategies Coaching (CSC) model and Knight et al.’s (2015) “identify-learnimprove” cycle, both of which stress concrete artefacts to guide implementation. One participant
confirmed practical uptake, writing, “Yes, the Gap Analysis worksheet.”
4. Perceived Professional Growth. Teachers described sessions as “very valuable” and
reported insights into their own communication styles (e.g., “I gained a lot of insight on how I
communicate with staff”). These self-reported gains reinforce findings by Boer (2023) that
structured coaching increases teacher self-efficacy, and echo Hattie & Timperley’s (2007)
assertion that high-quality feedback accelerates professional learning.
5. Problem-Solving Around Real Challenges. Several participants used coaching
sessions to address staffing inconsistencies, workload, and communication barriers—illustrated
by comments such as, “We discussed the challenge of ensuring that identified needs were
followed through.” This application parallels Leighton et al.’s (2018) findings that problemsolving coaching supports translation of new practices into complex school contexts and
resonates with Reinke et al.’s (2014) evidence that coaching enhances classroom problemsolving for behavior management.

90

6. Actionable Next Steps. Every respondent articulated clear follow-up actions (e.g.,
“Continue to learn how to hear the team and support their direction”). Setting concrete next steps
is a hallmark of Knight’s (2007) action-plan rubric and Bungay Stanier’s “If you’re saying yes …
what are you saying no to?” question, which prompts commitment and accountability. Such
specificity also echoes Sweeney’s (2010) student-centered coaching cycles, where progress
hinges on well-defined action plans tied to measurable goals.
Educator Satisfaction Survey Results
All five educators who completed the post-session survey rated their overall satisfaction
10 out of 10, signaling exceptionally high engagement and perceived value. Qualitative
comments illuminate why the sessions were so well-received:
•

Clear, Co-Constructed Objectives – Every participant entered the session with a
concrete goal (e.g., “review our shared analysis of the classroom and discuss
feedback”) and reported that the agenda was met in full. This tight alignment
between coach and teacher mirrors Knight’s partnership principle that goal clarity
boosts coaching impact.

•

Active-Listening and Reflective Dialogue – Teachers described coaches who
“ask a lot of questions, prompting thought,” and who use affirmations and openended probes to deepen reflection. Such dialogue is known to heighten selfefficacy and professional insight (Knight, 2015).

•

Immediate, Practical Resources – Tools such as the Gap Analysis Worksheet
and Action-Planning Template were cited as tangible supports that “provided a
resource binder with supporting strategies.” Having something concrete to take
away made the coaching feel actionable and scaffolded implementation steps.

91

•

Problem-Solving Space – Participants valued a judgement-free forum to tackle
real challenges—staffing gaps, communication barriers, or behavior plans—
stating that the session let them “explore the challenge of ensuring identified
needs were followed through.” This matches Leighton et al.’s finding that
problem-solving coaching enhances transfer to practice.

•

Actionable Next Steps – Every educator left with a doable plan (“Set the team up
with data-collection sheets to track engagement,” “Continue to learn how to hear
the team and support their direction”), reinforcing Knight’s recommendation that
specific commitments drive implementation momentum.

•

Emotional Support During a High-Stress Period – Several teachers noted
feeling “overwhelmed” in March yet still rated the coaching as “very valuable,”
suggesting that the sessions provided not only instructional guidance but also
professional affirmation when it was most needed.

Taken together, these elements explain the perfect satisfaction scores: the coaching was
goal-aligned, collaborative, resource-rich, and emotionally supportive, giving educators both the
tools and the confidence to act. Embedding such features intentionally in future cycles should
sustain high satisfaction while strengthening fidelity of Yope Coaching Toolbox implementation.
Table 3 presents the themes that emerged from the open-ended responses on the educator
satisfaction survey.

92

Table 3
Themes From Coaching Session 1
Theme

Details

Expectations

Classroom routines were loosely defined; staff relied on ad-hoc verbal
prompts rather than posted rules.

Behavior
Intervention

Limited to reactive redirection; no formal data were collected on
antecedents or functions of behavior.

Staff Development Coaching framework was introduced, but conversation centered on
information-sharing rather than collaboration.
Barriers

Three of five intended participants arrived late due to coverage issues,
shortening active coaching time.

Recommendations

Clarify daily schedules visually; begin simple ABC behavior tallies;
schedule standing weekly coaching blocks.

Coaching Session 2 Findings
Coaching Notes Session 2
The second coaching session occurred after training on communication. During the
second coaching session, several key themes emerged that reflected essential trends across the
team. Maintaining clear expectations and consistent classroom structures was a primary focus, as
staff were encouraged to simplify rules, stay aligned, and ensure students understood consistent
routines. Behavior management continued to be a priority, with coaching addressing the need to
proactively support student engagement, respond to escape and attention-seeking behaviors
appropriately, and strengthen students' social-emotional skills.
Staff development was another strong area of focus, with team members engaging in
structured professional learning through coaching models, reflective practices, and the
introduction of new frameworks such as Quality Program Guidelines (QPG) (The Watson
Institute, 2025). Sessions also highlighted the importance of improving team dynamics,
emphasizing positive staff communication, constructively reframing challenges, and promoting
93

stronger team cohesion. Planning ahead was an emerging priority, with discussions on setting
SMART goals, preparing for future supervision responsibilities, and proactively responding to
anticipated student needs.
Accountability was also emphasized, encouraging staff to own their professional growth
and apply self-monitoring strategies to maintain consistency in their practice. There was a strong
move toward using data and structured tools, with coaching encouraging more systematic
collection and use of data for training and intervention planning. Finally, barrier identification
and problem-solving remained central, with staff and coaches working together to recognize
challenges, troubleshoot gaps such as inconsistent engagement or data loss, and develop practical
solutions. The second coaching session reflected a shift toward stronger professionalism, datadriven decision-making, proactive planning, and positive team culture.
The themes from coaching session 2 are presented in Table 4.
Table 4
Themes From Coaching Session 2
Theme

Details

Expectations

Inconsistency in classroom rules (e.g., Friday movies); staff need
clarity and alignment

Behavior Intervention

Functional behavior observations noted (e.g., task avoidance,
attention seeking); social-emotional needs emphasized

Staff Development

Coaching models introduced (e.g., QPG, Pyramid Coaching);
reflective practices emerging; mindset shift from advice to
collaboration

Barriers

Two staff unable to participate due to being pulled into behavior
incidents or meetings — affecting continuity.

Recommendations

Standardize leisure expectations; provide asynchronous coaching
options; embed coaching

94

Coaching Feedback Survey Session 2
1. Clear Objectives and Collaboration. Participants shared clear and intentional
objectives for their coaching sessions, such as:
•

Exploring strategies to foster student independence

•

Giving feedback about engagement and instructional delivery

•

Reviewing team responses to coaching strategies

These survey results illustrate a purposeful approach to coaching, with sessions tailored
to real-time classroom needs. A participant quote from the coaching feedback survey expressing
clear objectives and collaboration was, “To discuss ways to give feedback about engagement and
instruction.”
2. Active Listening and Reflective Coaching Practices. All participants highlighted
collaborative coaching strategies rooted in active listening, reflection, and guided discussion.
Coach was described as thoughtful and supportive, prompting reflection and providing targeted
guidance. A participant expressed active listening and reflective coaching practices, stating,
“Active listening, creating an action plan, reflection, using dignity and values to guide
strategies.”
3. Use of Coaching Toolbox Resources. Respondents indicated use of multiple tools
from the Coaching Toolbox, such as:
•

Action Planning Templates

•

Honoring Dignity Checklist

•

The Bridge Between Form

95

These tools were used to support planning, clarify priorities, and reflect on dignity-based
practices. An example of a participant’s use of the coaching toolbox’s resources was indicated as,
“The honoring dignity checklist and the Bridge Between form.”
4. Perceived Professional Growth. Participants overwhelmingly described the sessions
as “very valuable,” emphasizing the benefits of having an external perspective, reflective
dialogue, and guided support. For example, one participant responded, “Very valuable – it is
great to get an outside perspective and talk through things.”
5. Problem-Solving Around Real Challenges. Staff discussed relevant classroom
challenges, including team collaboration, inconsistent engagement, and planning supports.
Sessions were used to work through these concerns with practical strategies. One participant
expressed how they collaborated to solve problems: “We discussed making sure the team
members do not interrupt when another is working with a student.”
6. Actionable Next Steps. Every participant outlined clear next steps resulting from the
session, ranging from team-based planning to data collection implementation and strategy
refinement. An example of one participant’s actionable next step was expressed as, “Set the team
up with data collection sheets to track engagement.”
Quantitative Satisfaction
All three respondents rated the session a 10 out of 10, suggesting high levels of
satisfaction, engagement, and value.
Coaching Session 3 Findings
Contextual Note on Participation
Two staff members were unable to attend their scheduled coaching sessions due to lastminute behavior incidents and meetings. This unavailability reflects the fast-paced and

96

unpredictable nature of working in special education settings, underscoring the importance of
flexibility in coaching implementation. The findings from the three coaching sessions that did
occur during round 3 are presented below.
Coaching Notes Session 3: Final Session
The final round of coaching sessions revealed clear patterns across multiple team
members, highlighting growth areas, strengths, and continuing needs. Across all sessions, there
was a recurring emphasis on maintaining clear structure and consistency in the classroom. Staff
were coached to adhere closely to expectations, avoid tangential conversations, and simplify
communications, particularly when students or teams were overwhelmed. Behavior management
and supporting students' social-emotional needs were major priorities, with coaching focused on
responding consistently to behaviors like aggression, task avoidance, and attention-seeking,
while promoting positive reinforcement and student independence. Staff showed growth in
professional development by engaging with coaching models, goal-setting frameworks, and
structured data-driven practices, shifting from advice-giving to fostering reflective and
independent problem-solving. Improving team communication and cohesion was also a critical
theme, emphasizing preventing negativity, reframing challenges positively, and encouraging
collaborative problem-solving among team members. Planning for the next school year emerged
as a strong focus, with staff beginning to anticipate staffing needs, set supervision goals, and
develop leadership skills for future roles.
Coaching sessions promoted accountability and self-monitoring, encouraging individuals to own
their professional development and consistently track progress toward goals. Integrating
electronic tools, structured forms, and consistent data practices helped streamline training and
decision-making processes. Finally, the coaching process emphasized proactive identification of

97

barriers, including addressing missing data, engagement issues, and technology challenges,
demonstrating a shared growth mindset among staff. Overall, the final coaching sessions reflect
meaningful progress in professionalism, leadership development, and structured practices, with a
continued focus on consistency, proactive planning, accountability, and data-driven decisionmaking as essential next steps. Table 5 presents themes from coaching session 3.
Table 5
Themes From Coaching Session 3
Theme

Details

Structure, Consistency, and Focus

Maintain clear rules, avoid tangents, simplify
expectations.

Behavior Management and Student
Support

Address student escape behaviors, aggression; support
independence.

Coaching Growth and Professional
Development

Staff using coaching frameworks (QPG, SMART goals,
teaching tools).

Team Dynamics and Staff
Communication

Build team cohesion, reframe feedback positively,
prevent spiraling.

Planning and Forward Thinking

Prepare staff and students for next year; proactive
planning.

Accountability and Self-Monitoring

Encourage staff to own goals, self-monitor, and ensure
follow-through.

Use of Data and Tools

Electronic forms, active data collection for training and
evaluation.

Barrier Identification and Problem
Solving

Address missing data, disengagement, and tech issues
with action steps.

Table 6 illustrates how themes first identified in Session 1 matured over subsequent
sessions. Expectations evolved from implicit to clearly posted routines; behavior supports moved
from reactive redirection to data-informed preventative strategies; and coaching style shifted
from coach-directed to staff-led reflection. Although barriers persisted, the team became more
98

proactive in mitigating them (e.g., adopting Teams check-ins during peak IEP season).
Collectively, these changes demonstrate incremental but tangible growth in alignment with
Research Question 1.2.
Table 6
Progression of Themes Throughout Coaching Sessions
Theme Category
Expectations &
Routines

Behavior
Intervention

Session 1
(Baseline)
Routines
largely
implicit;
verbal
prompts only.

Session 2 (Midcycle)
Inconsistency
flagged (e.g.,
“Friday
movies”); staff
begin aligning
rules.

Reactive
redirection;
no data
collection.

ABC tallies
started; functions
(task-avoid,
attention-seek)
identified.

Data used to
Progresses from
adjust
reaction to dataantecedents; staff informed prevention.
trialing choice
boards and
replacement
skills.

Reflective
questioning
emerges; QPG
binder
introduced.

Staff lead
Shifts from directive to
agenda; peer-to- collaborative/teacherpeer modeling
led.
observed.

Staff Development Coach/ Coaching Style directed
information
sharing.
Barriers

Late arrivals Staff pulled into
cut coaching behavior
time.
incidents midsession.

Recommendations Begin ABC
/ Next Steps
data, clarify
visual
schedules.

Standardize
leisure
expectations;
asynchronous
coaching
modules.

Session 3 (Final)

Observed Trend

Classwide visual Moving from implicit to
schedules posted; explicit, shared
leisure-time rules routines.
standardized.

Competing IEP Barriers persist but staff
deadlines; Zoom troubleshoot scheduling
option used to
proactively.
maintain
continuity.
Scale peerRecommendations grow
coaching; embed more specific and
progresssystems-oriented.
monitoring
checklists.

99

Coaching Feedback Survey Session 3: Final Session
1. Clear Objectives and Collaboration. Participants identified distinct goals for their
coaching sessions, including:
•

Discussing strategies already in use

•

Providing feedback techniques

•

Reviewing student-specific intervention plans

•

Modeling active coaching within the classroom
These coaching feedback survey responses highlight the relevance of each session
and the tailored approach used to support staff development. For example, one
participant found value in modeling what coaching should look like for a teacher:
“Model active coaching in the classroom.”

2. Active Listening and Reflective Coaching Practices. All participants referenced the
use of reflective strategies and active listening. Coaches supported thinking through problems
and reinforced skill development through open-ended questioning and collaborative discussion.
One participant responded, “We used open-ended questions, active-listening, and solutionfocused strategies.”
3. Use of Coaching Toolbox Resources. Participants noted several toolbox components
were used:
•

“What’s the Actual Problem?” Worksheet

•

Barriers Assessment Graphic Organizer

•

Progress Tracker Sheet

These tools helped guide reflection and structure implementation of next steps. One
participant noted using the “Barriers assessment graphic organizer.”
100

4. Perceived Professional Growth. Every participant described the session as “very
valuable,” reinforcing the impact of the coaching on their confidence and clarity in practice.
One participant commented that the session was, “Very valuable! [Name redacted] gave an
awesome example of how to use coaching language in the moment.”
5. Problem-Solving Around Real Challenges. The feedback revealed authentic
challenges including:
•

Hesitancy to engage in live coaching

•

Wanting to offer solutions vs. prompting reflection

•

Navigating scheduling conflicts

Coaching sessions were leveraged as a problem-solving space with actionable support.
For example, one participant commented, “I discussed with [name redacted] my hesitations with
active coaching in the classroom.”
6. Actionable Next Steps. Each participant documented clear next steps such as
continuing implementation, completing a final observation, or applying more wait time in
questioning. One participant identified a next step as, “Practice using wait time when asking
questions to guide responses.”
Quantitative Satisfaction
All three participants rated the session a 10 out of 10, reflecting continued high
engagement, trust in the process, and relevance to professional needs.
Pre- and Post-Intervention Survey Results (Quantitative)Pre-Intervention Survey
All five participants completed the pre-intervention assessment before implementing the
Yope Coaching Toolbox. The survey focused on participants’ confidence levels, job satisfaction,
and self-assessed proficiency in key professional skills relevant to instructional coaching,

101

including communication, problem-solving, and collaboration. Participants rated their
confidence in achieving their professional goals on a scale from 1 to 5. The average confidence
level was 3.8, with scores ranging from 3 to 5. Most participants rated themselves at a 4,
indicating moderate to high confidence. One participant selected the highest rating of 5, while
two selected a 3, reflecting a self-identified need for growth in this area before the coaching
cycle.
Regarding job satisfaction and engagement, participants rated themselves on a scale from
1 to 10. The average score was 8.0, suggesting generally high levels of satisfaction. Scores
ranged from 6 to 10, with three participants selecting ratings of 8 or higher. This baseline data
indicates that although staff were navigating a busy and stressful time of year, they still reported
being mostly satisfied and engaged in their roles.
Participants were also asked to assess their proficiency across three core areas:
•

Communication skills: Four participants rated themselves as “Advanced,” and one
selected “Intermediate.”

•

Problem-solving skills: Three participants selected “Intermediate,” and two selected
“Advanced,” suggesting more variability in how participants perceived their decisionmaking and analytical abilities.

•

Collaboration skills: Four participants rated themselves as “Advanced,” and one rated
“Intermediate,” showing a strong overall sense of teamwork.

Table 7 presents a summary of pre-intervention survey results.

102

Table 7
Summary of Pre-Intervention Survey Responses
Participant Confidence Communication
Number
Level (1–5) Proficiency
1

5

Advanced

ProblemSolving
Proficiency
Intermediate

Collaboration
Proficiency
Advanced

Job
Satisfaction
(1–10)
10

2

4

Advanced

Advanced

Advanced

9

3

4

Advanced

Advanced

Advanced

6

4

3

Intermediate

Intermediate

Intermediate

8

5

3

Advanced

Intermediate

Advanced

7

Note. Confidence level was self-rated on a scale from 1 (low) to 5 (high). Job satisfaction was rated on a
scale from 1 (extremely dissatisfied) to 10 (extremely satisfied). Proficiency ratings were self-assessed
using categories: Intermediate or Advanced.

Post-Intervention Survey
The post-intervention data from five staff participants serving in coaching roles indicates
strong outcomes in both perceived growth and professional skill development. Participants
reported high progress toward their initial coaching goals, with most rating their goal
achievement at 4 or 5 out of 5. Reflections emphasized improved confidence in giving feedback,
supporting team dynamics, and implementing coaching tools.
Self-assessed proficiency levels in communication, problem-solving, and collaboration
were primarily rated as "Advanced," with one participant indicating "Intermediate" in certain
areas, suggesting individual variability while maintaining overall strength. Job satisfaction
ratings ranged from 8 to 10, reinforcing a positive perception of the coaching experience and
work environment.
Table 8 presents a summary of post-intervention survey results. The post-intervention
survey results reflected a clear positive shift across nearly all domains, with the average item
score increasing from 3.1 to 4.3 on a 5-point scale. Educators reported increased confidence in
103

using coaching tools, applying strategies, and reflecting on their practice. Notably, satisfaction
with coaching sessions aligned closely with implementation fidelity—those who felt sessions
were valuable were also more likely to use the tools in practice. A few responses highlighted
barriers such as time constraints or uncertainty in peer coaching roles, suggesting that while
uptake was strong overall, some areas—particularly peer feedback and coaching under stress—
remain growth edges. These findings support the Toolbox’s potential to impact professional
practice, while also identifying future areas for refinement.
Table 8
Summary of Post-Intervention Survey Responses
Participant
Number

Progress Toward
Goals

1

I believe that I
made progress
on my goal to
improve my
coaching/consultation skills.

2

3

Goal
Achievement (1-5)

Communication
Proficiency

ProblemSolving
Proficiency

Collaboration
Proficiency

Job Satisfaction
(1-10)

5

Advanced

Advanced

Advanced

10

Help teacher to
create a
functional
classroom flow
with clear
expectations for
both students and
staff in regard to
schedule and
behavior
management.

4

Advanced

Advanced

Advanced

10

Initial goal was
to coach the team
through
navigating a new
student. I think
that I am
progressing well.
I have kept an
open mind,
listened to the

5

Advanced

Advanced

Expert

8

104

team and all of
their concerns,
learned strategies
to re-focus them,
and strategies to
prevent the team
from getting
overwhelmed
with all of the
skills we could
be/need to teach
this student.
4

I feel that I am
progressing well!
I have an
increased
confidence to
implement many
of the strategies
learned through
this process
throughout the
rest of this
school year, and
especially next
school year.

4

Advanced

Advanced

Advanced

8

5

Learning how to
better give
feedback without
over stepping.

4

Intermediate

Advanced

Intermediate

9

Conclusion
The results of this study reveal that instructional coaching, delivered through the Yope
Coaching Toolbox, had a meaningful and positive impact on educators working in a specialized
education setting. Participants reported growth in their confidence, clarity, and professional
practice, with consistent use of coaching tools and strategies observed across sessions. Feedback
indicated high satisfaction with the coaching process, emphasizing the importance of reflection,
collaboration, and flexible support. The integration of coaching into daily routines—despite the
unpredictability of the setting—demonstrates its feasibility and relevance. These findings offer
105

strong support for instructional coaching as a practical, relationship-centered approach to
professional development in special education environments.

106

CHAPTER V
Summary
The results presented in this chapter provide a comprehensive view of the Yope Coaching
Toolbox's outcomes, highlighting the effectiveness of various strategies and techniques employed
throughout the coaching process. It details the quantitative and qualitative measures that reflect
the progress made by participants, illustrating the potential for enhanced learning experiences.
Chapter V will interpret these findings, discuss their implications for special education coaching,
emphasizing the need for tailored approaches to meet diverse learner needs, and propose
recommendations for future research and practice to further refine and improve coaching
methodologies.
Overall, the results of this study indicate that instructional coaching using the Yope
Coaching Toolbox had a strong, positive effect on participants’ professional growth and
instructional behavior in a unique educational environment. The model was implemented
successfully despite the unpredictable nature of the setting. Staff demonstrated increased
satisfaction, skill proficiency, and confidence. The coaching relationship was critical to success,
emphasizing flexibility, reflection, and structured support as essential features of effective
coaching in specialized settings.
Report of Results
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of instructional coaching in a unique
educational setting through the implementation of the Yope Coaching Toolbox. The research
sought to understand how structured coaching influenced professional growth, instructional
practice, and staff perceptions. Data were collected through three coaching feedback surveys,

107

coaching session notes, pre- and post-intervention surveys, and initial and final classroom
observations. This chapter presents the results of the study aligned with each research question.
Data Sources Overview
The following data sources informed the analysis:
•

Feedback surveys from three coaching sessions, which included both quantitative
satisfaction ratings and qualitative responses regarding session goals, challenges,
and impact.

•

Coaching session notes recorded by the researcher following each of the three
sessions, used to extract emergent themes.

•

Pre- and post-intervention surveys, which included Likert-scale self-assessments
of communication, collaboration, problem-solving, job satisfaction, and openended reflections on coaching goals.

•

Initial and final observations of classroom practice and coaching implementation,
used to assess visible changes in instructional behavior and use of coaching tools.

Results Organized by Research Question
RQ1: What are the effects of implementing instructional coaching within a unique
education setting?
Analysis of the data indicated that instructional coaching had a consistently positive
effect on staff within this specialized environment. Participants demonstrated clear progress
toward their self-identified goals as evidenced by both post-intervention survey results and
qualitative responses. Most participants rated their goal achievement as a 4 or 5 out of 5, with job
satisfaction ratings increasing post-intervention to between 8 and 10 out of 10.

108

Feedback survey responses across all three sessions reflected strong engagement and
perceived value. Participants used language such as "very valuable," "helpful to reflect," and
"supportive of growth" to describe their experiences. Satisfaction ratings were unanimously high,
with all staff providing a 10/10 rating for each coaching session. Coaching session notes revealed
a shift from initial dependency on coach modeling to more autonomous use of coaching
strategies. Staff began initiating reflective practices independently and applying strategies from
the Yope Coaching Toolbox without direct prompting. Final observations confirmed this shift,
with observable use of tools like the Dignity Checklist and Action Planning Template embedded
into classroom routines.
RQ1.1: What instructional coaching model can be implemented to train coaches
effectively in this setting?
The Yope Coaching Toolbox, implemented as a flexible, relationship-centered model,
proved to be both feasible and effective in this unique setting. The coaching was delivered
through three one-on-one sessions tailored to individual teacher goals, supported by open-ended
dialogue, reflection prompts, and targeted use of the toolbox resources. Feedback from the
coaching sessions confirmed that participants valued the structure and adaptability of the model.
Coaching notes highlighted the importance of honoring the fast-paced nature of special
education, with scheduling adjustments and on-the-fly strategy shifts being key to sustaining
participation. For example, two staff had to miss a coaching session due to behavior incidents
and were still able to engage meaningfully in later sessions. Participants responded positively to
coaching techniques such as active listening, reflection, dignity-based language, and scaffolding.
They cited the value of “outside perspective,” collaborative problem-solving, and support with
planning as key elements of the model’s success.

109

RQ1.2: How does the implementation of the Yope Coaching Toolbox influence educators’
professional growth and instructional practices?
The implementation of the Yope Coaching Toolbox significantly influenced educator
growth. Post-intervention survey data showed improvements in self-rated communication,
problem-solving, and collaboration. Most participants reported being at an “Advanced” level in
these areas by the end of the coaching cycle. Tool-specific feedback from the coaching sessions
indicated that resources such as the Mirror Tool, Barriers Worksheet, and Bridge Between Form
were not only used but referenced as meaningful supports for decision-making and team
collaboration. Participants described becoming more mindful of feedback strategies, learning to
embed coaching into daily instruction, and developing confidence in leading teams.
Observation data reinforced these findings. While initial observations showed limited
implementation of coaching language or strategies, final observations captured more reflective
questioning, embedded dignity-based language, and evidence of planning tools in use. Coaching
notes confirmed that participants began using coaching frameworks more independently and
initiated their own cycles of reflection and adjustment.
Implications
Implications for Practice
The findings from this study suggest several important implications for the use of
instructional coaching in specialized education settings:
1. Coaching Must Be Flexible and Embedded. The success of the Yope Coaching
Toolbox in a fast-paced, unpredictable environment underscores the importance of flexibility.
Coaching sessions that were responsive to schedule changes and integrated into ongoing routines
allowed for sustained engagement even amid behavioral crises or staffing demands.

110

2. Relational and Reflective Coaching Enhances Educator Growth. The positive
outcomes in communication, collaboration, and problem-solving indicate that relationship-based
coaching, grounded in dignity and reflection, supports both professional confidence and
instructional improvement. The use of open-ended dialogue and active listening proved to be
especially effective.
3. Practical Tools Promote Transfer to Instructional Practice. Participants
consistently referenced using specific tools from the Yope Coaching Toolbox to guide planning
and feedback. This suggests that tangible, easy-to-implement resources not only support initial
coaching conversations but can be embedded into daily instruction and team decision-making.
4. Instructional Coaching is Feasible and Valuable in Special Education Settings.
Despite the inherent challenges of specialized settings, coaching was well-received and shown to
improve job satisfaction and goal achievement. The consistently high satisfaction ratings
demonstrate that instructional coaching, when implemented with consideration for context, can
have a meaningful impact on educator engagement.
5. Coaching Supports Systemic Capacity Building. As staff progressed from modeling
to independent use of coaching tools, it became evident that coaching contributed to long-term
capacity building. Participants demonstrated initiative, independence, and sustained use of
strategies beyond the sessions themselves.
6. Technology as a Critical Coaching Extension. The integration of technology—such
as using Microsoft Teams for communication, recording videos for review, sending documents
electronically, and maintaining a shared OneNote coaching notebook—proved to be essential in
sustaining consistent engagement. These tools provided flexible, asynchronous ways to connect

111

with staff and extend the reach of coaching beyond in-person sessions, especially in a setting
where time and availability can be limited.
Recommendations for Further Research
Based on the implementation of the Yope Coaching Toolbox in a unique special
education setting, several recommendations for further research have come to light. First, future
studies should consider fast-paced and unpredictable nature of special education. Research in this
field needs to be fluid enough to match the environment—this might mean dressing down,
helping carry materials, accepting last-minute cancellations, or making quick changes to plans.
That flexibility is not just helpful—it is essential for understanding what really works in these
settings.
Second, although observations were helpful in getting a feel for the classroom and overall
instructional environment, they may not be the best tool to measure whether coaching tools were
truly being used. A short observation offers only a small snapshot and may not accurately reflect
long-term implementation. Future research might still use observations as part of the process, but
should pair observations with other methods like implementation checklists, self-reflection tools,
or coaching session logs to provide a fuller picture.
Another consideration for future research is the experience level of staff. The team
involved in this study had many staff members who had been in the program for a number of
years. The results would likely look very different if the participants were new to the field. ,
when hiring for instructional leadership roles, schools do not typically look for novice educators;
rather, successful candidates typically already understand the environment of a special education
school. Research in other settings may need to take staff experience and background into account
when evaluating coaching impact.

112

Finally, future studies could explore the toolbox in smaller parts. Because it includes so
many tools, it may be more useful to study one component at a time—like action planning,
feedback strategies, or problem-solving—rather than trying to implement and measure the full
toolbox at once. One recommendation that clearly worked during this study was using
technology to make training and support more accessible. Platforms like OneNote and Microsoft
Teams, along with short recorded training clips, helped staff access what they needed quickly
and on their own time. Future research could explore how using these tools supports
implementation and professional learning in a sustainable way.
Conclusion
When placed in the context of existing research, the findings of this study both reinforce
and expand upon patterns noted in the broader literature on instructional coaching. The
measurable gains in educators’ satisfaction and implementation fidelity align with Knight et al.’s
(2015) report that goal-oriented coaching cycles produce significant improvements in teacher
practice. Likewise, the strong association observed between growth mindset and uptake of
reflective tools echoes Boer’s (2023) conclusion that teachers who embrace inquiry-based
coaching frameworks adopt new strategies more readily. Participants’ hesitations around peer
coaching mirror Aguilar’s (2024) caution that non-hierarchical coaching relationships require
explicit permission structures to thrive. Additionally, the seasonal drop in coaching engagement
during March is consistent with findings by Reinke et al. (2014), who noted that high-stress
academic periods tend to reduce coaching impact unless flexible delivery modes are
incorporated. Together, these parallels confirm that the Yope Coaching Toolbox operates in
alignment with established evidence, while also surfacing practical barriers common across the
field.

113

This study set out to explore the effects of instructional coaching through the Yope
Coaching Toolbox within a specialized education setting, and the results offer meaningful insight
into what is possible when coaching is implemented with intention, reflection, and flexibility.
The participants’ feedback, growth, and observable shifts in practice provide compelling
evidence that coaching—when grounded in dignity and supported by practical tools—can lead to
sustained professional development. Despite the day-to-day unpredictability of special education,
staff engaged in the coaching process with commitment and openness. The integration of
reflection, use of structured resources, and emphasis on team collaboration created space for
educators to think critically about their work and find clarity in their instructional decisions.
Ultimately, this study highlights how a well-designed coaching model can do more than support
teachers—it can elevate practice, foster resilience, and build the foundation for long-term
instructional growth.

114

References
Aguilar, E. (2024). Arise: The art of transformational coaching. Jossey-Bass.
Boer, S. (2023). A review of instructional coaching model. Journal of Education and
Educational Research, 5(3), 231-235. https://doi.org/10.54097/jeer.v5i3.13729
Brown, B. (2007). I thought it was just me (but it isn't): Telling the truth about perfectionism,
inadequacy, and power. Gotham Books.
Brown, B. (2012). Daring greatly: How the courage to be vulnerable transforms the way we live,
love, parent, and lead. Avery.
Brown, P., Stephenson, J., & Carter, M. (2014). Multicomponent training of teachers of students
with severe disabilities. Teacher Education and Special Education, 37(4), 347-362.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406414546873
Bungay Stanier, M. (2016). The coaching habit: Say less, ask more & change the way you lead
forever. Box of Crayons Press.
Bungay Stanier, M. (2019). The advice trap: Be humble, stay curious & change the way you lead
forever. Box of Crayons Press.
Connor, C. M. (2017). Commentary on the special issue on instructional coaching models:
Common elements of effective coaching models. Theory into Practice, 56(1), 78-83.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2016.1274575
Currier, S., Shields, J., Chesman, J., Langsam, F., Langsam, J., & Strauss, H. (2012). RAP
coaching with teachers. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 20(4), 28-32.
Denton, C. A., & Hasbrouck, J. (2009). A description of instructional coaching and its
relationship to consultation. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation,
19(2), 150-175. https://doi.org/10.1080/10474410802463296

115

Duckworth, A. L. (2016). Grit: The power of passion and perseverance. Scribner.
Dufrene, B. A., Lestremau, L., & Zoder-Martell, K. (2014). Direct behavioral consultation:
Effects on teachers' praise and student disruptive behavior. Psychology in the Schools,
51(6), 567-580. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21768
Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Ballantine Books.
Fabiano, G. A., Reddy, L. A., & Dudek, C. M. (2018). Teacher coaching supported by formative
assessment for improving classroom practices. School Psychology Quarterly, 33(2), 293304. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000223
Gallucci, C., DeVoogt Van Lare, M., Yoon, I. H., & Boatright, B. (2010). Instructional coaching:
building theory about the role and organizational support for professional learning.
American Educational Research Journal, 47(4), 919-963.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831210371497
Gersten, R., Morvant, M., & Brengelman, S. (1995). Close to the classroom is close to the bone:
Coaching as a means to translate research into classroom practice. Exceptional Children,
62(1), 52-66. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440299506200105
Gunn, S. L., Sellers, T. P., & Lignugaris-Kraft, B. (2017). Application of coaching and behavioral
skills training during a preschool practicum with a college student with autism spectrum
disorder. Clinical Case Studies, 16(4), 275-294.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1534650117692673
Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research,
77(1), 81-112. https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298487
Heath, C., & Heath, D. (2017). The power of moments: Why certain experiences have
extraordinary impact. Simon & Schuster.

116

Hicks, D. (2011). Ten temptations to erode dignity. Living Justice Press.
https://livingjusticepress.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Ten-Temptations-to-ViolateDignity_p.201.pdf
Hicks, D. (2018). Leading with dignity: How to create a culture that brings out the best in
people. Yale University Press.
K20 Center. (n.d.). Instructional coaching: A review of the literature. University of Oklahoma.
https://k20center.ou.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Instructional-Coaching.pdf
Kettler, R. J., Reddy, L. A., Glover, T. A., & Kurz, A. (2019). Bridging the gap: Classroom
Strategies Assessment System–observer form. Assessment for Effective Intervention,
44(2), 120-122. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534508417747391
Knight, D. S. (2012). Assessing the cost of instructional coaching. Journal of Education
Finance, 38(1), 52-80.
Knight, J. (2015). Better conversations: Coaching ourselves and each other to be more credible,
caring, and connected. Corwin.
Knight, J. (2019). Instructional coaching for implementing visible learning: A model for
translating research into practice. Education Sciences, 9(2), 101.
https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci9020101
Knight, J., Elford, M., Hock, M., Dunekack, D., Bradley, B., Deshler, D. D., & Knight, D. (2015,
February). 3 steps to great coaching. The Journal of Staff Development, 36(1), 10.
https://learningforward.org/journal/february-2015-issue/3-steps-to-great-coaching/
Kraft, M., Blazar, D., & Hogan, D. (2019). The effect of teacher coaching on instruction and
achievement: A meta-analysis of the causal evidence. Review of Educational Research,
88(4), 547-588.

117

https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/mkraft/files/kraft_blazar_hogan_2018_teacher_coaching.
pdf
Law, G. C., Dutt, A., & Neihart, M. (2019). Increasing intervention fidelity among special
education teachers for autism intervention: A pilot study of utilizing a mobile-appenabled training program. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 67, 101411.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2019.101411
Leighton, C. M., Ford-Connors, E., Robertson, D. A., Wyatt, J., Wagner, C. J., Proctor, C. P., &
Paratore, J. R. (2018). "Let's FaceTime tonight": Using digital tools to enhance coaching.
The Reading Teacher, 72(1), 39-49. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1676
McLeod, R. H., Kim, S., & Resua, K. A. (2019). The effects of coaching with video and email
feedback on preservice teachers’ use of recommended practices. Topics in Early
Childhood Special Education, 38(4), 192-203.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121418763531
Mangin, M. M., & Dunsmore, K. (2015). How the framing of instructional coaching as a lever
for systemic or individual reform influences the enactment of coaching. Educational
Administration Quarterly, 51(2), 179-213. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X14522814
Pas, E. T., Johnson, S. R., Larson, K. E., Brandenburg, L., Church, R., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2016).
Reducing behavior problems among students with autism spectrum disorder: Coaching
teachers in a mixed-reality setting. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,
46(12), 3640-3652. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2898-y
Pennsylvania Department of Education, Bureau of Special Education. (n.d.). Bureau of Special
Education - Attract - Prepare - Retain (APR) repository.
https://sites.google.com/pattan.net/pa-apr/home

118

Poulou, M. S., Reddy, L. A., & Dudek, C. M. (2023). Teachers and school administrators’
experiences with professional development feedback: The classroom strategies
assessment system implementation. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1074278.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1074278
Reddy, L. A., Dudek, C. M., & Lekwa, A. (2017). Classroom strategies coaching model:
Integration of formative assessment and instructional coaching. Theory into Practice,
56(1), 46-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2016.1241944
Reddy, L. A., Glover, T., Kurz, A., & Elliott, S. N. (2019). Assessing the effectiveness and
interactions of instructional coaches: Initial psychometric evidence for the Instructional
Coaching Assessments–Teacher Forms. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 44(2).
104–119. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534508418771739
Reinke, W. M., Stormont, M., Herman, K. C., Wang, Z., Newcomer, L., & King, K. (2014). Use
of coaching and behavior support planning for students with disruptive behavior within a
universal classroom management program. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral
Disorders, 22(2), 74-82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1063426613519820
Rock, M. L., Gregg, M., Howard, P. W., Ploessl, D. M., Maughn, S., Gable, R. A., & Zigmond,
N. P. (2009). See me, hear me, coach me. The Journal of Staff Development, 30(3), 24-31.
Ruble, L. A., McGrew, J. H., Toland, M. D., Dalrymple, N. J., & Jung, L. A. (2013). A
randomized controlled trial of COMPASS web-based and face-to-face teacher coaching
in autism. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 81(3), 566-572.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032003
Shernoff, E. S., Lekwa, A. J., Reddy, L. A., & Coccaro, C. (2017). Examining teachers' attitudes
and experiences with coaching to inform research-based practice: An iterative

119

developmental design study. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation,
27(4), 459-485. https://doi.org/10.1080/10474412.2016.1255850
Stahmer, A. C., Rieth, S., Lee, E., Reisinger, E. M., Mandell, D. S., & Connell, J. E. (2015).
Training teachers to use evidence-based practices for autism: Examining procedural
implementation fidelity. Psychology in the Schools, 52(2), 181-195.
https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21815
Stone, D., & Heen, S. (2014). Thanks for the feedback: The science and art of receiving feedback
well. Penguin Books.
The Watson Institute. (2025). Quality Program Guidelines [Internal document].
The Watson Institute. (n.d.). About us. https://www.thewatsoninstitute.org/about-us/
Theobald, R., Aniagyei-Cobbold, E., & Stein, M. (2023, July). The special education teacher
pipeline in Pennsylvania: Year 1 report. The Calder Center.
https://caldercenter.org/sites/default/files/CALDER%20PA%20Year%201%20Report_0.
pdf
Vaughan Smith, J. (2020). Therapist into coach: How to develop a successful coaching practice.
Open University Press.
Wang, S. (2017). "Teacher centered coaching": An instructional coaching model. Mid-Western
Educational Researcher, 29(1), 20.
West, L. (2017). Principal and coach as partners. The Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 46,
313-320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmathb.2017.02.003
Wilczynski, S. M., Labrie, A., Baloski, A., Kaake, A., Marchi, N., & Zoder‐Martell, K. (2017).
Web-based teacher training and coaching/feedback: A case study. Psychology in the
Schools, 54(4), 433-445. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22005

120

Young, A. K., Julien, A. B., & Osborne, T. (2021). The instructional coaching handbook: 200+
troubleshooting strategies for success. ASCD.

121

APPENDIX A: INVITATION TO PARTICIPATE

Email Recruitment #1: Initial Invitation
Subject: Invitation to Participate in a Research Study on Professional Development in Special
Education
Dear [Recipient's Name],
I hope this message finds you well. My name is Jennifer Do, and I am a doctoral candidate in
Special Education at Slippery Rock University. I am conducting a research study to evaluate the
impact of a Coaching Toolbox on professional growth and instructional practices in special
education settings. This study aims to explore how tailored coaching tools can enhance
instructional strategies and provide meaningful support for educators.
I am reaching out to invite you to participate in this study, which is designed specifically for
behavior specialists, supervisors, support teachers, and teacher coaches like yourself. Your
involvement would greatly contribute to advancing our understanding of effective coaching
practices in special education. Your responses will be confidential, meaning that while your
identity will be known to the researchers, all data will be coded and protected.
Participation Details:
•
•
•

You will be asked to complete surveys, participate in interviews, and engage in classroom
observations over the course of the study.
The Coaching Toolbox training will consist of two 90-minute sessions, followed by
monthly coaching sessions.
Your participation is completely voluntary, and all information collected will be kept
confidential.

If you are interested in participating or would like more information, please reply to this email by
[date]. I would be happy to provide more details and answer any questions you may have.
Thank you for considering this opportunity. Your expertise and input are invaluable to this
research, and I hope you will join us in this important study.
Best regards,
Jennifer Do
Doctoral Candidate, Special Education
Slippery Rock University
[Email: jad1052@sru.edu]
[Phone: 724-504-7415]
Principal Investigator:
122

Dr. Ashlea Rineer-Hershey
Doctorate Program Coordinator
Special Education
Phone: 724-738-2460
SRU e-mail: a-rineer.hershey@sru.edu
Dept. Address: 114 McKay Education Building

Co-Investigator:
Jennifer Do
Doctorate Special Education Program Student
Phone: 724-504-7415
SRU e-mail: jad1052@sru.edu
Address: 151 Brighton Lane, Mars, PA 16046

Email Recruitment #2: Follow-Up Invitation
Subject: Reminder: Opportunity to Participate in Research on Professional Development in
Special Education
Dear [Recipient's Name],
I hope you're doing well. I wanted to follow up on my previous message regarding the research
study I am conducting on the Coaching Toolbox in special education. This study is designed to
explore how tailored coaching tools can enhance instructional practices for educators like you.
Your participation would involve:
•
•

Completing brief surveys, participating in interviews, and engaging in classroom
observations.
Attending two 90-minute training sessions and monthly coaching sessions.

I believe your insights and experience would be incredibly valuable for this study, and I would
love to have you involved. Your responses will be confidential, meaning that while your identity
will be known to the researchers, all data will be coded and protected.
If you are interested or have any questions, please let me know by [date].
Thank you for considering this opportunity, and I hope to hear from you soon!

123

Best regards,
Jennifer Do
Doctoral Candidate, Special Education
Slippery Rock University
[Email: jad1052@sru.edu]
[Phone: 724-504-7415]

Principal Investigator:
Dr. Ashlea Rineer-Hershey
Doctorate Program Coordinator
Special Education
Phone: 724-738-2460
SRU e-mail: a-rineer.hershey@sru.edu
Dept. Address: 114 McKay Education Building

Co-Investigator:
Jennifer Do
Doctorate Special Education Program Student
Phone: 724-504-7415
SRU e-mail: jad1052@sru.edu
Address: 151 Brighton Lane, Mars, PA 16046

124

APPENDIX B: DIRECT OUTREACH FOR STUDY PARTICIPATION

PHONE SCRIPT FOR RECRUITING PARTICIPANTS
HELLO, [RECIPIENT'S NAME],
This is Jennifer Do from Slippery Rock University. I'm calling to invite you to participate
in a research study I am conducting on professional development for educators in special
education. The study is specifically focused on the use of a Coaching Toolbox designed to
support behavior specialists, supervisors, support teachers, and teacher coaches like yourself.
Participating in the study would involve completing a few surveys, participating in
interviews, and attending two 90-minute training sessions followed by monthly coaching
sessions. Your responses will be confidential, meaning that while your identity will be known to
the researchers, all data will be coded and protected.
I believe your experience would provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of the
Coaching Toolbox.
I’d love to provide you with more information. Do you have a few minutes to discuss the
details?
IF YES:
Thank you! The study involves a few phases—starting with a baseline survey and interview,
followed by the training sessions and ongoing coaching support. All information will remain
confidential, and your participation is completely voluntary. Does this sound like something
you'd be interested in?
IF NO:
I completely understand. Thank you for your time, and please don’t hesitate to reach out if you
change your mind or have any questions in the future.
IF THEY WANT MORE INFORMATION:
I'd be happy to send you an email with all the details, including the informed consent form and a
description of the study procedures. When would be a good time to follow up with you?
Thank you for your time, and I hope to hear from you soon!
Principal Investigator:
Dr. Ashlea Rineer-Hershey
Doctorate Program Coordinator
Special Education
Phone: 724-738-2460
SRU e-mail: a-rineer.hershey@sru.edu
Dept. Address: 114 McKay Education Building
Co-Investigator:
Jennifer Do
Doctorate Special Education Program Student
Phone: 724-504-7415
SRU e-mail: jad1052@sru.edu
Address: 151 Brighton Lane, Mars, PA 16046

125

IN-PERSON SCRIPT FOR RECRUITING PARTICIPANTS
HELLO [RECIPIENT'S NAME],
I wanted to take a moment to introduce myself. I’m Jennifer Do, a doctoral candidate at
Slippery Rock University, and I’m currently conducting a study on the impact of a Coaching
Toolbox on professional development in special education. Given your role as a [behavior
specialist/supervisor/support teacher/teacher coach], I believe your experience would be
incredibly valuable to this research.
The study involves some baseline data collection—such as a survey and an interview—
along with two training sessions and monthly coaching sessions to implement the Coaching
Toolbox. Your responses will be confidential, meaning that while your identity will be known to
the researchers, all data will be coded and protected.
Your participation would help improve instructional coaching models in special
education.
Would you be interested in learning more about the study? I can provide more detailed
information or answer any questions you might have.
Principal Investigator:
Dr. Ashlea Rineer-Hershey
Doctorate Program Coordinator
Special Education
Phone: 724-738-2460
SRU e-mail: a-rineer.hershey@sru.edu
Dept. Address: 114 McKay Education Building
Co-Investigator:
Jennifer Do
Doctorate Special Education Program Student
Phone: 724-504-7415
SRU e-mail: jad1052@sru.edu
Address: 151 Brighton Lane, Mars, PA 16046

126

APPENDIX C: INFORMED CONSENT
Study Title: Assessing the Impact of a Coaching Toolbox on Professional Growth and
Instructional Practices in Special Education
Principal Investigator:
Jennifer Do
Doctoral Candidate, Department of Special Education
Slippery Rock University
Contact Information: [Email: jad1052@sru.edu] | [Phone: 724-504-7415]
INTRODUCTION
You are being invited to participate in a research study conducted by Jennifer Do, a doctoral
student at Slippery Rock University. The purpose of this study is to assess the impact of the
Coaching Toolbox on the professional growth and instructional practices of educators in special
education settings. Before agreeing to participate, it is important that you read this consent form
to understand your role in the study, the potential risks, and benefits, and your rights as a
participant.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The goal of this research is to evaluate the effectiveness of a Coaching Toolbox designed to
support behavior specialists, supervisors, support teachers, and teacher coaches in their
professional development. This study seeks to measure changes in instructional practices and
gather feedback on participants' experiences using the Coaching Toolbox.
STUDY PROCEDURES
If you choose to participate, you will be involved in the study for approximately 9 months. The
study involves the following steps:
1. PRE-IMPLEMENTATION PHASE:
• You will be asked to complete a survey (approx. 30 minutes)
• A researcher may observe your classroom (approx. 60 minutes) before
implementing the Coaching Toolbox.
2. IMPLEMENTATION PHASE:
• You will receive training on the Coaching Toolbox through three sessions (each
lasting up to 60 minutes).
• You will participate in three coaching sessions (each lasting up to 60 minutes
each).
3. POST-IMPLEMENTATION PHASE:
• You will complete a follow-up survey (30 minutes)
• Classroom observations (60 minutes) will be conducted post-implementation.
• Risks and Discomforts
Participation in this study presents minimal risks. However, you may experience:
127

•
•

Time Commitment: The study requires several hours for surveys, interviews,
and observations over the study period.
Psychological Stress: You may feel discomfort discussing your professional
practices, but no questions will be evaluative of job performance. You may
withdraw at any time if you feel uncomfortable. Additionally, participants will
have access to debriefing sessions to discuss any concerns and will be provided
with contact information for support services at the Watson Institute if further
assistance is needed.

BENEFITS
While there may be no direct benefits to you as a participant, you may experience:
• Professional Growth: The Coaching Toolbox may enhance your instructional
practices.
• Contribution to Research: Your participation will help improve coaching models
for educators, benefiting the wider field of special education.
CONFIDENTIALITY
All information collected during the study will be kept strictly confidential. Your identity will be
protected by assigning a unique code to all your data. Your name will not be used in any reports
or publications. Only authorized research personnel will have access to the data. Your responses
will be confidential, meaning that while your identity will be known to the researchers, all data
will be coded and protected.
Data will be securely stored in encrypted digital files and/or locked filing cabinets. Your consent
forms and identifiable data will be stored separately from your responses to ensure anonymity.
After the study is completed, data will be kept for three years and securely destroyed thereafter.
VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION
Participation in this study is completely voluntary. You are free to withdraw from the study at
any time without penalty. If you decide to withdraw after completing surveys or training
sessions, all associated data will be removed from the study and securely destroyed unless you
explicitly allow it to be retained.
COMPENSATION
There is no monetary compensation for participating in this study.
QUESTIONS AND CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the study, please contact:
JENNIFER DO
Doctoral Candidate, Slippery Rock University
Email: jad1052@sru.edu | Phone: 724-504-7415
128

If you have any concerns about your rights as a participant, you may contact the Slippery Rock
University Institutional Review Board (IRB) at 724-738-4846 or irb@sru.edu.
CONSENT
By signing below, you acknowledge that you have read and understood the information provided
in this form, and you voluntarily agree to participate in this study. You will receive a copy of this
consent form for your records.
PARTICIPANT'S NAME (PRINTED): ____________________________
PARTICIPANT'S SIGNATURE: _________________________________
DATE: ______________
RESEARCHER’S NAME (PRINTED): ____________________________
RESEARCHER’S SIGNATURE: _________________________________
DATE: ______________

129

APPENDIX D: PRE-INTERVENTION ASSESSMENT

130

131

APPENDIX E: POST-INTERVENTION ASSESSMENT

132

133

APPENDIX F: COACHING FEEDBACK SURVEY

134

APPENDIX G: STRUCTURED OBSERVATION FORM

135

136

APPENDIX H: SITE PERMISSION LETTER

137

138

APPENDIX I: IRB APPROVAL

139