Running head: PERCEPTIONS OF CHILDHOOD TRAUMA

THE INTERSECTION OF CHILDHOOD TRAUMA, TRAUMA-INFORMED
PRACTICES, AND SPECIAL EDUCATION: PERCEPTIONS OF SPECIAL
EDUCATION TEACHERS
_____________________________________
A Dissertation
Presented to
The College of Graduate and Professional Studies
Department of Special Education
Slippery Rock University
Slippery Rock, Pennsylvania
______________________
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctorate of Special Education
_______________________
by
Elizabeth A. Mason
November 2024
ã Elizabeth A. Mason, 2024
Keywords: adverse childhood experiences, childhood trauma, trauma-informed practices,
special education, professional development

PERCEPTIONS OF CHILDHOOD TRAUMA
COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Committee Chair: Jessica Wirth-Hall, Ed.D
Associate Professor of Special Education
Slippery Rock University
Committee Member: Ashlea Rineer-Hershey, Ph.D
Associate Professor of Special Education
Slippery Rock University
Committee Member: Michelle Ludwig, Ed.D
Director of Pupil Services
Spring Grove Area School District

PERCEPTIONS OF CHILDHOOD TRAUMA
ABSTRACT
Childhood trauma impacts approximately half of school-aged youth in the United States,
with many students experiencing one or more adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) that
contribute to complex mental health, social, and educational challenges by the time they
are seniors in high school. Childhood trauma is particularly impacting students receiving
special education services, as trauma-related factors often cause learning disabilities,
behavioral difficulties, and social challenges in the school setting. This qualitative case
study examined the perspectives of special education teachers regarding the effects of
childhood trauma, their roles in implementing trauma-informed practices, and the
professional development opportunities they have participated in within a K-12 public
school district in central Pennsylvania. Using semi-structured interviews, key themes
emerged concerning the challenges teachers face in providing trauma-informed practices.
Findings suggest that teachers view trauma as a critical factor affecting students’
academic performance and social-emotional regulation, requiring a coordinated, schoolwide approach to trauma-informed care. The study concludes with recommendations for
school districts to adopt ongoing, culturally responsive professional development and
foster partnerships within the community organizations to enhance support systems for
special education students impacted by childhood trauma. These findings highlight the
importance of implementing strategic enhancements in professional development,
specifically designed to provide special education teachers with the essential tools to
effectively support the diverse needs of special education students affected by childhood
trauma.

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PERCEPTIONS OF CHILDHOOD TRAUMA
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I could not have reached this goal without the help and support of many people in
my life. First, my sincerest thanks to my dissertation committee and supervisor. The
value of their guidance was pivotal. I greatly appreciate their knowledge, experience, and
guidance every step of the way. Next, I would like to thank the special education support
staff members, teachers, and administrators I have had the pleasure of working with
throughout my teaching and administrative career. Each of you have played an integral
part in my educational journey. Third, I would like express my gratitude to my extended
family; the Kerrs, Masons, and Reichert’s. I am truly blessed to have such a wonderful
family to support me. Fourth, thank you to my parents, Dennis and Carrie, and sister,
Rachel. You have shown me I can do anything I set my mind to. Your love, support, and
modeling of a strong work ethic got me here, and I cannot thank you enough.
Last but not least, my biggest thank you to my husband, Jon. You have certainly
been by my side throughout the late nights and long weekend writing sessions. You have
been there when I was stuck figuring out what was next and for the celebrations when
each chapter came together. It took a few years to get here, but I could not have done this
without your love and encouragement.

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PERCEPTIONS OF CHILDHOOD TRAUMA
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. ix
LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................x
CHAPTER ONE ..................................................................................................................1
Problem to Be Studied ............................................................................................ 2
Research Questions ................................................................................................. 3
Overview of Trauma-Based Theoretical Frameworks ............................................ 3
Trauma and Traumatic Event(s) ............................................................................. 9
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) Study ................................................... 11
Childhood Trauma and the Intersection of Special Education ............................. 15
Significance of Study ............................................................................................ 16
Delimitations ......................................................................................................... 17
Definitions of Important Terms ............................................................................ 18
CHAPTER TWO ...............................................................................................................22
Trauma and the Brain............................................................................................ 27
The DSM-V’s Trauma-Related Psychiatric Disorders in Children, Adolescents and
Adults .................................................................................................................... 31
Trauma-Informed Early Intervention .................................................................... 34
Trauma-Informed School-Wide Supports............................................................. 37
Trauma-Informed Behavioral Dysregulation and Student Discipline .................. 43
Trauma-Informed Practices .................................................................................. 46
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PERCEPTIONS OF CHILDHOOD TRAUMA
Self-Regulation ......................................................................................... 49
Executive Functioning .............................................................................. 49
Trauma-Informed Interventions ................................................................ 50
Teachers’ Perceptions of Childhood Trauma ....................................................... 52
Childhood Trauma and the IDEA ......................................................................... 61
Case Law and the Limitations of the IDEA .............................................. 62
Childhood Trauma, Trauma-Informed Practices, and Special Education Services
............................................................................................................................... 68
Summary ............................................................................................................... 71
CHAPTER THREE ...........................................................................................................73
Research Questions ............................................................................................... 73
Pilot Study............................................................................................................. 73
Limitations of the Pilot Study ................................................................... 75
Conclusions of the Pilot Study.................................................................. 75
Description of Participants .................................................................................... 76
Descriptions of Instrumentation/Measurement Procedures .................................. 76
Research Design and Description of Procedures .................................................. 79
Data Analysis ........................................................................................................ 81
Summary ............................................................................................................... 83
CHAPTER FOUR..............................................................................................................86
Restatement of the Problem .................................................................................. 86
Demographics ....................................................................................................... 86
Data Collection ..................................................................................................... 89

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PERCEPTIONS OF CHILDHOOD TRAUMA
Findings ................................................................................................................ 91
Research Question 1 Findings .................................................................. 91
Research Question 2 Findings ................................................................ 103
Research Question 3 Findings ................................................................ 114
CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................123
Summary of Findings.......................................................................................... 124
Implications......................................................................................................... 125
Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 126
Recommendations for Further Research ............................................................. 128
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................132
APPENDIX A – SIGNATORY PAGE OF DISSERTATION TOPIC APPROVAL .....146
APPENDIX B – APPROVAL OF WRITTEN AND ORAL COMPREHENSIVE
EXAMINATION .............................................................................................................147
APPENDIX C – PILOT STUDY INTERIVEW GUIDE QUESTIONS.........................148
APPENDIX D – REQUEST FOR PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH WITH
FACULTY .......................................................................................................................150
APPENDIX E – PARTICIPANT EMAIL.......................................................................151
APPENDIX F – RESEARCH PARTICIPANT INFORMED CONSENT LETTER .....152
APPENDIX G – INTERVIEW PARTICICPATION CONSENT FORM ......................155
APPENDIX H – PARTICIPANT DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONNAIRE ....................156
APPENDIX I – INTERVIEW PROTOCOL SCRIPT.....................................................157
APPENDIX J – BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON CHILDHOOD TRAUMA ....160
APPENDIX K – FIDELITY CHECKLIST .....................................................................164

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APPENDIX L – SIGNATORY PAGE FOR DISSERTATION …………………… 165

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. New Haven Trauma-Focused Competencies ...................................................... 54
Table 2. SAMHSA’s Trauma-Informed Approach: Key Assumptions and Principals ... 55
Table 3. Interview Guide to Research Questions Breakdown ......................................... 78
Table 4. Codebook for Qualitative Data Analysis ............................................................ 84
Table 5. Enrollment by Gender ......................................................................................... 87
Table 6. Enrollment by Race/Ethnicity ............................................................................. 87
Table 7. Participant Codes and Teaching Profiles ............................................................ 90
Table 8. Research Questions, Interview Guide Questions, and Interview Guide Headings
........................................................................................................................................... 92

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PERCEPTIONS OF CHILDHOOD TRAUMA
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Bowen’s Family Systems Theory.........................................................................5
Figure 2. Our Hierarchy of Needs........................................................................................6
Figure 3. Historical Background of Trauma Theory .........................................................23
Figure 4. Trauma and the Brain ........................................................................................28
Figure 5. What is MTSS?...................................................................................................39

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CHAPTER ONE
Childhood trauma affects approximately half of school-age youth in U.S. schools.
Nearly half of the same number of youth reporting exposure to at least one adverse
childhood experience (ACE) also exhibit symptoms of anxiety and depression. Nearly
one-third of students experience two or more ACEs by the time they are 17 years of age.
Twelve out of 25 students in a typical classroom may have been affected by trauma, with
close to 8 of those 25 students having experienced two or more ACEs by the time they
are seniors in high school (McDowell Institute, 2022).
The effects of childhood trauma and its transference to adulthood intersect in
medicine, psychology, and education. In 1995, the U.S. Department of Education
promoted the concept of school-linked services to connect schools with their
communities in response to the growing number of students facing significant
psychological issues (U.S. Department of Education, 2022). The resulting evolution of
school-based mental health practices and policies has grounded educators’ understanding
of childhood trauma and trauma-informed practices in public schools.
The intersection of childhood trauma and special education is a critical and
complex area of concern in education. A child’s exposure to trauma can be the root cause
of learning disabilities, health problems, and social challenges that lead to behavioral
problems in school. Special education teachers play a vital role in identifying signs of
childhood trauma, child abuse, and neglect. Research on how to effectively support
special education teachers’ understanding of childhood trauma is under considered
(Chudzik et al, 2024; Goldenthal et al., 2024; Gill et al., 2015; Hunter et al., 2015; Miller
& Santos, 2020). Through a semi-structured interview process, this qualitative study

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sought to understand special education teachers’ perceptions of childhood trauma, their
role in providing trauma-informed practices, and the professional development they have
received on trauma-informed practices to support students who receive special education
services. Interviews were conducted with special education teachers to identify common
themes in professional development related to childhood trauma and trauma-informed
practices. The results of this study could to be used to guide future professional
development for special education teachers on childhood trauma and trauma-informed
practices within a school district and the greater community.
Problem to Be Studied
Across the nation, educators are reporting an increased prevalence and greater
intensity of children being exposed to traumatic events (Kramer, Sigel, Connors-Burrow,
Worley, Church, & Helpenstill, 2015; Levine, Sutherland, & Tagnesi, 2017; Rosen &
Cowan, 2013). A child’s exposure to one or more traumatic events has been proven to
disrupt a child’s learning and psychosocial development (American Psychological
Association, 2021. Children with disabilities and a history of trauma exposure have
higher rates of mental health challenges, academic-related distress, and have greater
difficulty forming peer relationships (Pickens & Tschopp, 2017; Winder, 2015). Despite
the foundational trauma-informed frameworks provided through the New Haven
Competencies (2014) and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration’s (SAMHAS) Trauma and Justice Strategic Initiative, there is a lack of
thorough research on special education teachers’ perceptions of childhood trauma and its
impact on special education services (Cook & Newman, 2014). Special education
teachers are unsure of their role in implementing trauma-informed practices.

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Additionally, research is lacking on special education teachers’ perceptions of the
professional development they have received for responding to children who have
experienced trauma and also qualify for special education services.
Research Questions
1. What are special education teachers’ perceptions of the prevalence and impact of
childhood trauma on the provision of special education services in the district?
2. What are special education teachers’ perceptions of their role in implementing
trauma-informed practices through special education services?
3. What are special education teachers’ perceptions of the professional development
they have received to support children who have experienced trauma and qualify
for special education services?
Overview of Trauma-Based Theoretical Frameworks
Trauma-informed practices in the public school system were developed from the
theoretical frameworks of attachment theory, family systems theory, Maslow’s hierarchy
of needs, ecological family systems theory, the polyvagal theory, and the sanctuary
model (Bloom, 2008; Bowlby, 1958; Bronfenbrenner, 1975; Delahooke, 2019;
Duplechain et al., 2008; Maslow, 1943; Purser, 2022; Rabstejnek, 2009). Drawing from
the psycho-analytical research of Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, Melanie Klein, Michael
and Alice Balints, and Margaret Ribble, Bowlby (1958) theorized the five instinctual
responses an infant develops. During the first 12 months of a child’s life, instinctual
responses develop and mature at different rates, binding a child to its mother. Bowlby’s
discoveries are known as the attachment theory. Infants exhibit a crying response when
they are hungry and when they want to be touched for warmth. As the infant grows, they

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begin to follow a person with their eyes. They want to remain close to their mother and
will exhibit a clinging response. Around six months old, an infant will smile, a response
activated by the mother’s behavior. Sucking is a behavior in an infant’s repertoire at
birth, and it continues to develop. For a child to survive, each of these responses ties an
infant to their mother (Bowlby, 1958).
Bowen’s family systems theory (Jakimowicz et al., 2020) hypothesizes a motherfather-child triad comprising eight concepts. Fusion or distancing can occur within a
family unit. For example, a mother and father may experience tension due to a recent
stressful event and triangulate with their child to maintain a calm environment.
Sometimes, when tension within the family unit is greater, the triad can be extended.
Differentiation occurs when an individual can separate their emotional and intellectual
responses. A highly differentiated person can respond to stress in a way that enables their
intellectual and emotional systems to function properly. When an undifferentiated family
unit experiences stress, the stress may cause the family unit to break down. Stress can
influence a single-generation family unit. If the family unit does not fuse, parents can
pass down patterns of low fusion to their children. The unresolved emotional imbalances
of the nuclear family can be transferred to the extended family. Each transference is
triangulated, and the pattern is repeated. In a family with multiple siblings, one or more
siblings might be selected for triangulation over others. Emotional cutoff may create
unresolved emotional detachment or emotional dependency for the child and influence
future family projections. Societal regression is the last of the developmental sequence. It
explains how intellectual and emotional functioning can be diminished in a society when
undifferentiated people triangulate to make unreasonable decisions (Rabstejnek, 2009).

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Figure 1
Bowen’s Family Systems Theory

Note: From “Bowen family systems theory: Mapping a framework to support critical care
nurses’ wellbeing and care quality,” by S. Jakimowicz, L. Perry, and J. Lewis, 2020,
Nursing Philosophy: An International Journal for Healthcare Professionals, e12320,
(https://doi.org/10.1111/nup.12320).
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory states that five categories of needs determine
human behavior: physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-

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actualization. These needs are identified within a hierarchy. An individual’s most basic
needs are at the bottom of the pyramid, and higher-level needs are at the top. The needs
of an individual can only be met when their basic needs have been satisfied. A need
cannot be treated in isolation. An individual’s desires are driven by being satisfied and
dissatisfied by all other motivations (Maslow, 1943).
Figure 2
Our Hierarchy of Needs

Note. From "Our hierarchy of needs: True freedom is a luxury of the mind" by N. Burton,
2024, Psychology Today. Retrieved July 11, 2024 from
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/hide-and-seek/201205/our-hierarchy-of-needs
According to Maslow (1943), physiological needs are what every human requires
for survival. They include food, water, rest, clothing, and shelter. These needs must be

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met before moving on to the next level within the hierarchy. Safety needs include an
individual’s protection within an orderly, predictable, and organized environment where
unexpected or dangerous events do not occur. The need for love and belonging relates to
an individual giving and reciprocating the love and affection found within family bonds
and friendship. Esteem needs lead to feelings of self-confidence, worth, strength,
capability, and adequacy. Self-actualization is the fulfillment of an individual’s potential
and relies on the prior satisfaction of all the other needs within the hierarchy.
To understand human development, consider the ecological system theory where
growth occurs (Bronfenbrenner, 1975). Since 1975, longitudinal changes in the American
family have governed human development. Mothers have gone to work, and the number
of adults caring for children at home has decreased. Children growing up in single-parent
homes have increased as more family systems are separated by divorce. Instead of
parents bearing the full responsibility, children are raised by the entire community. Due
to economic hardship and urbanization, rapid and evolving changes have revealed the
isolation of extended families. Low-income families are forced to live within a
centralized location in large cities. Environmental factors shape a child’s physical
development, while social conditions impact poverty. Together, these elements play a
crucial role in human development (Bateman & Yell, 2019; Bronfenbrenner, 1975).
The polyvagal perspective, through the concept of neuroception, illustrates how
human phylogenetic responses to stress have evolved over time to enhance our survival
and well-being (Delahooke, 2019; Purser, 2022). Understanding neuroception reveals
how individuals adapt their behavior. The brain and body work together bidirectionally to
determine how a person’s nervous system regulates their stress response. When someone

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experiences a behavioral challenge, their nervous system automatically adapts to the
stress response through social engagement, fight or flight, or shutting down. These three
neurophysiological states adapt to move a human’s body to a safe place. Sometimes, a
person can overreact or underreact to their environment. This is called a faulty
neuroception. Based on their trauma history, an individual can detect a threat to their
environment even when they are safe (Purser, 2022).
The sanctuary model is a total system approach for creating and changing an
organizational culture through a shared vision. The model was developed within the
psychiatric setting by Dr. Sandra Bloom and has advanced into an evidence-based system
designed to address the impacts of interpersonal, intergenerational, and multigenerational
trauma (1995). The model has seven characteristics: a culture of nonviolence, a culture of
emotional intelligence, a culture of social learning, a culture of shared governance, a
culture of open communication, a culture of social responsibility, and a culture of growth
and change (Bloom, 2008). Through a group experience, the sanctuary model provides a
safe and healing environment for children. Punishment is only used to provide an
alternative learning experience that does not trigger a previous traumatic experience.
Conflict resolution is facilitated through safe and predictable methods that can be
understood and redirected (Bloom, 1995). Redirecting a traumatized event ensures that
the event is not repeated.
In summary, studies have reported children exposed to trauma have an increased
chance of developing mental health disorders such as PTSD (Blodgett & Lanigan, 2018;
Kramer et al., 2015; Chudzik et al, 2024; Woods-Jaeger et al., 2018). Understanding the
relationship between trauma and other stressor-related disorders currently defined in the

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DSM-V and the theoretical frameworks of trauma-informed practices supports the
imperative need for children to receive effective treatment and support when they have
experienced trauma. A substantial amount of research on teachers’ perceptions of how to
realize, recognize, respond to, and resist re-traumatizing children exposed to trauma is
prevalent in education (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
[SAMHSA], 2024); however, there is a significant lack of research centered on special
education teachers’ perceptions on how to realize, recognize, respond to, and resist retraumatizing children exposed to childhood trauma (Chudzik et al., 2024; Goldenthal et
al., 2024; Miller & Santos, 2020).
Trauma and Traumatic Event(s)
Childhood trauma is an “event, series of events, or set of circumstances that is
experienced by an individual as physically or emotionally harmful or life-threatening and
has lasting adverse effects on the individual’s functioning and mental, physical, social,
emotional, or spiritual well-being” (SAMHSA, 2014, p. 7). Traumatic events include
physical or sexual abuse, domestic violence, community and school violence, medical
trauma, motor vehicle accidents, acts of terrorism, war, natural and human-made
disasters, suicides, and other traumatic losses (American Psychological Association
[APA], 2021; Pickens & Tschopp, 2017; SAMHSA, 2014; Winder, 2015). Trauma can
be a one-time event that threatens bodily injury, causing neurological and/or
psychological harm (American Psychological Association, 2021; SAMHSA, 2014). This
is known as simple trauma. Conversely, trauma can be complex and longer in duration,
involving multiple incidents, personal threats, and violence (Brunzell et al., 2015;
Hudspeth, 2015; Winder, 2015).

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In 2011, the National Survey of Children’s Health reported that 48% or
34,825,789 children in the U.S. experience a traumatic event before graduating high
school (Bethell et al., 2014; Goldenthal et al., 2024). As children grow older, 22.6% have
had two more experiences (Bethell et al., 2014). When a child experiences a life event
that negatively affects their well-being, it can lead to adverse physical or emotional
responses (Kerker et al., 2015). While one child’s reactions and symptoms may be based
on anxiety or fear, others may experience externalizing anger, aggression, or dissociative
symptoms (Kerker, et al., 2015). A trauma response can influence a child’s perceptions
and how they respond to any situation. Events can be based on environmental
circumstances that create feelings of uncertainty that may compromise their safety. The
traumatic exposure can be serious and long-lasting (Rossen, 2020; Romero et al., 2018;
SAMHSA, 2014). Traumatic experiences can impact any age, gender, socioeconomic
status, race, ethnicity, geography, or sexual orientation (SAMHSA, 2014).
When children experience a traumatic event, their brain development diminishes,
and their academic, social-emotional, and behavioral success within an educational
environment is influenced (Bosquet et al., 2012; Thomas et al., 2019). Children
experience subjective reactions to trauma events, including changes in their feelings and
thoughts, as well as psychological responses based on their ecology (NCTSN, 2012).
Trauma reactions may persist long after the event and might manifest differently based
on their prior experiences and cultural perspectives (APA, 2021; Crone et al., 2010;
Thomas et al., 2019).
A child’s experience may come from an intrinsic or extrinsic childhood trauma
factor (Delahooke, 2019; NCTSN, 2012). Many children exposed to trauma may show

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immediate or obvious effects from singular or multiple trauma events (Pickens &
Tschopp, 2017; SAMHSA, 2014). Research has found that children who have been
exposed to interpersonal trauma, such as physical or sexual abuse, have difficulty
forming relationships (Anderson et al., 2015; Pickens & Tschopp, 2017).
Comprehensively, the influence of childhood trauma is widespread and a systemic
problem across the nation (NCTSN, 2012; Pickens & Tschopp, 2017). Educators are
seeing the impact of childhood trauma in their classrooms, and they do not feel prepared
(Alisic et al., 2012; Gothenthal et al., 2024; Hunter et al., 2021; NCSEA, 2019;
SAMHSA, 2014). In particular, special education teachers provide students exposed to
childhood trauma with significant support when they qualify for special education
services. However, there is limited research on special education teachers’ perceptions of
the impact of childhood trauma and effective ways to help these students through traumainformed practices.
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) Study
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Kaiser Permanente
collaborated and conducted the first adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) study from
1995 to 1997. The principal investigators were Vincent Felitti, M.D. and Robert Anda,
M.D. Felitti et al. (1998) surveyed over 13,000 predominantly white, well-educated
adults from upper and middle-class communities enrolled in the Kaiser Health
Maintenance Organization (HMO) in San Diego, California.
The survey asked questions about childhood incidences of abuse, dysfunctional
home lives, neglect, and current adult behaviors like smoking, alcohol use, and food
consumption within the first 18 years of their lives (Delahooke, 2019; Nakazawa, 2015;

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Romero et al., 2018). For those who completed the ACE questionnaire, each participant’s
score in the following categories, ranging from 0-10, was calculated: abuse (emotional,
physical, and sexual); neglect (emotional and physical); and household dysfunction
(domestic violence, substance abuse, mental illness, parental separation/divorce, and
crime) (Burke, 2018; Delahooke, 2019; “Educational Neuroscience,” 2017). A score of
zero meant no adverse childhood experiences were reported, while a score of one or
greater was attributed to the number of ACEs an adult experienced during their childhood
(Anda, 2018). These adverse experiences can be a single event, acute events, or events
sustained over time. Of those who participated in the study, 21% had been sexually
abused during their childhood, 19% had a member of their household with a mental
illness, and 28% had been physically abused (Fyke, 2018). Two-thirds of the participants
reported having at least one adverse childhood experience, and many reported having
more than one experience (Anda, 2018; Fyke, 2018).
When comparing ACE scores, adults with four or more ACEs are twice as likely
to smoke, seven times more likely to be an alcoholic or have sex before the age of 15, and
twice as likely to have cancer, heart, or liver disease. With an ACE score of five or
greater, an individual is 40 times more likely to use illicit drugs (Anda, 2018). With an
ACE score of six or more, an individual is 30 times more likely to attempt suicide.
Lastly, with an ACE score of seven or more, an individual is 360 times more likely to
have heart disease, even if they do not smoke, drink excessively, or are overweight
(Anda, 2018; Fyke, 2018).
When Kaiser Permanente and the CDC concluded their study, they found that the
number of ACEs was strongly associated with high-risk health behaviors and correlated

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with mental and physical health concerns. ACEs occur through all races, economic
classes, and geographic regions, with a higher prevalence among impoverished people
(“Adverse Childhood Experiences,” 2014; Nakazawa, 2015; Romero et al., 2018). These
stressors include witnessing parents’ financial difficulties and having inadequate food,
shelter, and medical care (Wade et al., 2014). Economic disadvantages make it difficult
for families to provide a supportive and nurturing environment (Woods-Jaeger et al.,
2018). This may lead to an intergenerational cycle of ACEs.
Despite these significant results, the study did not gain noteworthy attention until
2012 (Fyke, 2018). The ACE study originally uncovered the relationship between
childhood stressors, social well-being, adult risk-taking, and chronic illnesses. The study
also identified the tremendous impact that verbal, physical, emotional, and sexual abuse,
alcoholism, or neglect had on an individual, as well as the connection between trauma in
childhood and increased health-related risk factors later in life (Burke, 2018).
The prevalence of ACEs that Felitti and Anda found in the adults they surveyed
through their study explains the significance of how a child is affected by traumatic
events in their lives. Childhood trauma manifests after a traumatic experience. A
traumatic experience can occur once in a child’s life, or they may be exposed to multiple
traumas. Most children experience an acute traumatic event and return to their previous
level of functioning (“Adverse Childhood Experiences,” 2014; Wade et al., 2014).
Children who have been exposed to chronic, complex, secondary trauma, and toxic stress
are at a higher risk of demonstrating at-risk behaviors, psychiatric disorders, and various
health-related concerns, such as heart disease, cancer, chronic lung disease, and a
shortened lifespan (Anda, 2018; Bethell et al., 2014).

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Since the ACE study, researchers have continued to expand their understanding of
adverse childhood experiences. The National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH) was
conducted in 2003, 2007, 2011, and 2012 in all 50 states by the National Center for
Health Statistics (Felitti et al., 1998). The survey, which represented children under the
age of 18, found that the most common ACEs across all 50 states were economic
hardship, parental divorce or separation, and living with a parent who has an alcohol or
drug use problem. The prevalence of ACEs increases with a child’s age, except in
economic hardship. Economic hardship and poverty were reported equally for children of
all ages. The most commonly reported ACEs within every state were the abuse of alcohol
or drugs, exposure to neighborhood violence, and the occurrence of mental illness (Sacks
et al., 2014). Since the inception of the ACE study and its longitudinal impact, additional
research has expanded on the influence of other adverse experiences on children of all
ages, such as poor academic achievement, incarceration, unemployment, poverty, and the
diagnosis of a disability (Anda, 2018; Felitti et al., 1998; Nakazawa, 2015; Wade et al.,
2014).
Dr. Burke Harris, a pediatrician and founder of the Center for Youth Wellness in
San Francisco, California, studied over 700 children. Her investigation explored the
connection between childhood adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and a child’s
health (2018). When a child’s brain is constantly afraid, it may overidentify situations as
threatening (Romero et al., 2018). Harris concluded that when exposed to high levels of
stress, MRI scans showed a shrinking of a child’s hippocampus and an increase in the
size of their amygdala (Burke Harris, 2018). These findings explain why children with

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higher ACEs have learning difficulties and behavior problems (Burke, 2018; Delahooke,
2019; Pickens & Tschopp, 2017).
Childhood Trauma and the Intersection of Special Education
The research from the ACE study laid the ground work for educators to consider
the influence of childhood trauma in their classrooms (Felitti et al., 1998). Current
research synthesizes the impact of childhood trauma in a teacher’s classroom, within a
school building, and across an educational institution. Researchers report that children
who have experienced abuse and neglect are four times more likely to receive special
education services (Beckman, 2017; Blodgett & Lanigan, 2018; Chudzik et al., 2024).
This highlights the need to expand research on how special education teachers can better
support students who qualify for special education services.
Childhood trauma and special education are critical and complex areas of concern
within education. A child’s early life exposure to a traumatic event has a neurobiological
impact that may have long-lasting aversive effects (Beckman, 2017; Child Welfare
Information Gateway, 2017; NCTSN, 2012; Woods-Jaeger et al., 2018). Research states
that approximately 80% of children in special education have been exposed to trauma
(Blodgett & Lanigan, 2018). Childhood trauma can impact a child’s physical and mental
health, which can lead to disabilities that hinder educational achievement (Chudzik et al.,
2024; Crone et al., 2010; NCTSN, 2012; Sacks et al., 2014; Tuchinda, 2020; Wade et al.,
2014; Woods-Jaeger et al., 2018). Research and governmental reports have indicated that
approximately 20% of children in the U.S. have behavioral difficulties and meet the
criteria to receive mental health services (Lambert et al., 2022). Three out of four
children who have mental, emotional, or behavioral problems have an ACE score

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(Chudzik et al., 2024; Crone et al., 2010; NCTSN, 2012; Sacks et al., 2014; Tuchinda,
2020; Wade et al., 2014; Woods-Jaeger et al., 2018). Comprehensively, in 2017, over
331,000 children received special education services under the disability category of
Emotional Disturbance (ED), representing about 0.5% of the school-age population
(Lambert et al., 2022). However, only some of these children receive mental health
services, and even a smaller number receive special education services.
Significant research has been conducted on the importance of understanding
adverse experiences and childhood trauma in medicine, psychology, and education. For
many years, researchers have arrived at the same conclusion: Teachers are not adequately
prepared to support students with childhood trauma (Alisic et al., 2012; Anderson et al.,
2015; Chudzik et al., 2024; Goldenthal et al., 2024; Miller & Santos, 2020). To move
forward, research needs to be expanded, and special education teachers’ perceptions of
how to support students who receive special education services must be examined.
Significance of Study
During a child’s developmental periods, chronic exposure to trauma has longlasting aversive effects (NCTSN, 2012; Woods-Jaeger et al., 2018). Trauma impairs a
child’s brain physiology, affecting one’s memory system and ability to think, organize
priorities, and learn. When a child’s neurobiology changes due to trauma exposure, it can
interfere with academic and social-emotional success, resulting in cognitive, physical, or
behavioral disorders (SAMHSA, 2014).
Research has emphasized the importance of teachers understanding how
childhood trauma impacts the children in their classrooms, outlining the need for
professional development in trauma-informed practices (Alisic et al., 2012; NCSEA,

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17

2019; Knoster et al., 2021; Rossen & Cowan, 2013). According to the U.S. Department
of Education and Office of Special Education and Rehabilitation Services (2021),
children with trauma exposure who receive special education services have higher rates
of mental health challenges (p. 13). However, there is under-examined research centered
around special education teachers’ perceptions of how to realize, recognize, respond, and
resist re-traumatizing children with ACEs in special education settings (Chudzik et al.,
2024; Goldenthal et al., 2024; Miller & Santos, 2020). Given the limited exploration of
perceptions regarding childhood trauma among special education teachers, while these
educators possess knowledge about childhood trauma, their understanding of how to
effectively implement trauma-informed practices adequately is fragmented (Kumar,
2020; Markelz & Bateman, 2022; Tuchinda, 2020; Winder, 2015).
This qualitative case study will seek to understand special education teachers’
perceptions regarding the prevalence and impact of childhood trauma in relation to the
provision of special education services. Special education teachers’ perception of their
role in supporting students with childhood trauma will be examined. Lastly, special
education teachers’ perceptions of the professional development they have received in
trauma-informed practices will be analyzed in order to support school districts in
determining how to best support special education teachers and the students they teach.
Delimitations
In any research, it is imperative to acknowledge that there are delimitations. This
qualitative study focused exclusively on interviewing special education teachers,
establishing a bounded system (Coombs, 2022). Although general education teachers,
school counselors, social workers, and school psychologists support students receiving

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18

special education services academically, behaviorally, and socially-emotionally, research
highlights a gap in understanding special education teachers’ perceptions of childhood
trauma and trauma-informed practices. In the qualitative study, only special education
teachers were purposefully and homogeneously sampled. Eight of the twelve participants
attended a district-wide professional development series on trauma and trauma-informed
practices, potentially influencing their perceptions. As a result, these participants may
have similar knowledge concerning the prevalence and impact of trauma in relation to the
provision of special education services, which may have shaped their understanding and
responses. The participants in this research study were from one K-12 school district in
central Pennsylvania. This limits the ability to apply findings to other districts across the
county, state, and country, including urban or rural areas, other states, or regions with
differing demographics, resources, and policies. Lastly, this study used a qualitative
approach with semi-structured interviews to focus on capturing the perceptions of special
education teachers rather than quantifiable measures. This approach was designed to gain
depth in understanding but may limit broader applicability.
Definitions of Important Terms
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) – A childhood incidence of abuse (emotional,
physical, and sexual), neglect (emotional and physical); and household dysfunction
(domestic violence, substance abuse, mental illness, parental separation/divorce, and
crime) (Burke Harris, 2018; 2019; “Educational Neuroscience,” 2017).
Attachment theory - During the first 12 months of a child’s life, an instinctual response
is developed binding a child to their mother (Bowlby, 1958).

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Childhood trauma – “An event, series of events, or set of circumstances that is
experienced by an individual as physically or emotionally harmful or life-threatening and
has lasting adverse effects on the individual’s functioning and mental, physical, social,
emotional, or spiritual well-being” (SAMHSA, 2014, p. 7.)
Complex trauma – Multiple events or longer events or experiences that can be personal
threats and/or violence (Brunzell et al.,2015; Hudspeth, 2015; Winder, 2015).
Ecological systems theory – Over the years, longitudinal changes in the American
family have occurred governing human development (Bronfenbrenner, 1975).
Extrinsic childhood trauma - Includes a child’s reaction to family, community, and/or a
cultural environmental event (Delahooke, 2019; NCTSN, 2012).
Family systems theory – After a child is born, a mother-father-child triad is formed
comprising eight concepts that influence the family unit (Rabstejnek, 2009).
Intrinsic childhood trauma - May be a child’s result of their prior history and exposure
to trauma (Delahooke, 2019; NCTSN, 2012).
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs – Five hierarchical categories of needs determine human
behavior: physical, security, social, ego, and self-actualization (Maslow, 1943).
Polyvagal theory – A human’s phylogenic response to stress has changed to help one
survive and thrive (Purser, 2022).
Sanctuary model – An evidence-based system for change from the effects of one’s
interpersonal, intergenerational, and multigenerational trauma (Bloom, 1995).
Simple trauma – One event or experience that threatens bodily injury or neurological
and/or psychological harm (Brunzell et al.,2015; Hudspeth, 2015; Winder, 2015).

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Traumatic event(s) –Traumatic events include physical or sexual abuse, domestic
violence, community and school violence, medical trauma, motor vehicle accidents, acts
of terrorism, war, natural and human disasters, suicides, and other traumatic losses (APA,
2021; Pickens & Tschopp, 2017; SAMHSA, 2014; Winder, 2015).
Trauma-informed practices – Guiding practices educators use to support the academic
and behavioral challenges students with and without disabilities face when they have
experienced trauma (Hunter et al., 2021; Kumar, 2020). Trauma-informed practices are
holistic and culturally responsive and should be applied systematically and with fidelity
(Thomas et al., 2019). School-wide trauma-informed practices should be used in
conjunction with a multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) through a positive behavior
intervention and support (PBIS) framework.
In summary, schools are the most common setting where children receive mental
health supports through trauma-informed practices. Despite recent developments in
legislation and trauma research, effectively supporting special education teachers in their
understanding of childhood trauma remains limited (Tuchinda, 2020; Winder, 2015.
Adopting an integrated and effective approach to providing academic, social-emotional,
and behavioral support for special education students requires changes to the standard
prevention and intervention approaches used in schools. It is imperative to understand
special education teachers’ perceptions regarding the prevalence and impact of childhood
trauma in relation to the provision of special education services. Special education
teachers need to have a firm understanding of their role when implementing traumainformed practices through the special education services they provide. Additionally,
special education teachers require adequate professional development to support children

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21

who have experienced trauma and also qualify for special education services. The
findings of this case study will be used to theorize what school districts should do to
support special education teachers who work with students affected by childhood trauma
(Starman, 2013).

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CHAPTER TWO
Childhood trauma includes experiences and events that can harm a child’s wellbeing (Thomas et al., 2019). According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA),
childhood trauma can impact an individual no matter their age, gender, socioeconomic
status, race, ethnicity, geographic location, or sexual orientation (2014). The impact of
childhood trauma is evident throughout history. Often, a child’s exposure to trauma
occurs early in development. Research reports that almost two-thirds of adults experience
ACEs during their childhood (Thomas et al., 2019). The research from the ACEs study
laid the groundwork for educators to consider the influence of childhood trauma in their
classrooms (Felitti et al., 1998). Current research has synthesized the impact of childhood
trauma in teachers’ classrooms, within a school building, and across an educational
institution. However, there is a need to expand the research to explore how special
education teachers can better support students who qualify for special education services.
Special education teachers must familiarize themselves with a child’s socialemotional, physical, cognitive, and communication skills. They are required to know how
internalizing and externalizing behaviors are manifested through a trauma response
(Hunter et al., 2021). Special education teachers face challenges in understanding their
role in supporting students who have experienced childhood trauma. They require more
preparation and professional development on trauma-informed practices to adequately
support students who have been exposed to childhood trauma and qualify for special
education services.

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The effects of trauma can be seen throughout recorded history (Figure 3), starting
in 1900 BC (Figley et al., 2017). After the death of King Ur-Nammu, the founder of one
of the Sumerian dynasties, the city of Ur was destroyed. It was documented that citizens
experienced heightened levels of anxiety and disturbed sleep (Figley et al., 2017). In 440
BC, after the Battle of Marathon, Epizelus, an Athenian soldier, became blind after
witnessing the enemy kill one of his comrades. This early example illustrates a chronic
psychological reaction to witnessing death in a military conflict.
Figure 3
Historical Background of Trauma Theory

Since the 17th century, the term trauma has been used in the medical field to
describe physical injuries caused by weapons or accidents that required surgical
intervention (Figley, et al., 2017). Trauma, as a scientific concept, was not identified until
the middle of the 19th century when British medical practitioners investigated a condition

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24

called railway spine. The condition occurred after victims were involved in a railway
accident. Railway victims presented with physical conditions but also reported motor and
sensory deficits. In 1855, physician John Erichsen attributed railway spine syndrome to
natural causes. In 1883, surgeon Herbert Page called the emotional and neurological
responses nervous shock (Figley et al., 2017; Sütterlin, 2020). Later, in 1889, neurologist
Hermann Oppenheim termed the paradoxical condition traumatic neurosis since victims
were experiencing both psychological and physical wounds. Jean-Martin Charcot
attributed the symptoms to a hysteria disorder influenced by genetics. He also described
the emotional responses as nervous shocks, a term coined by Herbert Page (Figley et al.,
2017; Sütterlin, 2020).
Charcot’s prominent role, as a groundbreaking neurologist, led to the
development of somatic disorders and neurological and psychological conditions. Pierre
Janet, Charcot’s student, identified a key characteristic of psychological trauma known as
dissociation. Dissociation occurs when the mind separates itself from the main body of
consciousness, making integration impossible. Today, dissociation is recognized as a
pathogenic process supporting the diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
(Figley et al., 2017; Sütterlin, 2020).
During the American Civil War, soldiers were treated for Da Costa’s syndrome, a
condition named after the surgeon Jacob Mendes Da Costa. Symptoms included chest
pains, shortness of breath, fatigue, and heart palpitations, but no physical causes of these
symptoms were found (Figley et al., 2017). After World War I, Sigmund Freud began
working with soldiers who were traumatized by the fear of exploding bombs, machine
guns, and artillery shillings. The soldiers presented with nervous disorders, repeatedly

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25

reliving their experiences through clustering intrusions, hyperarousal, and amnesia
(Figley et al., 2017; Sütterlin, 2020).
Following World War II, Dr. Joseph Wolpe, a psychiatrist, treated combat
veterans. He recognized that to extinguish an anxiety response, an incompatible response
must be exhibited through reciprocal inhibition. Reciprocal inhibition occurs when a
desired behavioral response is increasingly introduced to a stimulus that typically causes
an undesired response (Figley et al., 2017). Reciprocal inhibition later became one of the
foundational approaches for treating post-traumatic stress disorder. In 1952, the
American Psychiatric Association (APA) published the first Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) (Figley et al., 2017).
In 1960, as clinical methods and treatments to address trauma-affected individuals
were being developed, a human service integration movement emerged, urging schools
and public agencies to collaborate. During this time, statewide school-based initiatives
were formed in California, Florida, Kentucky, Missouri, New Jersey, and Oregon
(Adelman & Taylor, 1999).
After the Vietnam War, a second edition of the DSM was published in 1968. With
the continued modernization of warfare, veterans experienced even more physical and
psychological conditions that were left undiagnosed and treated. The American
Psychiatric Association recognized PTSD in the third edition of the DSM in 1980. The
recognition of the diagnosis of PTSD paved the way for empirical research on trauma and
its impact on humans (Figley et al., 2017). In the DSM-III, trauma is acknowledged as an
event outside the human experience that can adversely affect anyone. Successively, in the

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DSM-IV, published in 1994, the definition of trauma was expanded to include not only
the events of trauma but also one’s reaction to a traumatic event (Figley et al., 2017).
The ACE research that Felitti et al. conducted from 1995 through 1997 provided
foundational knowledge and a broader understanding of how childhood trauma impacts a
person across all aspects of their life. Concurrently, in 1995, the U.S Department of
Education promoted the concept of connecting school and community services to provide
a system of care support for individuals facing significant psychological concerns arising
from physical or substance abuse, teen pregnancy, gang violence, or delinquency
(Adelman & Taylor, 1999). In 2013, The American Psychiatric Association affirmed that
“a traumatic event is one event that threatens injury, death, or the physical integrity of
self or others” through the publication of the DSM-V (American Psychological
Association, 2021; Levine et al., 2017: NCTSN, 2012). The DSM-V defines
psychological trauma by identifying trauma and other stress-related disorders in children,
adolescents, and adults (Sacks et al., 2014).
Since 1900 BC, the medical and psychiatric fields have advanced trauma theory.
Researchers have found that children with mental health disorders experience academic
difficulties, social withdrawal, and isolation; have difficulty maintaining positive
relationships; and engage in behaviors that can be disruptive in many facets of their lives
(American Psychological Association, 2021). The evolution of school-based mental
health practices and policies has expanded through the development of two national
resource centers: the Center for Mental Health in Schools at the University of Maryland
and the Center for Mental Health in Schools at the University of California (Bateman &
Yell, 2019). However, mental health disorders among children have become a public

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health issue due to their early onset and prevalence, and the impact they have on the child
and their family (Bateman & Cline, 2019; SAMHSA, 2014).
Trauma and the Brain
While it is vital to understand the historical background of trauma, connecting
these developments to the brain is significant for understanding how trauma harms a
child’s brain. Trauma impairs a child’s brain physiology, thereby affecting one’s memory
system and ability to think, organize priorities, and learn. When a child’s neurobiology
changes, their ability to pay attention, follow directions, work with teachers, and make
friends is compromised (“Education Brief”, n.d.; Nakazawa, 2015; Purser, 2022).
Neuroscience research provides substantial evidence that brain structure changes when
someone experiences trauma through cognitive and behavioral dysregulation (Hudspeth,
2015). Individuals who experience complex trauma have impairments in attachment,
behavioral control and regulation, cognition, self-concept, and sensory and motor
development (Hudspeth, 2015; Nakazawa, 2015). Neurons are the building blocks of the
brain (Potter-Efron, 2012). During a child’s development, neurons create various network
systems over time. These systems regulate simple to complex brain functions. When a
child experiences a traumatic event, their limbic system is aroused and disrupted (Pickens
& Tschopp, 2017; Potter-Efron, 2012).
To fully understand how trauma impacts a child’s brain, it is helpful to review the
parts of the brain and their functions (see Figure 4). The amygdala, located inside the
temporal lobe near the midline (Potter-Efron, 2012), is the brain’s fear center. It governs
emotions, memory, motivation, and behavior, helping a child identify threats in their
environment. When triggered by stress, it becomes overactive, resulting in an

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28

Figure 4
Trauma and the Brain

exaggerated response (Burke Harris, 2018; Delahooke, 2019; Hudspeth, 2015; PotterEfron, 2012). The brain is continuously undergoing development (Whitman & Kelleher,
2016). Over time, when a child is exposed to continuous chronic trauma and stress, the
amygdala continually responds, leaving the child in a heightened state (Potter-Efron,
2012). A child’s brain development can be interrupted and compromised, later affecting
their cognitive, emotional, and behavioral health concerns (Bosquet Enlow et al., 2012;
Hudspeth, 2015). Throughout childhood, the structural formation of a child's brain
evolves. These changes are significantly influenced by the child's environment and
experiences (Whitman & Kelleher, 2016).
The prefrontal cortex sits behind the forehead at the front of the brain. It is
responsible for reasoning, judgment, planning, and decision-making (Pickens & Tschopp,
2017; Whitman & Kelleher, 2016). These faculties are also known as executive

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functioning skills. When a child experiences stress, the amygdala alerts the prefrontal
cortex. The prefrontal cortex may override an instinctual reaction through the release of
noradrenaline, causing the amygdala to exhibit a fight, flight or freeze response (Burke
Harris, 2018; Potter-Efron, 2012).
The hippocampus is the region of the brain associated with learning, as well as
and short-term and long-term memory (Burke Harris, 2018; Whitman & Kelleher, 2016).
Studies have determined that the hippocampus is smaller for individuals who have
experienced trauma (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2017). The hippocampus can
help differentiate between threatening and nonthreatening situations, and a damaged
hippocampus may increase the likelihood of inappropriate behavior (Potter-Efron, 2012).
The hippocampus plays a tremendous role in a child’s memory and the shaping of the
brain itself (Whitman & Kelleher, 2016).
The hypothalamus is located in a deeper brain region that maintains balance and
equilibrium (Potter-Efron, 2012). The hypothalamus releases hormones to the pituitary
and adrenal glands, which pump chemicals, such as adrenaline and cortisol, throughout
the body (Nakazawa, 2015; Potter-Efron, 2012). During extreme stress, changes in the
secretion of stress hormones and neurotransmitters can occur, which may cause defensive
aggression (Bosquet Enlow et al., 2012).
The ventral tegmental area (VTA), found in the mid-brain, is responsible for
rewards, motivation, and addiction. The VTA includes many different neurons,
specifically dopamine receptors, which can be sent to the hippocampus and prefrontal
cortex (Burke Harris, 2018; Potter-Efron, 2012). When the VTA is overloaded, sensitive
dopamine receptors, often referred to as the feel-good chemical, are triggered (Burke

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Harris, 2018). When dopamine is sent to the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, it may
cause changes in a child’s cognitive, behavioral, or emotional regulation.
When a child experiences trauma, their body engages in a stress response.
Allostasis is an adaptive response to a challenging event. When successfully managed, it
leads to greater resilience. An allostatic load compromises resiliency, causes a negative
response, and impacts a child’s brain and body over time (Burke Harris, 2018;
Delahooke, 2019). During a stress response, messages are transmitted to the adrenal
glands, which produce hormones that help regulate metabolism, immune health, and
blood pressure. When the brain responds to stress, areas of the brain that support
reasoning and the regulation of thoughts and feelings are put on hold (Potter-Efron, 2012;
Romero, et al., 2018). A child’s immune and inflammatory systems can be dysregulated
during a stress response. Therefore, a stress response can have a profound effect on a
child, potentially leading to significant health problems later in life (Burke Harris, 2018;
Romero et al., 2018).
Neuroscience research explains that a child’s early development periods are
crucial. Early child development is a time when the presence or absence of an experience
may result in significant changes (Burke Harris, 2018). When a child has been exposed to
trauma, their brain generates an emotional response. Sometimes this emotional response
is one a child may or may not be consciously aware of (Potter-Efron, 2012). Brain studies
have concluded that youth who have reported childhood trauma have smaller amounts of
gray and white matter (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2017; Delahooke, 2019).
However, through trauma-informed care approaches, neuroscientists have determined
that the brain can rewire itself to heal earlier damage (NCSEA, 2019). This is a

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characteristic called neuroplasticity. The brain can change how neurons interact, and the
neurons in the brain begin communicating with each other (Potter-Efron, 2012). This is
how a neural network is formed. Understanding the development of trauma-based
psychiatric disorders also helps to explain how a child’s brain is influenced by trauma.
The DSM-V’s Trauma-Related Psychiatric Disorders in Children, Adolescents and
Adults
The DSM-V (2013) identifies seven trauma and other stress-related disorders in
children, adolescents, and adults. The first, reactive attachment disorder (RAD),
manifests itself during infancy or early childhood. It is characterized by patterns of
persistent and severe developmentally inappropriate attachment behaviors, where a child,
when distressed, does not speak or respond to an adult for comfort, support, protection, or
nurturing. A child may marginally respond to an adult when they exhibit a caring effort,
show reduced or absent expressions during daily interactions with an adult, or
demonstrate emotional dysregulation. Overall, a child does not show a preferred
attachment to any particular adult (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Second, disinhibited social engagement disorder is identified when a child
persistently and inappropriately approaches and interacts with unfamiliar adults or shows
patterns of inappropriate behavior when there is inconsistent adult care. This disorder can
be seen in children with an extensive history of neglect, whose attachment to an adult
range from disturbed to severe. This impacts their peer relationships and results in a lack
of reticence with other children due to their attention-seeking social impulsivity. RAD
and disinhibited social engagement disorder can comorbidly occur with other conditions

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related to neglect and developmental delays in cognition and language (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Third, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can affect children, adolescents, and
adults after the first year of life when they have been exposed to, witnessed, learned
about, or repeatedly experienced one or more threatening events, such as death, injury, or
sexual violence. Symptoms may begin within the first three months after the traumatic
event or have a delayed expression. Anyone who has experienced a traumatic event may
have recurrent or involuntary memories, dreams, dissociative reactions, intense or
prolonged psychological distress, or dissociative or physiological reactions to
internalizing or externalizing cues. An individual can also demonstrate persistent
avoidance of stimuli related to a traumatic event, inability to remember significant
aspects of the event, behavioral outbursts, self-destructive behaviors, hypervigilance,
problems concentrating, or difficulty sleeping. Children, adolescents, and adults
diagnosed with PTSD can have symptoms that meet other mental disorder criteria, such
as conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and mild traumatic brain injury (TBI)
(American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Fourth, an acute stress disorder occurs within three days after a child, adolescent,
or adult has been exposed to, witnessed, learned about, or repeatedly experienced one or
more threatening events, such as death, injury, or sexual violence. One may experience
intrusive symptoms, inability to experience positive emotions, dissociative or avoidance
symptoms, sleep disturbance, hypervigilance, or an exaggerated startle response. These
symptoms may cause impairment in one or more areas of functioning but are not
attributed to the psychological effects of substance use or medical conditions. An acute

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stress disorder may evolve into PTSD after one month. Children six years and younger
may exhibit reoccurring symptoms through play. Acute stress disorder and PTSD are
more prevalent among females compared to males due to neurobiological differences in
stress response (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Fifth, an adjustment disorder involves the development of emotional or
behavioral symptoms in response to an acute stressor and occurs within three months of
the identified stressor. An adjustment disorder lasts no longer than six months after the
stress consequence has ceased. The stressor can be a single event or multiple recurrent
stressors. These stressors can impact one person, an entire family, or a large group or
community. Adjustment disorders do not meet the criteria of any other mental disorder
and are not caused by the exacerbation of preexisting mental disorders. Adjustment
disorders can be accompanied by other mental and medical disorders and may be a
leading psychological response to a medical disorder (American Psychiatric Association,
2013).
Six, other specified trauma-and stressor-related disorders and unspecified
trauma- and stressor-related disorders are identified when there is clinically significant
distress or impairment in all areas of functioning. Trauma- and stressor-related disorder is
diagnosed when a clinician specifies why symptoms do not meet the criteria for any
trauma- and stressor-related disorder. Unspecified trauma- and stressor-related disorder is
used when a clinician does not specify the reason that the criteria are not met for a
particular disorder. This diagnosis is often made when there is insufficient information to
make a more definite diagnosis, yet symptoms still cause significant distress (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013).

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Historians have discovered that neurobiological changes in individuals exposed to
trauma were documented as early as 1900 BC (Figley et al., 2017; Hudspeth, 2015). As
early as the 17th century, doctors identified the physical signs of war-related trauma, and
psychologists connected these physical signs to psychological conditions. Medical and
psychological research has established a robust connection between childhood trauma
and the negative impact early exposure can have on success in adulthood. In the field of
education, teachers have reported how trauma exposure influences a child’s academic,
emotional, and social development in their classrooms. However, there is a significant
lack of research centered around special education teachers’ perceptions of how to
realize, recognize, respond to, and resist re-traumatizing children exposed to trauma
(Chudzik et al., 2024; Goldenthal et al., 2024; Miller & Santos, 2020).
Trauma-Informed Early Intervention
A child’s early life experiences will shape their brain development and determine
their intelligence, emotions, and personality (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2017).
When a child experiences a traumatic event, there will be a neurobiological impact
(Beckman, 2017). During developmental periods, a child’s chronic exposure to trauma
has long-lasting aversive effects (NCTSN, 2012; Woods-Jaeger et al., 2018).
Consequently, there is a need for intervention during infancy and throughout early
childhood.
Research estimates that one in two preschool-aged children have experienced a
traumatic event (Chudzik et al., 2024). When a child is exposed to toxic stress and
trauma, it can present as deficits in attention, emotional dysregulation, learning
difficulties, and oppositional behaviors (Sacks et al., 2014; Wade et al., 2014). These

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35

adversities can influence a child’s acquisition of important developmental milestones
(Beckman, 2017; Blodgett & Lanigan, 2018; Figley, 2017; Jimenez et al., 2016; Slade &
Wissow, 2007). Understanding a child’s environment — including how their family
responds to traumatic events — and intervening early has resulted in positive outcomes
during early childhood years (Crone et al., 2010; NCTSN, 2012). Learning about a child
and their family’s values, beliefs, and practices will help to identify the most culturally
appropriate interventions (Crone et al., 2010; Thomas et al., 2019).
Using data from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being II
(NSCAW), researchers investigated 912 children ages 18 to 71 months. Eighty-one
percent of the children’s caregivers were under the age of 35 years old, and 28.5% did not
have a high-school diploma. Nearly 28.5% were unemployed, and two-thirds (62.8%)
had incomes below the federal poverty level. Using a multivariable logistic regression
analysis, 98% of children were reported to have experienced at least one ACE.
Caregivers reported that 39.9% of children had experienced two or three ACEs, and
50.5% had experienced four or more ACEs. The study concluded that before a child turns
five years old, having a higher number of ACEs is associated with mental health and
chronic medical problems due to an increase in allostatic load (Burke Harris, 2018;
Delahooke, 2019; Kerker et al., 2015).
In a secondary analysis from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a
sample size of 1,007 children was studied through teacher-reported academic outcomes
using a Likert scale and child behavior checklists during the last month of a child’s
kindergarten year (Jimenez et al., 2016). The study found that if a child had more than

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three ACEs, there was a direct correlation to below-average school performance in
language and literacy, attention problems, and aggression (Jimenez et al., 2016).
The data from both studies explain the adverse effects trauma has on a child
before they turn five years old. When a child learns under conditions of extreme stress,
structural changes in the brain occur (“Adverse Childhood Experiences,” 2014; Beckman,
2017). The perceptions of stress may vary from child to child; however, a certain stress
threshold may be traumatic relating to social-emotional support. When children
experience social-emotional stress, they are not able to develop self-help and problemsolving skills, leading to disruptions in their brain architecture. These disruptions can
cause an increased risk of stress-related disease and cognitive impairment well into their
adult years (“Adverse Childhood Experiences,” 2014).
Supporting a child’s brain development should start with maternal health, as this
is when the mother-child attachment begins (Bowlby, 1958; Child Welfare Information
Gateway, 2017). A safe, supportive, and nurturing environment has also been shown to
reduce the risk of negative outcomes, like abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction,
associated with childhood trauma (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2017; WoodsJaeger et al., 2018). Socioeconomic disadvantages, leading to an intergenerational cycle
of trauma, are another contributing factor (Bloom, 1995; Woods-Jaeger et al., 2018). Any
disruptions to a child’s neurobiology, as shown by ACEs, influence neurodevelopment
and have lasting effects on the brain’s structure (Hall et al., 2012; Purser, 2022).
During a child’s early developmental periods, chronic exposure to trauma has
long-lasting aversive effects and can be the root cause of learning disabilities, health
problems, and social challenges that can lead to behavioral problems (Chudzik et al.,

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37

2024; Crone et al., 2010; NCTSN, 2012; Sacks et al., 2014; Tuchinda, 2020; Wade et al.,
2014; Woods-Jaeger et al., 2018). It is imperative for early-intervention special education
teachers to have professional development on trauma-informed practices to adequately
support their students who have been exposed to childhood trauma and qualify for special
education services.
Trauma-Informed School-Wide Supports
In 1892, the National Education Association (NEA) established the Committee of
Ten. The committee’s goal was to recommend and standardize how to prepare students to
become meaningful members of society (Levine & Ornstein, 1993). For many years, the
educational system has been habitually based on tradition (Levine & Ornstein, 1993;
Schwan & McGarvey, 2012). Changes in legislation have demonstrated the importance
of providing research-based practices to meet the academic, social, and emotional needs
of all students (Tuchinda, 2020; Winder, 2015). Yet, there has been an increase in the
number of children with behavioral difficulties and mental health concerns, leading to
more children being identified with a wide spectrum of disabilities that require special
education services, and resulting in a public health crisis (Chudzik et al., 2024).
According to psychologist Ross Greene, “Good teaching means being responsive to the
hand you’ve been dealt” (Greene, 2014, as cited in Cooley, 2018, p.1). For educators to
meet the needs of a 21st-century student, an examination of ACEs and childhood trauma
should be brought to the forefront (Schwan & McGarvey, 2012).
Data from the National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH) reported that 46% of
American children have experienced trauma, and some children bring their experiences
of childhood trauma into the classroom environment. These experiences often interfere

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with their academic and social-emotional success, resulting in cognitive, physical, or
behavioral disorders (SAMHSA, 2014). If these stressors go unrecognized, their effects
on a child’s learning and behavior may become mislabeled in school (Fyke, 2018).
The 2019 amendment to the Pennsylvania School Code includes a definition of
trauma:
An event, series of events or set of circumstances that is experienced by an
individual as physically or emotionally harmful or threatening and that has lasting
adverse effects on the individual’s cognitive functioning and physical, social,
emotional, mental or spiritual well-being. (24 P.S. Section 1-102; 1949)
Educational institutions should be trauma informed by applying a trauma lens to all
academic learning (Rossen & Bateman, 2020). The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)
of 2015 and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 2004 require
teachers to meet the academic and behavioral needs of diverse learners in the general
education classroom (Soleimanpour et al., 2017). ESSA provides funding for mental
health services and evidenced-based trauma-informed interventions (Soleimanpour, et al.,
2017).
Multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS), formally known as response to
instruction and intervention (RtII), and positive behavior intervention support (PBIS) are
universal systems (see Figure 5) that provide high-quality instruction and intervention to
meet students’ needs (Bateman & Yell, 2019). MTSS is not a curriculum but a broad
framework that uses a systematic approach to establish the behavioral and cultural
supports all students need in order to achieve social, emotional, and academic success.
Academic and behavioral data are acquired and monitored regularly to adjust

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instructional and behavioral interventions (Cooley, 2018; Hunter et al., 2015; Romero et
al., 2018; Rossen & Cowan, 2013). Foundationally, school-wide academic and behavioral
expectations should be required for all students to be successful.
PBIS and social emotional learning (SEL) are two frameworks used in many
schools nationwide (Anderson-Ketchmark & Alvarez, 2010; Hunter et al., 2021;
Figure 5
What is MTSS?

Note. From "What is MTSS?" by PBIS Rewards, 2024. Retrieved July 14, 2024, from
https://www.pbisrewards.com/blog/what-is-mtss/
Stormont et al., 2008). PBIS involves three levels of support: universal or primary
prevention (Tier 1), secondary intervention and support (Tier 2), and tertiary
interventions and support (Tier 3) (Anderson-Ketchmark & Alvarez, 2010; Hunter et al.,
2021). With the implementation of system-wide preventative programs like PBIS and
MTSS, academic and behavioral needs can be handled differently. The PBIS and MTSS
models promote academic growth and establish behavioral expectations and interactions
among all stakeholders, including administration, teachers, students, and their families
(Romero et al., 2018). When a universal behavioral framework is implemented, students

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experience vast improvements in their academic achievement and their social and
emotional competence. In addition, bullying behaviors are effectively reduced (Center on
PBIS, 2022; Hunter et al., 2021; U.S. Department of Education, 2022). There is an
overall reduction in inappropriate behavior, a decrease in the number of discipline
referrals and suspensions, and a reduction in restraints and seclusions (Center on PBIS,
2022).
Interventions that are effective in supporting students with multiple ACEs include
trauma-informed practices, social-emotional learning programs, mental health support,
individualized education plans (IEPs), and supportive school environments (Brunzell et
al., 2015; Cooley, 2018; SAMHSA, 2014). These strategies aim to create a safe and
nurturing environment for students, address their emotional and behavioral needs, and
provide appropriate resources and support to help them succeed academically and
emotionally (Chudzik et al., 2024.; Crone et al., 2010; Fantuzzo et al., 2013; Gamache et
al., 2010; Hunter et al., 2015).
In 2008, researchers examined urban children’s relationship to violent exposure,
trauma, and standardized testing. Using the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Score of
Intelligence and the Test of Early Reading Ability, it was found that intellectual and
academic achievement may be repressed and independently affected when children are
exposed to trauma (Delaney-Black et al., 2008). Another similar study was conducted in
2013 within the School District of Philadelphia, one of the eighth-largest public schools,
educating students in one of the top-ten poorest cities in the U.S. (Fantuzzo et al., 2013).
The study examined concentrations of student risk factors and how they correlated with
academic achievement in reading and math. Risk factors included a child’s low birth

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weight, inadequate prenatal care, mothers without a high school diploma, lead exposure,
homeless status, and child maltreatment. One of the lowest concentrations was mothers
without a high school diploma, which correlated with poor reading and mathematics
scores, as well as low school attendance. Similarly, inadequate prenatal care and lack of
connection to public health services were associated with poor reading achievement.
Homelessness, instability, and child maltreatment were correlated with lower reading
achievement and attendance rates. The researchers concluded that due to these
concentrations of risk factors and their connection to academic achievement, federal and
state resources must be allocated to support the educational well-being of these children
(Kramer et al., 2015; Fantuzzo et al., 2013).
A study involving US students in grades K-6 within a Northwestern metropolitan
area examined early risk factors influenced by school attendance, behavioral problems,
and academic achievement (Blodgett & Lanigan, 2018). A frequency analysis was
conducted based on the prevalence of ten types of ACE exposure. Data were analyzed
based on race, grade level, gender, special education status, and free- or reduced-lunch
enrollment Twenty-seven percent of students had one of the three risk factors, 17% had
two, and 5% had all three risk factors (Blodgett & Lanigan, 2018). Thirty-four percent of
students were not meeting academic grade-level standards. Thirteen percent of students
were identified with significant attendance concerns, and 28% of students had significant
behavioral concerns. As the number of school concerns increased, the average ACE score
for children also increased (Blodgett & Lanigan, 2018). ACEs and childhood trauma
inform how schools respond to each child’s academic and social-emotional development.

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A longitudinal study conducted across five different years examined traumatic
stress and academic indicators of fifth graders (NCSEA, 2019). Children with traumatic
stress had lower average reading, mathematics, and science achievement scores, which
correlated with their SES and free- or reduced-lunch status (NCSEA, 2019). In another
study, the reading scores of 163 urban elementary children in second through fifth grade
were examined to determine the impact of violent, traumatic exposure (Duplechain et al.,
2008). Three standardized assessment measures defined the adverse effects on reading
scores. These findings suggest that a child’s exposure to violence does influence school
achievement long term (Duplechain et al., 2008).
Educators must recognize and understand how a child’s ACEs and risk factors
may contribute to academic outcomes. Children with more than two ACEs are 2.67 times
more likely to repeat a grade in school than children who did not have the same
experiences (Bethell et al., 2014). Children with three or more ACEs are significantly
more likely to perform below grade level, be labeled for special education, be suspended
or expelled, or drop out of school (“Education Brief”, n.d.). Extensive research suggests
that understanding ACEs and psychological trauma can provide insights into students'
academic achievements (American Psychological Association, 2021; Goodman et al.,
2012; NCSEA, 2019; Romero et al., 2018; Slade & Wissow, 2007). Through fair and
equitable decision making, educators, healthcare providers, parents, and community
members must work to communicate and collaborate to take control of the negative
impacts ACEs have on many of today’s children (“Educational Neuroscience,” 2017;
Hudspeth, 2015). In particular, special education teachers must have professional

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development on trauma-informed practices to adequately support students who have been
exposed to childhood trauma and qualify for special education services.
Trauma-Informed Behavioral Dysregulation and Student Discipline
Behavior is a child’s response to internal or external experiences (Delahooke,
2019). Behaviors are a form of communication (Barbara, 2007; Romero et al., 2018).
When analyzing behavior, the antecedent is what happens prior to the behavior occurring.
The behavior occurs immediately after the antecedent, and the consequence, not to be
confused with punishment, will determine how a student responds to a similar antecedent
in the future (Otten & Tuttle, 2011). Children are not born with bad behavior. They must
be taught acceptable behaviors using a proactive approach, modeling, and continual
reinforcement (Cooley, 2018; Stormont et al., 2008).
Behaviors manifest internally and externally as the body’s response to stress.
Research confirms that precursors to problematic behaviors in children stem from having
stressful or traumatic experiences (Anderson-Ketchmark, & Alvarez, 2010; Otten &
Tuttle, 2011; Stormont et al., 2008; Woods-Jaeger et al., 2018). Children with poor
behavioral skills are at risk for developing problems that impact society, such as dropping
out of school, depression, anxiety, substance abuse, gang membership, low self-esteem,
social maladjustment, and medical problems (Otten & Tuttle, 2011; Burke-Harris, 2018).
Childhood trauma can manifest itself through behaviors teachers see in the
classroom. Empirical studies have identified five common symptoms of trauma in
children: re-experiencing the trauma, avoidance, arousal, internalizing behaviors, and
externalizing behaviors (Goodman et al., 2012; Hunter et al., 2021). Sometimes, these
behaviors can be misdiagnosed and mistaken for another disorder (Nakazawa, 2015).

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Some behaviors develop in a top-down approach and develop over time through the
connections of the cerebral cortex and prefrontal cortex. Both the cerebral cortex and
prefrontal cortex affect cognitive and social behavior. Other behaviors develop through a
bottom-up method since they materialize not from intentions but subconsciously (PotterEfron, 2012). A child’s brain is dynamically influenced by the nervous system, which
creates a feedback loop (Delahooke, 2019). Bottom-up behaviors occur subconsciously
and do not require conscious thought. Understanding behavior through a top-down or
bottom-up approach determines the appropriate treatment (Delahooke, 2019; PotterEfron, 2012; Purser, 2022). Understanding any child’s behavioral response or function
helps tailor therapeutic approaches (Delahooke, 2019; Romero et al., 2018).
When children do not feel safe, when they cannot fully relax, when they feel all
alone in keeping themselves safe and handling the world, they are always on guard, and
they cannot trust anyone but themselves for safety (Delahooke, 2019; Romero et al.,
2018; Purser, 2022). Therefore, a child who has experienced complex trauma may not
learn in the same way as a child who has never been exposed to ACEs (Fyke, 2018;
Goodman et al., 2012; Romero et al., 2018). Children with trauma have a reduced
capacity for cognitive control, attention, memory, response inhibition, and emotional
reasoning (Hudspeth, 2015). In the classroom, children may struggle with listening and
processing information. When academic demands are placed on them, they may have an
adverse reaction that is disproportionate to their peers.
Researchers have used MRI neuroimaging to show how traumatic stress can
significantly alter one’s limbic system. As a result, it was discovered that the parts of the
brain concerned with helping students reason and regulate their thoughts and feelings are

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put on hold. When children are in a heightened state of arousal, their heart rate increases,
blood pressure rises, and a reaction occurs (Levine et al., 2017). If a child’s brain is living
in a state of fear and survival, it will lead to exaggerated and impulsive responses.
Children will overidentify situations as threatening and respond by fighting, fleeing, or
freezing. During a fight response, when given a task, a child may become defiant,
impulsively not complete their work or becoming aggressive. During a freeze-or-flight
response, they may internalize their feelings and exhibit periods of shutting down or
show signs of withdrawal, anxiety, or depression (Potter-Efron, 2012). Classroom
management is not just about responding to misbehavior; it is about teaching children
how to independently control and manage their behavior (Pickens & Tschopp, 2017).
Educators should look at behavior through a trauma-informed lens. Every student should
have an educational experience that is safe, supportive, and conducive to learning
(Markelz & Bateman, 2022).
Schools are required to impose sanctions or penalties for disruptive conduct.
Nevertheless, children who have experienced trauma have behavioral responses from
trauma that manifest differently, often leading to exclusionary practices (Barbara, 2007).
Children develop behavioral patterns that help them survive trauma while often
sabotaging their success at school (Romero et al., 2018). Discipline should teach students
how their behavior impacts themselves and other children (Markelz & Bateman, 2022).
The IDEA requires evidence-based best practices to address behavior and
discipline. In addition, under the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments, all children are
afforded due process rights when a school imposes discipline (Markelz & Bateman,
2022). Disciplinary procedures and policies, such as disproportionate zero-tolerance

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46

policies and exclusionary disciplinary measures that include suspensions and expulsions,
exacerbate behavioral issues when a child has been exposed to trauma (NCSEA, 2019).
Trauma-informed disciplinary practices ensure the safety and security of all students
(Dykes, 2008; “Education Brief, n.d.; Losen et al., 2013; Purser, 2022).
The rates of suspension for students with disabilities at the middle and high
school levels are higher compared to elementary students. Research shows that 20% of
secondary students with disabilities have been suspended in a single year, compared to
less than 10% of their peers without disabilities (“Education Brief”, n.d.). The rate for
students who are suspended with Emotional Disturbances (ED) is higher at the
elementary level compared to middle and high school, leading to a more significant
disparity between Black and White students (Losen et al., 2013). Children who are
suspended from school have a higher risk of involvement in the juvenile justice system.
Due to federal, state, district, and individual school policies and practices, students with
disabilities contribute to a higher rate of disciplinary exclusion; therefore, strategies and
treatment options should be brought to the forefront and reconsidered (Losen et al.,
2013). Consequently, to prevent a special education student from being suspended or
expelled, special education teachers must know their role in implementing traumainformed practices and have adequate professional development to ensure that the needs
of their students are being met.
Trauma-Informed Practices
Trauma-informed practices are the guiding principles used to support the
academic and behavioral challenges faced by students with and without disabilities when
they have experienced childhood trauma (Hunter et al., 2020; Kumar, 2020). These

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holistic and culturally responsive trauma practices should be applied systematically and
with fidelity (Thomas et al., 2019). Trauma-informed practices can be used in
concurrence with PBIS, SEL, and MTSS frameworks within a regular education or
special education classroom.
Research expounds on the pervasiveness of ACEs and childhood trauma, but a
systematic framework for trauma-informed practices within the school system has not
been developed (Goldenthal et al., 2024; Hunter, et al., 2021; Thomas et al., 2019). Using
a multidisciplinary framework rooted in pediatric science, the APA has drawn parallels to
enhance our understanding of child development (2014). Building on the findings of the
ACEs study, researchers have identified numerous trauma-informed interventions and
practices for educators that consider a child’s biology, health and development, and
ecology of their social and physical environment (Anda, 2018; APA, 2014; Felitti et al.,
1998). In conjunction, SAMHSA (2014) has developed the four R’s when identifying
inclusive trauma-informed practices. All stakeholders need to realize how trauma affects
families, children, organizations, and communities. Second, stakeholders must recognize
the signs of childhood trauma. Third, they must respond to trauma by applying a traumainformed approach to all areas of functioning and, fourth, they must resist retraumatization. Stakeholders do not want to create environments where families, children,
organizations, and communities are re-traumatized, given their experiences.
In 2016, Chafouleas et al. applied their three-tiered model to other public health
models. Tier one is the universal approach that provides system-wide programming for
all children in the school environment. Tier two provides targeted, small-group
interventions, while tier three provides intervention to those students who need the most

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support. The model developed by Chafouleas et al. (2016) is similar to the continuum of
services identified by Adelman and Taylor (1999). Their intervention continuum begins
with primary prevention through preschool-age support of a child’s psychosocial
development. Support continues through targeted school-based interventions provided by
regular education teachers. Then, with the support of specialized teachers, intensive
interventions and targeted treatments are provided to special education students and those
students experiencing severe to chronic mental health concerns (Adelman & Taylor,
1999).
Trauma affects neurobiological development and alters a child’s abilities to
perform academically due to internalizing and externalizing the behaviors they are
experiencing. A review of the literature explains that trauma-informed practices include
establishing positive student and teacher relationships, teaching coping skills and selfregulation strategies, developing executive functioning skills, fostering resiliency through
targeted interventions within the school and community, and establishing community
involvement (Anderson et al., 2015; Bateman & Yell, 2019; Brunzell et al., 2015; Center
on PBIS, 2022; Cooley, 2018; Slade & Wissow, 2007; Soleimanpour, et al., 2017).
Often, educators mistake a student’s behavioral trauma response as a lack of
respect or defiance. However, the neurobiological response to trauma in children is
typically fight, flight, or freeze. With this understanding, it's crucial to teach students
coping skills and help them process their emotions to build resiliency during or after a
trauma response (Anderson et al., 2015; Brunzell et al., 2015; Soleimanpour et al., 2017).
Moreover, creating and maintaining a positive school climate — supported by all school

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team members — is essential for addressing these responses effectively (Anderson, et al.,
2015; Bateman & Yell, 2019; Center on PBIS, 2022).
Self-Regulation
There are many trauma-informed practices. One is teaching students how to selfregulate. Self-regulation involves the limbic system and uses a bottom-up approach to
strengthen a child’s physical and emotional regulation. Self-regulation activities should
be repetitive and can include mindful breathing, visualizations, short bursts of exercise,
and any type of sensory integration (Brunzell, et al., 2015). Teaching resiliency is another
trauma informed practice for self-regulation that involves fostering positive self-talk and
cultivating a sense of gratitude as part of the developmental process (Brunzell et al.,
2015). When students are taught resiliency, they are better able to recognize how their
emotions affect their bodies. Teaching these skills when a student has a calm mindset will
help when they are experiencing periods of behavioral dysregulation (Williams &
Scherrer, 2017).
Executive Functioning
Explicitly teaching executive function (EF) skills is another trauma-informed
practice that connects past experiences to an action students need to perform. Executive
functioning skills are cognitive skills managed by the brain's prefrontal cortex that may
include cognitive, behavioral, and emotional regulation (Cooley, 2018; Slade & Wissow,
2007). Executive functioning skills are used when making plans, recalling directions or
multi-step tasks, sustaining attention, evaluating ideas, self-monitoring, shifting tasks or
ideas, asking for help, and self-regulating (Cooley, 2018; Otten & Tuttle, 2011; Slade &
Wissow, 2007). Weaknesses in EF skills can cause a child to have difficulties in all

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academic areas. Incorporating the explicit teaching of EF skills may cause a shift in
classroom practices, but it will enable teachers to respond more effectively to the needs
of the students with deficits in these areas (Levine et al., 2017; Pickens & Tschopp,
2017).
Trauma-Informed Interventions
About 1% to 5% of students will need more individualized instruction and support
to maintain and generalize socially acceptable behavioral expectations in traumainformed practices (Bateman & Yell, 2019). Small groups of students may meet with
school counselors, school psychologists, and school-based mental health providers to
address behavioral skill or performance deficits (Bateman & Cline, 2019; Bateman &
Yell, 2019; Center on PBIS, 2022). Without the support of a mental health professional,
concerns compound, children fall behind their peers in school, and they struggle to make
and maintain connections. Children and adolescents who have been exposed to trauma
and stress require the support of multiple systems; the school system cannot tackle all the
issues a child and family are experiencing. Therefore, collaboration with multiple
providers in and outside of the school setting is essential (Bateman & Cline, 2019;
Bateman & Yell, 2019; Center on PBIS, 2022; Goh & Bambara, 2012; Stormont et al.,
2008).
When a student is not in school, they are within their local neighborhood
community. This community environment plays a significant role in their well-being.
According to Hall et al. (2012), 21% to 67% of behavioral and physical health problems
that cause people to seek social services are attributable to ACEs. Current research
indicates that 40% to 60% of children exposed to clinically significant problems require

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treatment (Pernebo & Almqvist, 2016). Community-based models help children identify
and address their behavioral and emotional needs, especially in under-resourced
communities (Goldenthal et al., 2024; Pernebo & Almqvist, 2016). Nonetheless, about
75% of children requiring mental health services within their community do not receive
them (Goldenthal et al., 2024).
Communities must provide support services in collaboration with schools. Most
trauma-informed community interventions are grounded in cognitive behavior therapy or
child-parent psychotherapy (Pernebo & Almqvist, 2016; Thomas et al., 2019). Group
interventions for children have been a preferred treatment method; however, there is little
evidence showing a correlation between the experiences of school-aged children and their
parent’s use of mental health services. Some researchers support hiring and placing
mental health professionals and social/emotional learning consultants in a classroom
while addressing ineffective and behavioral dysregulation (“Education Brief,” n.d.;
Hudspeth, 2015; Losen et al., 2013). Others advocate for providing parent training in
school to help parents become more knowledgeable about supporting their child both at
home and in the classroom (Fyke, 2018; Woods-Jaeger et al., 2018).
Thomas et al. (2019) reviewed research on trauma-informed practices and
interventions published between 1998 and 2018. Thirty-three articles were identified, and
30 different interventions were explored. Thomas et al. (2019) revealed that a systematic
framework for implementing trauma-informed practices in schools has not been
developed despite the evolving landscape of research supporting these practices
(Goldenthal et al., 2024; Hunter, et al., 2021). The researchers also noted a lack of
disciplinary evidence supporting the effectiveness of trauma-informed practices used by

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teachers in their classrooms. They concluded that more vigorous interdisciplinary
research must be conducted so all stakeholders can help address and support children
experiencing trauma in schools (Thomas et al., 2019).
Many states are developing training networks that provide evidence-based
training, offer web-based assessments, and facilitate communication across community
systems (NCSEA, 2019; NCTSN, 2012; SAMHSA, 2014). Overall, developing a systemwide approach to trauma-informed practices among school and community partners —
including mental-health, child-advocacy-and-welfare, law-enforcement, and juvenilejustice workers — will continually enhance the ability to support children exposed to
trauma. In particular, special education teachers need additional professional
development on trauma-informed practices to adequately support students with childhood
trauma who also qualify for special education services.
Teachers’ Perceptions of Childhood Trauma
All educators must have an understanding of instructional strategies that support
any child with a trauma history (NCSEA, 2019; NCTSN, 2012; Romero et al., 2018;
SAMHSA, 2014; Thomas et al., 2019). Childhood trauma affects approximately half of
all school-age youth in U.S. schools, with close to the same number of youth reporting
exposure to at least one adverse childhood experience (ACEs). Nearly one-third of
students experience two or more ACEs by the time they are 17 years of age. This means
that 12 out of 25 students in a typical classroom may have been affected by trauma, with
close to 8 of those 25 students having experienced two or more ACEs by the time they
are seniors in high school (McDowell Institute, 2022). Children bring their trauma
experiences into the school system, and research suggests that adversity, trauma, and

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53

stress significantly affect a child’s social, emotional, and cognitive development (Fyke,
2018; SAMHSA, 2014). It is imperative for educators to understand how to recognize,
address, and respond to childhood trauma.
Many nationally recognized organizations have established trauma-informed
frameworks to support behavioral health sectors that work with individuals with
traumatic experiences. First, in 2013, the “Advancing the Science of Education, Training
and Practice in Trauma” national conference on trauma competencies was held at Yale
University. From this, the New Haven Competencies (See Table 1) were established by
an advisory board comprising 60 psychologists, psychiatrists, and social workers
experienced in working with children and adults who had a history of trauma. The
competencies were based on prior work completed in the field of psychology to identify
trauma-informed standards across various ages and trauma experiences. The eight
trauma-focused competencies integrated general knowledge about trauma while
highlighting trauma-specific principals to educate a broader population, including
educators (Cook & Newman, 2014).
Second, with the development of the New Haven Competencies, the Substance
Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration’s (SAMHSA) National Center for
Trauma-Informed Care (2014) established an expert panel to craft concepts and a
framework for public health agencies adaptable to any service system, including
education. SAMHSA’s trauma-informed approach (Table 2) is supported through a set of
four assumptions and six principals essential to providing a trauma-informed approach
for public institutions including education.

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Table 1
New Haven Trauma-Focused Competencies
(1) Demonstrate understanding about trauma reactions and tailor trauma interventions and
assessments in ways that honor and account for individual, cultural, community, and
organizational diversity.
(2) Demonstrate understanding and ability to tailor assessment and interventions to account for
developmental lifespan factors.
(3) Demonstrate the ability to understand, assess, and tailor interventions and assessments that
address the complexities of trauma-related exposure, including any resultant long- and
short-term effects.
(4) Demonstrate the ability to appropriately appreciate, assess. and incorporate trauma
survivors’ strengths, resilience. and potential for growth in all domains.
(5) Demonstrate understanding about how trauma impacts a survivor’s and organization’s
sense of safety and trust.
(6) Demonstrate the ability to recognize the practitioners’: (1) capacity for self-reflection and
tolerance for intense affect and content, (2) ethical responsibility for self-care, and (3) selfawareness of how one’s own history, values, and vulnerabilities impact trauma treatment
deliveries.
(7) Demonstrate the ability to critically evaluate and apply up-to-date existing science on
research-supported therapies and assessment strategies for trauma-related
disorders/difficulties.
(8) Demonstrate the ability to understand and appreciate the value and purpose of the various
professional and paraprofessional responders in trauma work and work collaboratively and
cross systems to enhance positive outcomes.

Note. From “A consensus statement on trauma mental health: The New Haven
Competency Conference process and major findings,” by J.M. Cook and E. Newman,
2014, Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 6(4), p. 303.
Copyright 2014 by the American Psychological Association.
The New Haven Competencies and SAMHSA’s Trauma-Informed Approach:
Key Assumptions and Principals (see Table 2) provides educators with organizational
knowledge about trauma and how to implement trauma-informed practices (Cook &
Newman, 2014; SAMHSA, 2014). Teachers observe academic and behavioral changes in
a student daily. What a teacher observes in a child exposed to trauma is consistent across
research (Andreson-Ketchmark & Alvarez, 2010; Crone et al., 2010; Lambert et al.,
2022; Otten & Tuttle, 2011). Children exhibit emotional, behavioral, and academic

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Table 2
SAMHSA’s Trauma-Informed Approach: Key Assumptions and Principals
The Four R’s: Key Assumptions in a TraumaInformed Approach

Six Key Principals of a Trauma-Informed
Approach

Realizes trauma and understands how trauma
can affect families, groups, organizations, and
communications as well
as individuals.

Safety: Children or adults feel physically and
psychologically safe.

Recognizes the signs of trauma. These signs
may be gender-, age-, or setting-specific and
may be manifest by individuals seeking or
providing services in these settings.
Responds by applying the principals of a
trauma-informed approach to all areas of
functioning.
Resists re-traumatization by recognizing how
organizational practices may trigger painful
memories and re-traumatize clients with
trauma histories.

Trustworthiness and Transparency:
Organizational operations and decisions are
conducted with transparency.
Peer Support: Individuals with lived
experiences of trauma or, in the case of
children, this may be family members of
children who have experienced traumatic
events and are key caregivers in their
recovery.
Collaboration and Mutuality: The organization
recognizes that everyone has a role to play in
a trauma-informed approach.
Empowerment, Voice, and Choice:
Throughout the organization and among the
clients serviced, individuals’ strengths and
experiences are recognized and built upon.
Cultural, Historical, and Gender Issues: The
organization actively moves past cultural
stereotypes and biases; offers access to gender
responsive services; leverages the healing
value of traditional cultural connections;
incorporates policies, protocols, and processes
that are responsive to the racial, ethnic, and
cultural needs of individuals serviced; and
recognizes and addresses historical trauma.

Note. Adapted from SAMHSA’s concept of trauma and guidance for a traumainformed approach by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration, 2014 (HHS Publication No. SMA 14-4884).

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problems. They can also be more withdrawn, anxious, depressed or impatient,
noncompliant, and impulsive (Gamache Martin et al., 2010). Teachers need to understand
what childhood trauma is, how to identify when a child has had a traumatic experience,
and how to support students exposed to trauma through trauma-informed practices
(Purser, 2022).
From an early age, research indicates that 78% of children have reported multiple
childhood trauma exposures before they enter kindergarten (Rossen & Cowan, 2013).
Teachers play a significant role in a child’s development and in supporting a child’s
recovery after a traumatic event (Alisic et al., 2012). At times, recovering from childhood
trauma can take a long time, depending on the magnitude of the event (Rossen & Cowan,
2013). Teachers are faced with balancing their mission of educating students with the
need to support students who have experienced or are currently experiencing trauma
(Alisic, 2012). Within the classroom, a trauma-informed perspective helps teachers
investigate the elicitation of a traumatic stress response (Pickens & Tschopp, 2017).
When teachers understand trauma reminders, they can better support the child and
facilitate a safe classroom environment (NCSEA, 2019; SAMHSA, 2014). Similarly,
teachers need to understand the cultural context in which a student may have experienced
a traumatic event (Rossen & Cowen, 2013; Thomas et al., 2019). Depending on the
developmental level of a child, trauma can lead to structural changes in the brain and
impede development, cognition, memory, and learning. Teachers must understand these
influences and identify the most appropriate interventions (Anderson et al., 2015; Rossen
& Cowen, 2013). Students who feel safe and connected to school are ready to learn.

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Schools can provide students with the infrastructure to support them through the
implementation of trauma-informed best practices and interventions.
Using an internet-based survey, Gamache Martin et al. (2010) conducted a study
in the U.S. and Canada that gathered the beliefs of 112 early-childhood through 12thgrade teachers about maltreatment in children. The teachers believed that physical and
sexual abuse led to internalizing and disruptive behaviors, as well as academic
difficulties. They also felt that emotional neglect impacted students’ academic success
and fostered internalizing behaviors, such as emotional dependence and self-harm.
Twenty-one percent of teachers were not aware of how physical and sexual abuse could
influence their students’ classroom behaviors. In contrast, other teachers had an advanced
understanding of the impact of physical and sexual abuse on children compared to
emotional or physical neglect (Gamache Martin et al., 2010). Overall, the teachers were
unsure whether a child’s behaviors were a result of abuse or were due to externalizing
attention-deficit and disruptive behaviors. Teachers need education on distinguishing the
behaviors of children who have experienced trauma from those associated with
psychiatric disorders like ADHD (Gamache Martin et al., 2013).
Through a survey of over 700 teachers, Alisic (2012) found that 89% had worked
with one or more children who had been exposed to childhood trauma, yet only 9%
indicated they had received relevant trauma training. When a child has been exposed to
trauma, teachers often feel they lack the competence and time to address the child’s
social and emotional needs while also managing the needs of the rest of the class (Alisic,
2012; NCSEA, 2019). Teachers want to be there for the children they are educating, but
some students do not want to be treated differently (Alisic, 2012). It is difficult for

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teachers to know when and how to react if they cannot determine whether the behavioral
problems stem from a traumatic event or other circumstances (Alisic, 2012).
Anderson et al. (2015) conducted a study exploring trauma-informed professional
development utilizing results from a needs assessment, a series of professional
development workshops, post-workshop surveys, and insights gained from focus groups
(Anderson et al., 2015). The researchers identified several themes from the focus group
analysis. Teaching staff were concerned about childhood trauma and toxic stress
exposure at home. Increased academic demands on students required teachers to adapt
their pedagogical practices, resulting in greater stress for both students and teachers. The
researchers found that teachers were unsure of how to intervene when a child’s behavior
interfered with the learning environment. Teachers felt they had not received adequate
professional development and information to support their students effectively. However,
when teachers were provided with professional development, they became confident
working with children experiencing trauma (Anderson et al., 2015).
Utilizing a trauma-informed approach benefits both children and teachers. Schoolbased treatment and formalized intervention for children exposed to trauma are needed
(Slade & Wissow, 2007). Through direct collaboration with schools and external
intervention services, children can get the support they need. However, not all families
have the means to get their child to and from community and social service agencies or to
cover the associated costs (Slade & Wissow, 2007). Teachers can link families and
community services (Alisic et. al., 2012). However, to effectively support their students
and reduce the burnout rate among early-career educators, teachers must receive trauma
training in their preparation programs (NCSEA, 2019; Hunter et al., 2021).

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Given the amount of time teachers spend with children during the school day,
they play a vital role in identifying signs of trauma. After the COVID-19 pandemic in
2021, the U.S. Department of Education and Office of Special Education and
Rehabilitative Services released a resource to enhance the promotion of mental health and
the social and emotional well-being among children. COVID-19 was a traumatic event
that exacerbated the mental health crisis, leaving all public health workers and educators
ill-equipped to address the academic, social, emotional, and behavioral needs of children.
The resource highlighted seven challenges and seven recommendations to improve
school-based mental health support services for children in early childhood through
higher education (U.S Department of Education, 2021).
A 2019 amendment to the Public School Code of 1949 states that school-wide
trauma-informed approaches must be used, and public school professional education
plans must include one hour of training related to trauma-informed approaches. The
training should address recognizing signs of trauma, implementing evidence-based best
practices, and reviewing the school’s policies on connecting students with appropriate
services tailored to the local community and approved by the Pennsylvania Department
of Education (PDE) (P.L. 146, No 18 Cl. 24).
In 2021, the PDE published a research agenda outlining Pennsylvania teachers’
ability to recognize and respond to childhood trauma, including trauma and distress
related to COVID-19 (Knoster et al., 2021). PDE used a modified survey from developed
by Kognito’s, a New York City-based developer specializing in research-supported roleplay conversations, Whitepaper: “Are teachers and staff ready to apply trauma informed
practices?”, which reported survey findings from over 8,000 K-12 educators across 11

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states (McDowell Institute, 2022). Over 4,500 educators throughout the Commonwealth
responded to the survey, and PDE that one in two educators did not feel satisfactorily
prepared to recognize signs of childhood trauma within their classrooms. Three out of
five educators stated that they were not satisfactorily prepared to use communication
strategies to help the children in their classroom who have experienced trauma.
Additionally, three out of four educators felt they needed better preparation to implement
trauma-informed practices in their teaching. PDE and Kognito’s white paper concluded
that 95% of educators believe they should receive specific training in trauma-informed
practices (Knoster et al., 2021).
A child’s exposure to one or more traumatic events has been proven to disrupt
their learning and psychosocial development. Children with disabilities and a history of
trauma exposure have higher rates of mental health challenges, academic-related distress,
and have greater difficulty forming peer relationships. Little is known about special
education teachers’ perceptions and the impact of childhood trauma on the provision of
special education services. There is a lack of clear understanding regarding special
education teachers’ role in implementing trauma-informed practices through special
education services. Additionally, research is limited on special education teachers’
perceptions of the professional development they have received for responding to
children who have experienced trauma and qualify for special education services
(Chudzik et al., 2024; Goldenthal et al., 2024; Hunter et al., 2021; Miller & Santos,
2020).

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Childhood Trauma and the IDEA
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is one vehicle for
assisting students in acquiring the skills they need to overcome their childhood trauma.
For a child to receive special education services, Part of B of the IDEA mandates that
schools, under the Child Find obligation, evaluate all children with disabilities, including
those with emotional and mental health needs, who require special education (Tuchinda,
2020; Winder, 2015). The IDEA requires schools to educate students with disabilities, no
matter their ethnic or cultural differences (Otten & Tuttle, 2011). A child first meets the
criteria to receive special education services when a comprehensive evaluation shows
they have qualified under one of the thirteen disability categories recognized by IDEA
(Markelz & Bateman, 2022; Tuchinda, 2020; Winder, 2015). Second, the child’s
disability must adversely affect their educational performance and indicate a need for
related services and specially designed instruction (Markelz & Bateman, 2022; Tuchinda,
2020; Winder, 2015). Once a child is identified with a disability, where there is a need for
specially designed instruction and related services, the school team must develop an
Individualized Education Program (IEP). The IEP must be reasonably calculated and
outline the set of services the child needs to receive a free and appropriate public
education (FAPE) (Otten & Tuttle, 2011; Tuchinda, 2020; Winder, 2015). A range of
support services must be included, such as related services or mental health services, to
ensure that the student’s educational needs are met (U.S. Department of Education,
2021).

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Case Law and the Limitations of the IDEA
Before the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (EAHCA) was
passed, millions of students were excluded from public school (Markelz & Bateman,
2022). During this time, many students were attending public school, but their needs were
not being met. Even with the amendment of IDEA in 2004, childhood trauma was not
recognized as a contributor to a child’s disability. IDEA mandates that all students,
regardless of their disability, receive an educational benefit. To receive special education
services, one of the thirteen disabilities under IDEA is required, but mental health
diagnoses are not included (Winder, 2015). Several court cases highlight this conclusion
and support the multifaceted intersection of trauma and special education.
In the first case, Earl v. Compton Unified School District, a class action suit was
filed in federal court by students and teachers who alleged that students were traumatized
by experiencing and witnessing violence, racism, homelessness, abuse, neglect, loss of
family and friends, and being placed in the foster care system. Compton Unified School
District, located in Compton, California, is known for having one of the highest crime
rates in the nation. The school district did not have a systematic approach for addressing
the needs of traumatized students under IDEA or the Americans with Disabilities Act
(ADA). Six years after the case was filed, the plaintiffs and the defendant collaborated to
develop Compton Unified School District’s wellness initiative. It was a multi-pronged
program designed to address the academic, social-emotional, attendance, and behavioral
needs of the students (Earl v. Compton Unified Sch. Dist., 2017).
The second case, Upper Darby School District v. Price, involved a student who
reported experiencing traumatic events over the summer. The student socially withdrew

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from his peers after the incident, and his grades deteriorated. The district claimed that it
had no reason to suspect that the student had a disability. The district denied the student
access to a free and appropriate public education (FAPE) by failing to timely evaluate the
student after he reported the traumatic event he experienced. The hearing officer opined
that the student’s continuous academic and behavioral troubles triggered the district’s
child-find duties and that the district should have evaluated the student’s IDEA eligibility
under the category of ED. The student was entitled to compensatory education, and the
district was required to reimburse the parents for the first independent educational
evaluation (IEE) (Price v. Upper Darby Sch. Dist., 2016).
In the third case, Horne v. Potomac Preparatory P.C.S., a six-year-old child
attempted suicide by jumping out of a school window. Before the LEA agreed to conduct
an evaluation where the student was denied eligibility to receive special education, 15
additional disciplinary incidents occurred. Over the course of three months, the student
was suspended six times and expelled four times for physically assaulting teachers and
students. After completing two independent educational evaluations, the evaluators
concluded that he was eligible for services under ED with mixed disturbance of emotions
and conduct. The LEA acknowledged that the student had behavioral problems, but the
behaviors did not impact his progress or access to the general education curriculum. Over
three years, he had 31 documented incidents of behavior. He demonstrated an inability to
build or sustain interpersonal relationships and had a pervasive mood of unhappiness.
The court determined that the LEA did not comply with their Child Find obligations, and
he qualified for ED services under IDEA (Horne v. Potomac Preparatory P.C.S, 2016).

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In the fourth case, N.C. ex rel. M.C. v. Bedford Central School District, the
Southern District of New York upheld the LEA’s denial of special education eligibility to
a high school student whose behavior significantly declined when he experienced
repeated sexual abuse. The student was exposed to sexual misconduct with his male
cousin that involved viewing pornographic videos and watching his cousin engage in
sexual intercourse. In addition to these traumatic experiences, he was diagnosed with
ADHD and reading deficits. He received accommodations through a Section 504 Plan.
From December 2002 to March 2003, he was suspended for fighting and assaulting a
student and was found in possession of marijuana and drug paraphernalia. During the
second suspension, he was referred for a special education evaluation. The LEA
determined that he did not meet the criteria to receive special education services under
ED, despite his trauma exposure, as it did not impact his education. The court ruled that
his aggression, fighting, and drug possession did not represent appropriate behavior under
normal conditions. However, these behaviors were not enough to classify him with ED.
Rather, they are characteristics of social maladjustment. Social maladjustment is not one
of the 13 disability categories under IDEA; therefore, he did not qualify for special
education services (N.C. ex rel. M.C. v. Bedford Central School District, 2007).
In the fifth case, Springer v. Fairfax County School Board, the plaintiffs alleged
their son was a student with a disability and entitled to a FAPE under IDEA’s definition
of ED. The LEA determined that he did not meet the criteria for ED. The hearing officer
determined that he was a child with a disability. He had academic, attendance,
behavioral, and legal problems. He was suspended for recklessly driving on school
property, cutting class, committing forgery, leaving school without permission, and

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stealing a car on school grounds. He was later arrested for being found in possession of
burglary tools and tampering with a car. After several psychological assessments,
evaluators identified him as socially maladjusted with a conduct disorder. The Fairfax
County School Board appealed the decision that was later reversed by a state-level
review officer. That officer agreed with the LEA’s determination that he did not meet the
criteria for ED (Springer v. Fairfax County School Board, 1997).
Trauma can be manifested in myriad ways. These court cases demonstrated how
ACEs and childhood trauma impacted each child academically, behaviorally, and
emotionally in school, whether or not they were identified for special education services
(Earl v. Compton Unified Sch. Dist., 2017; Horne v. Potomac Preparatory P.C.S, 2016;
N.C. ex rel. M.C. v. Bedford Central School District, 2007; Price v. Upper Darby Sch.
Dist., 2016; Springer v. Fairfax County School Board, 1997). While some case law
presented the unresolved behavioral issues these children faced, it also concluded with
the converging rulings of hearing officers. For special education teachers to provide
inclusive and supportive environments for all students in their classroom, there must be a
clear intersection of trauma-informed practices and special education (Kumar, 2020).
Special education teachers need professional development on trauma-informed practices
to adequately support students who have been exposed to childhood trauma and also
qualify for special education services.
The number of children either not appropriately referred or inaccurately
determined to require special education and related services has continually increased
(Dykes, 2008). Additionally, there are failures in the educational system relating to
inequalities in the referral process, assessment, and special education replacement

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procedures for students with ACEs (Dykes, 2008; Tuchinda, 2020). The
sociodemographic factors in a community have a strong influence on the proportion of
students identified with disabilities (Shippen et al., 2009). IDEA does not have a
disability category that captures the multi-faceted impact of trauma on the brain and
behavior, and IDEA does not mention childhood trauma in its statute or regulations
(Tuchinda, 2020). Children with ACEs are often categorized under IDEA as having an
Other Health Impairment (OHI) or Emotional Disturbance (ED). There is also a
comorbidity factor that closely resembles mental health disorders and ED characteristics
(Lambert, 2022).
OHI is defined as “having limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a
heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness concerning
the educational environment that adversely affects a child’s educational performance”
(IDEA, 2004). At the federal level, an Emotional Disturbance (ED) is defined as having
a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long
period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child’s educational
performance:
(A) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory,
or health factors.
(B) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal
relationships with peers and teachers.
(C) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal
circumstances.
(D) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.

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(E) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with
personal or school problems. (IDEA, 2004)
A child must meet one of the intensity and duration characteristics in order to
qualify for ED. The definition also includes schizophrenia, but it does not apply to
socially maladjusted children (Bateman & Cline, 2019; Tuchinda, 2020; Winder, 2015).
Recent research by Lambert et al. (2022) examines the five characteristics outlined in the
federal definition of ED. The study explored 491 students identified with ED across four
major demographical regions in the U.S. Using the Scales for Assessing Emotional
Disturbance-3 (SAED-3), the researchers concluded that 22% of students demonstrated
characteristics of ED across all five areas. Scores were high in unhappiness or depression,
where 16.1% of students were indicative of ED and 24.8% were highly indicative of ED.
Also, when looking at ratings of physical symptoms or fears, 18.7% of students were
indicative of ED and 26.1% of students were highly indicative of ED (Lambert et al.,
2022).
IDEA does not properly address the educational needs of children who have
experienced childhood trauma as it relates to unhappiness, depression, and symptoms of
fear (Tuchinda, 2020; Winder, 2015). Different states apply various interpretations of
ED, given the criteria outlined by IDEA (Winder, 2015). Some states use a combination
of terms like behavior, emotional, or social in conjunction with disability, disorder, or
impairment (Bateman & Cline, 2019). The IDEA definition excludes children who lack
an appropriate support system, a factor which can contribute to a child’s maladjustment
(Winder, 2015). Given these findings, special education teachers must be able to
recognize childhood trauma and how understand how it manifests specifically in

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disability categories like OHI and an ED. Special education teachers face challenges due
to a lack of professional development on trauma-informed practices, which hinders their
ability to adequately support students exposed to childhood trauma who also qualify for
special education services. They need additional professional development and training to
meet the needs of the heterogeneous groups of students in their classrooms (Hunter et al.,
2021).
Childhood Trauma, Trauma-Informed Practices, and Special Education Services
ACEs can be the root cause of learning disabilities, health problems, and social
challenges that lead to behavioral problems (Tuchinda, 2020). Students who have
experienced many adversities may require additional support within the school system
and community (Dykes, 2008; “Education Brief”, n.d.; Losen et al., 2013; Shippen et al.,
2009). Rogers (2003) and other researchers questioned the social construction of
disabilities by identifying a disability as a cultural institution of formal and informal
discourse, achievement, and ability. Interactions among teachers, parents, and students,
along with primary language literacy (developed at home and in the community) and
secondary discourse (practices developed through school), can change a child’s brain
physiology, thus impairing their academic efforts (Knotek, 2003; Rogers, 2003; Wade et
al., 2014). Largely, empirical studies confirm a discernable negative effect of ACEs on a
child’s developmental, emotional, and behavioral functioning (Dykes, 2008; “Education
Brief”, n.d.; Losen et al., 2013; Rogers, 2003; Shippen et al., 2009).
Ethnographic and micro-ethnographic studies have identified and explained
patterns that shape a child’s school achievement (Knotek, 2003). These studies revealed
information about students who receive special education services. In some

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circumstances, students who were exposed to crime, violence, and poverty; who lacked
educational resources; and who were having difficulty in school might not qualify for
special education services under the category of Specific Learning Disability (SLD) using
the discrepancy model (Knotek, 2003). Social and emotional contexts shape relationship
norms, behaviors, and discourse among children. These contexts also shape and inhibit
the multidisciplinary team and how they objectively make decisions and diagnose a child
when determining special education services (Knotek, 2003; Tuchinda, 2020). Given
these circumstances, a child may not qualify for special education services under any of
the disability categories, and therefore, special education services cannot be provided.
A study by Chudzik et al. (2024), used a smaller portion of a mixed methods
study to investigate early childhood special education (ECSE) teachers’ perceptions
toward childhood trauma-informed practices. Only qualitative data were reviewed as part
of this study. The researchers concluded that many ECSE teachers have the knowledge to
support children with disabilities who have experienced trauma, but they do not feel
prepared to help them. Another finding from the study revealed that many professional
development activities attended by ECSE teachers covered foundational information
about childhood trauma and trauma-informed practices. However, special education
teachers need much more specialized training to help them address and modify a child’s
behavior influenced by trauma. Finally, participants affirmed a lack of support from
administrators and support staff when implementing trauma-informed practices (Chudzik
et al., 2024). This research coincides with earlier findings from Miller and Santos (2020),
who emphasized that the field of special education must meet the needs of students who

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have experienced trauma, based on positional statements from the NEA, the Department
of Early Childhood (DEC), and the Council for Expectational Children (CEC).
In a research study involving children aged three to five years old, Kerker et al.
(2015) discovered that for each additional ACE reported, there was a 77% higher chance
of receiving a low score on the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale. This scale is
frequently used to evaluate an individual's cognitive abilities, encompassing their
language proficiency, social behavior, and self-care skills. In another research study with
81,184 adults, Karoliina et al. (2007) found that having two ACEs almost doubles the risk
of developing a disability compared to having no ACEs. Furthermore, having seven or
eight ACEs was associated with a sixfold increase in the risk of developing a disability
(Karoliina et al., 2007).
Overall, while multiple calls for action have been made by national organizations
and researchers, there is still more to be done to support children with childhood trauma.
A Google Scholar search using the key phrase perceptions of special education teachers
and children with trauma yielded fewer than ten peer-reviewed articles. Given that
almost half of the children who have been abused or neglected also qualify to receive
special education services, sufficient training for special education teachers and teams is
imperative (Hunter et al., 2021). Through the Google Scholar search, it is evident that
researchers have not extensively explored special education teachers’ perceptions of the
impact of childhood trauma compared to the provision of special education services.
There is a lack of clarity about special education teachers’ role in implementing traumainformed practices through special education services. Additionally, there is little
research on special education teachers’ perceptions of the professional development they

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have received for responding to children who have experienced childhood trauma and
qualify for special education services.
Summary
A child’s early life experiences will shape their brain development and determine
their intelligence, emotions, and personality (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2017).
During a child’s developmental periods, chronic exposure to childhood trauma has longlasting adverse effects (NCTSN, 2012; Woods-Jaeger et al., 2018). Childhood trauma can
manifest itself through behaviors teachers see in the classroom. If these stressors go
unrecognized, a child’s learning can be negatively affected and they may be mislabeled in
school (Fyke, 2018). These experiences often interfere with their academic and socialemotional success, resulting in cognitive, physical, or behavioral disorders (SAMHSA,
2014). Educational institutions should be trauma-informed by applying a trauma lens to
all academic learning (Rossen & Bateman, 2020). Children with ACEs need to have a
safe, supportive, and nurturing environment to reduce the risks associated with adverse
experience exposure (Woods et al., 2018). The New Haven Competencies and
SAMHSA’s Trauma-Informed Approach: Key Assumptions and Principals provide
educators with knowledge about trauma and guidance in implementing trauma-informed
practices (Cook & Newman, 2014; SAMHSA, 2014).
The intersection of trauma and special education is a critical and complex area of
concern within education. A child’s adverse childhood experiences can be the root cause
of learning disabilities, health problems, and social challenges that lead to behavioral
problems in school (Tuchinda, 2020). Given the amount of time special education
teachers spend with children during the school day, they play a vital role in identifying

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signs of trauma, child abuse, and neglect. With recent developments in legislation and
trauma research, effectively supporting special education teachers and their
understanding of childhood trauma is limited (Tuchinda, 2020; Winder, 2015). Shifting to
an integrated and effective approach to providing academic, social-emotional, and
behavioral support for special education students requires changes to standard prevention
and intervention approaches in schools. It is imperative to understand special education
teachers’ perceptions regarding the prevalence and impact of childhood trauma
concerning the provision of special education services. Special education teachers need to
understand their role when implementing trauma-informed practices through the special
education services they provide. Additionally, special education teachers need adequate
professional development to support children who have experienced trauma and also
qualify for special education services. The next chapter will discuss the methodology for
this research.

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CHAPTER THREE
The intersection of trauma and special education is a critical and complex area of
concern in education. Across the nation, educators are reporting an increased prevalence
and greater intensity of childhood trauma among students who receive special education
services. Exposure to one or more traumatic events has been proven to disrupt a child’s
learning and psychosocial development. Research exploring special education teachers’
perceptions and the impact of childhood trauma on the provision of special education
services is under-considered. There is a lack of inquiry into special education teachers’
role in implementing trauma-informed practices through special education services.
Additionally, there is a scarcity of research exploring special education teachers’
perceptions of the professional development they have received to support children who
have experienced trauma and qualify for special education services.
Research Questions
1. What are special education teachers’ perceptions of the prevalence and impact of
childhood trauma on the provision of special education services in the district?
2. What are special education teachers’ perceptions of their role in implementing
trauma-informed practices through special education services?
3. What are special education teachers’ perceptions of the professional development
they have received to support children who have experienced trauma and qualify
for special education services?
Pilot Study
The researcher conducted a qualitative pilot study in the spring of 2018 (Mason,
2018). The purpose of the qualitative pilot study was to examine how ACEs (Felitti,

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1998) and childhood trauma influence the special education referral process and how
special education teachers are supported. Hour-long, unstructured, synchronous, and
mediated interviews were conducted with four special education teachers through Adobe
Connect. Each participant taught in the public-school system, with teaching experiences
ranging from 5 to 14 years.
All participants stated that their school district utilized a school-wide evaluation
process through either the discrepancy or the MTSS model. Fifty percent of the
participants voiced that this model was not providing satisfactory support for students
with ACEs due to staffing constraints and lack of teacher training. Additionally, in each
of the participant’s districts, state mandates require a Student Assistance referral for a
student to receive mental health or drug/alcohol-related services.
The remainder of the participants explained that once identification is achieved,
the special education process is followed on a continuum of Least Restrictive
Environment (LRE) where students remain in the regular education classroom for as long
as they can be successful, particularly those with a diagnosed learning disability.
However, when students are diagnosed with an Emotional Disturbance, the continuum of
support can be ineffective since administration moves students with severe behaviors
quickly, and even unjustifiably, to alternative placement. These unjustifiable placements
occur when a Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA) and Positive Behavior Support
Plan (PBSP) have not been conducted and/or implemented.
Each participant described how their school district took advanced precautions to
make their school trauma-responsive. These measures included seeking additional
guidance counselors throughout the district when a traumatic event occurs, implementing

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school-wide endeavors like ALICE (Alert, Lockdown, Inform, Counter, and Evacuate)
and Stop the Bleed training and encouraging teachers to participate in professional
learning committees with book studies on poverty and trauma. One participant mentioned
the benefits of having monthly local mental health consultation support with the district’s
emotional support teachers and guidance counselors. Most importantly, each participant
emphasized the importance of a district-wide, school-based outpatient behavioral and
mental health program.
Limitations of the Pilot Study
One limitation of the pilot study was that the researcher did not interview general
education teachers. They could have provided substantial information on how ACEs
influence children within their classrooms academically, emotionally, and socially.
However, interviewing general education teachers did not align to the purpose of the pilot
study.
Conclusions of the Pilot Study
For students with ACEs, school districts need a comprehensive special education
referral and evaluation process that addresses all needs. Districts should consider
implementing school-based outpatient behavioral and mental health programs across all
grade levels. Through these programs, students with ACEs can receive therapy,
psychiatric and psychological evaluations, and medication management, all while at
school. In addition, trauma training should not be superficial. All administrators, teachers,
and staff should be well-equipped to provide a trauma-sensitive environment through
professional development, monthly faculty meetings, and morning meetings.

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Description of Participants
As a result of the pilot study and review of literature, the researcher concluded
that a significant number of special education students have been exposed to childhood
trauma; yet research around special education teachers’ perceptions of childhood trauma
are under-examined. Participants in this case study were purposefully and
homogeneously sampled special education teachers currently working in a K-12 school
district in central Pennsylvania. Each special education teacher participant provided
itinerant, supplemental, or full-time special education services to students within the
district. They supported a variety of students, including those receiving learning support,
intensive learning support, life skills support, and autistic support services. The
participants had a range of general education and special education teaching experiences
and numerous years of providing instruction in public and private education.
Descriptions of Instrumentation/Measurement Procedures
Based on the pilot study’s interview guide, a revised open-ended interview guide
(Table 3) was used in this qualitative case study. The original interview guide (see
Appendix C) had seven open-ended questions and four sub-questions. A revised openended interview guide was developed to capture each participant’s detailed responses and
personal accounts to the specific interview guide questions (Patton, 2002). Given the
results of the pilot study and a review of Cook and Newman’s (2014) inquiry outlining
The New Haven Competencies and SAMHSA’s Trauma and Justice Strategic Initiative
(2014), the researcher revised the original seven open-ended interview guide questions.
An additional five questions were added for clarity. Some revisions to the interview guide
questions were aligned to the trauma-focused New Haven Competencies, addressing the

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scientific understanding of trauma, how to appropriately assess and tailor interventions
around the complexities of trauma exposure, the practitioners’ role in trauma treatment
delivery, and the application of development, and current best practices to trauma service
delivery (Cook & Newman, 2014). Additional interview guide revisions were synthesized
with SAMHSA’s four key assumptions in a trauma-informed approach and six key
principals of a trauma informed approach, resulting in the identification of 12
comprehensive interview guide questions shown in Table 3 (SAMHSA, 2014). Common
themes from the revised interview guide questions were then analyzed, leading to the
development of the three research questions used in this current study and also shown in
Table 3.
A qualitative approach was chosen to generate an in-depth understanding of
special education teachers’ perceptions of childhood trauma in its natural and real-life
context (Coombs, 2022). The researcher conducted face-to-face interviews following
semi-structured and pedagogical interviewing models, allowing each participant to
engage honestly and express their complex viewpoints and experiences (Patton, 2002;
Tracy, 2013). Using narrative and naturalistic inquiry, each tour, experience, future
prediction, and factual interview question directly related to the special education
teachers’ perceptions regarding childhood trauma, trauma-informed practices, and the
intersection of special education (Clandinin et al., 2007; Tracy, 2013). Interview guide
questions one, two, three, and four aligned to the main research question addressing
special education teachers’ perceptions of the prevalence and impact of childhood trauma
in special education. Questions five, six, seven, and eight of the interview guide explored

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Table 3
Interview Guide to Research Questions Breakdown
Research Questions

Research Question 1 – What are
special education teachers’
perceptions regarding the prevalence
and impact of trauma in relation to
the provision of special education
services in the district?

Research Question 2 - What are
special education teachers’
perceptions of their role in
implementing trauma-informed
practices through special education
services?

Research Question 3 – What are
special education teachers’
perceptions of the professional
development they have received to
support children who have
experienced trauma and also qualify
for special education services?

Interview Guide Question/Topic
1) Briefly explain what you know about childhood
trauma.
2) Describe the types of trauma students in your special
education classroom have been exposed to. How do
you see the complexities of trauma impacting your
students’ short-term and long-term?
3) What is currently happening in your school to
promote academic, behavioral, and social-emotional
trauma-informed practices for special education
students?
4) What are your perceptions of how trauma-informed
practices are being implemented throughout the
school district and greater community to support
special education students?
5) As a special education teacher, you are one member
of a large organization. What do you perceive as your
role in realizing, recognizing, responding, and
resisting re-traumatization when working with
special education students who have been exposed to
childhood trauma?
6) How do you critically assess and apply up-to-date
trauma-informed practices and interventions in your
classroom?
7) What trauma-informed practices have you found to
be the most helpful when working with special
education students in your classroom?
8) In your role, describe any barriers you face when
implementing trauma-informed practices.
9) How does the district incorporate professional
development around policies and practices that are
responsive to the cultural needs of all students?
10) As a special education teacher, how are you impacted
by your special education students’ trauma
experiences?
11) What professional development have you received to
support your work with students with childhood
trauma who qualify for special education services?
12) How could the district enhance its professional
development by incorporating trauma-informed
practices to support special education students?

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special education teachers’ perceptions of their role in implementing trauma-informed
practices through their unique special education service delivery model. Lastly, questions
nine through twelve of the interview guide examined special education teachers’
perceptions of the professional development they have received to address childhood
trauma and support students who qualify for special education services. By breaking the
interview guide down into predetermined themes, the researcher could compare prior
themes identified in the pilot study and explore new emergent themes and perceptions.
These themes may be generalized for school districts or other educational entities to
determine how to best support special education teachers when educating children who
have experience trauma are receiving special education services (Clandinin et al., 2007).
Research Design and Description of Procedures
To gain a deeper understanding of participants’ perceptions, informed consent
was obtained from the Internal Review Board (IRB) at Slippery Rock University (SRU),
the school district’s superintendent, and each subsequent interview participant. After
obtaining superintendent approval, the researcher sent an email (Appendix E) that
included an attached informational letter (Appendix F) to all special education teachers in
the district. Since participation was voluntary and not anonymous, each special education
teacher signed a consent form (Appendix G) agreeing to participate in the study and to
have their interview audio recorded. These forms were collected and retained prior to the
interviews. With superintendent and IRB approval and to increase the number of
participants, ensure credible findings, and assist with feasibility, each participant received
a $25 Amazon gift card upon completing the interview process within a two-week time
period. Prior to the interview, each participant completed an electronic demographic

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questionnaire via a Google survey, providing their name, professional title, race and
gender, highest degree of education completed, years as a special education teacher, and
prior teaching experiences. The demographic questionnaire was sent to each participant
through email. Once completed, the questionnaire was filed in a password-protected
Google Drive account accessible only by the researcher. The Google Drive was located
on a password- and fingerprint-protected computer.
After each participants’ informed consent and demographic questionnaire were
received and reviewed using the templates provided by SRU’s IRB, the researcher
established an agreed upon interview time and location. Each mutually agreed upon
interview location was a quiet, distraction-free space with a closed door, providing
adequate privacy for the researcher and participant.
Each participant was provided a brief background PowerPoint presentation on
childhood trauma, an overview of the New Haven Trauma-Focused Competencies, and
SAMHSA’s Trauma-Informed Approach: Key Assumptions and Principals. The
researcher reviewed the presentation in the same format with each participant using the
presentation notes written in advance by the researcher. This information help build and
solidify the researcher’s rapport have with each participant (Tracy, 2013). In addition, an
interview guide of questions was provided to the participants before the interview began
to ensure each participant had adequate processing time to respond to each question.
Lastly, a semi-structured introduction protocol script (Appendix K) was used to describe
the study and interview norm expectations for each participant. The researcher used a 12question interview guide (Table 3) based on the trauma-focused New Haven
Competencies and SAMHSA’s (2014) four key assumptions in a trauma-informed

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approach and the six key principals of a trauma informed approach. The semi-structured
interview questions took each participant about one hour to answer.
At the end of each interview, a fidelity checklist (Appendix K) was completed by
the researcher. The fidelity checklist was created to ensure that each interview started and
ended in the same manner and each participant received the same interview protocol. All
semi-structured, narrative, pedagogical interviews were audio-recorded with participant
approval, as indicated by a signed release form. Within two calendar days of each
interview, the researcher took the transcription, using Otter AI, and developed field notes
for coding and analysis. Each participant’s audio recording was saved and stored in a
password protected Google Drive account accessible only by the researcher. This Google
Drive was located on a password- and fingerprint-protected computer.
Data Analysis
The purpose of this study was to decisively and homogeneously sample special
education teachers’ perceptions of the prevalence of childhood trauma, their role in
implementing trauma-informed practices, and their views on the professional
development they received to support special education students. Qualitative data were
analyzed through a single instrumental approach, as the problem and research in this
study provided insight to childhood trauma through the perceptions of special education
teachers. Through a single instrument approach an interview guide, as a primary tool, was
used in the qualitative study to answer the research questions. (Baxter & Jack, 2008).
The demographic questionnaire was analyzed by assigning each participant a
substitute code in place of their name as an identifier. Using these letter codes, each
participant’s professional title, race and gender, highest degree of education completed,

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and years as a special education teacher were summarized. After collecting all participant
data, the interview questions were manually processed to ensure that each teacher’s
complex viewpoints were represented. Each participant's interview transcription received
the same substitute code used on the demographic questionnaire. The codes assisted the
researcher in analyzing and synthesizing data. Since the researcher engaged in
purposeful sampling of interview participants in this qualitative study, in order to meet
the goals of the research questions, assigning each participant a code, in place of their
name as an identifier, enabled the researcher to protect each participants identity (Tracy,
2013). These codes also supported the synthesis of each special education teachers’
viewpoints into broader themes through grouping related responses under each
participant’s identifier (Tracy, 2013). The transcription of each participant's interview
was reviewed and approved by the special education teacher, and was saved and stored
within a password protected Google Drive account, on a password- and fingerprintprotected computer, only accessible by the researcher.
Given the subjective nature of qualitative research, due to how semi-structured
interviews are transcribed, after the transcription process was complete, the researcher
sent the transcription notes to each participant. When transcribing an interview, mistakes
in transcription can change the meaning of a phrase, sentence, or idea, leading to
information being misinterpreted (Easton et al., 2000: Tracy, 2013). To avoid any
misinterpreted information, and to establish credibility and provide each participant the
opportunity to discuss or clarify the researcher’s interpretation, each participant reviewed
and approved their semi-structured interview transcription (Baxter & Jack, 2008; Easton
et al., 2000; Starman, 2013). After each participant’s transcription was approved, the

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transcription was printed and coded. The text was manually marked using pens and
highlighters in various colors to assist in threading together the data coding of raw record
experiences.
Based on participant responses, primary-cycle coding was used to examine and
formulate common themes, beliefs, and teacher practices (Starman, 2013). A code book
(Table 4) was created with a short description of each code, followed by a more detailed
description (Tracy, 2013). Secondary-cycle codes were derived from the primary-cycle to
further analyze and interpret the data, while analytic memos were created in a separate
document to arrange connections to literature, key findings, limitations, and conclusions
(Tracy, 2013).
Through the coding process, constructed vignettes were identified to support the
study’s essential argument and claims. The results were also used to theorize what school
districts should do to support special education teachers working with students who have
experienced childhood trauma. The findings of this qualitative case study will inform
potential future research on developing professional development tailored to special
education teachers. This study could also be adapted and expanded to explore general
education teachers' perceptions and compare them to those of special education teachers.
The next chapter will discuss the qualitative case study findings.
Summary
The intersection of trauma and special education poses a complex challenge, with
an increasing number of special education students experiencing significant trauma. This
qualitative study utilizing a refined interview guide developed from the pilot study

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Table 4
Codebook for Qualitative Data Analysis
Research
Questions
1 – What are
special education
teachers’
perceptions of
the prevalence
and impact of
childhood trauma
on the provision
of special
education
services in the
district?

2 – What are
special education
teachers’
perceptions of
their role in
implementing
trauma-informed
practices through
special education
services?

3 – What are
special education
teachers’
perceptions of
the professional
development
they have
received to
support children
who have
experienced
trauma and also
qualify for
special education
services?

Code

Description

1) The Impact of
Childhood
Trauma:
Perceptions of
Special
Education
Teachers

Special education teachers recognize the influence of
childhood trauma on students' cognitive functioning,
behavior, and social skills. Students in special
education may encounter various forms of trauma,
including challenges related to family dynamics,
socioeconomic status, abuse, and emotional distress. It
is important to acknowledge that each child's
experience and response to trauma is unique, and not all
children will respond to trauma in the same manner.

2) Current
TraumaInformed
Practices

The district has implemented collaborative, traumainformed supports through in-district and external
resources, yet faces challenges in providing consistent,
comprehensive training to address the needs of all
students with a trauma background.

3) The Impact
Childhood
Trauma has on
Special
Education
Teachers

Special education teachers play a critical role in
supporting students with childhood trauma by
recognizing and understanding the unique challenges
these students face and the practical implications this
has on their own well-being.

4) Trauma-

Informed
Practices:
Perceptions of
Special
Education
Teachers

Special education teachers work to gather relevant
trauma background on students and collaborate with
colleagues and external support teams to ensure
consistent trauma management. They develop practical
strategies to address trauma responses in the classroom;
however, they face challenges due to limited time,
resources, and the complexities of identifying each
student’s unique trauma triggers.

5) Professional
Development
for All Students:
Perceptions of
Special
Education
Teachers

There are perceived gaps in district-provided
professional development for all teachers to understand
trauma through a culturally sensitive lens, while
respecting each student’s diverse background and their
unique perspectives.

6) Professional
Development
for Special
Education
Teachers: Past
and Future
Perspectives

There are identified gaps in the professional
development provided to special education teachers to
effectively support students with trauma-related
challenges. The district should offer professional
development opportunities specifically designed for
special education teachers.

PERCEPTIONS OF CHILDHOOD TRAUMA

85

findings and frameworks like the New Haven Trauma-Focused Competencies and
SAMHSA’s trauma-informed principles (Cook & Newman, 2014; SAMHSA, 2014).
Through interviews with special education teachers, special education teachers’
perceptions were synthesized regarding the prevalence and impact of trauma in the
district, their role in implementing trauma-informed practices with special education
students, and their perceptions of the professional development they have received to
support children who have experienced trauma and also qualify for special education
services. Data analysis involved coding and categorizing themes to build an
understanding of special education teachers’ needs and challenges in supporting special
education students affected by trauma. The findings are intended to inform future
research and assist schools in designing effective professional development for special
education teachers that focus on childhood trauma and trauma-informed practices to
support all special education students within the school environment.

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CHAPTER FOUR
Restatement of the Problem
The objective of this qualitative study was to ascertain special education teachers’
perceptions of childhood trauma and its impact on the provision of special education
services. It aimed to identify these educators' views on their roles in implementing
trauma-informed practices within special education services and to investigate their
perceptions regarding the professional development they have received to assist children
who have experienced childhood trauma and also qualify for special education services.
A comprehensive understanding of childhood trauma is essential for effectively
delivering a free and appropriate public education to students eligible for special
education services. To examine how special education teachers and students who have
experienced childhood trauma and qualify for special education services, the following
research questions were formulated:
1. What are special education teachers’ perceptions of the prevalence and impact of
childhood trauma on the provision of special education services in the district?
2. What are special education teachers’ perceptions of their role in implementing
trauma-informed practices through special education services?
3. What are special education teachers’ perceptions of the professional development
they have received to support children who have experienced trauma and also
qualify for special education services?
Demographics
Twelve special education teachers currently working in a K-12 public school
district in central Pennsylvania participated in this study. The researcher sent an email to

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87

all special education teachers in the district, requesting voluntary participation in the
qualitative study. Seven interviews were scheduled following the initial email. A second
email was sent to request additional voluntary participation, resulting in five more
interviews. This met the researcher’s required threshold for semi-structured interviews.
The gender and race of the participating special education teachers are detailed in Tables
5 and 6.
Table 5
Enrollment by Gender
Gender

Percentage

Female

92%

Male

8%

Table 6
Enrollment by Race/Ethnicity
Race/Ethnicity
American Indian/Alaskan Native

Percentage
0%

Asian

60%

Black

0%

Hispanic

0%

Native American or Pacific Islander

0%

White

100%

Prior to conducting the semi-structured interviews, the researcher asked the
special education teachers to complete the interview participation consent form
(Appendix G) and the electronic demographic questionnaire (Appendix H). Once these
documents were completed, the researcher scheduled a semi-structured interview with

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88

each teacher during an agreed upon time that aligned to the special education teacher’s
schedule. Each interview was conducted in a location chosen by the special education
teacher, ensuring it was a quiet, distraction-free space with a closed door for adequate
privacy. The researcher reviewed the interview protocol and provided each participant
with necessary background information on childhood trauma (Appendix J). Afterward,
the researcher asked the twelve interview guide questions (Table 3).
The first four interview guide questions asked about the special education
teacher’s knowledge of childhood trauma, the types and complexities of childhood
trauma they have seen in their special education classroom, the district’s current
provisions for addressing the needs of all students, and the trauma-informed practices
currently used within the district and community. The second set of four interview
questions addressed the special education teacher’s role in implementing traumainformed practices, the practices they perceived to be the most helpful, how they stay
current with these practices, and any barriers they face in implementation. The final set of
four interview questions asked special education teachers about their perceptions of past
and current professional development in the district to support all students, the
professional development they have received to support special education students with a
trauma background, and how the district could improve future professional development
for special education teachers working with these students (Table 3).
Each special education teachers’ interview lasted 15 to 20 minutes and was
recorded and transcribed using Otter AI. After the interview, the researcher completed a
fidelity checklist with each participant. Within two calendar days, the researcher shared

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the interview guide transcription with each teacher for their review and approval. Each
participant confirmed receipt and approval of their transcript.
Data Collection
The purpose of this quantitative study was to examine special education teachers’
perceptions of the impact of childhood trauma on the provision of special education
services, their role in implementing trauma-informed practices through the special
education service delivery model, and their views on the professional development they
have received to support students with trauma who also qualify for special education
services. Twelve special education teachers currently working in a K-12 public school
district in central Pennsylvania participated in this study. Each special education teacher
was a assigned a letter code to assist the researcher in data analysis. Table 7 provides
details on the participants’ current teaching positions, academic degrees, years of
teaching experience in the district, and total years of teaching experience.
Semi-structured interviews were conducted over a three-week period. Each
special education teacher’s interview transcript was printed, sorted, and manually
grouped by research question. The researcher analyzed the transcripts individually to
identify initial themes and patterns that emerged from the quantitative data collection.
Pertinent information was highlighted to develop a primary coding list. The researcher
then analyzed the interview guide answers a second time to calculate the frequency of
each code and identify dominant themes or patterns. The results were reviewed a third
time to determine which themes were most important or widespread, leading to the
development of a secondary-cycle coding list. Finally, the researcher conducted a
comprehensive review of each interview transcript to ensure the findings and principal

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Table 7
Participant Codes and Teaching Profiles

Code

Current Special Education
Teaching Position

Academic Degree

Number of
Years
Teaching in
the District

Years of
Professional
Teaching
Experience

A

Learning Support Teacher

Master’s Degree

17 years

17 years

B

Autistic Support Teacher

Master’s Degree

3 months

10 years

C

Alternative Special
Education Teacher

Master’s Degree

8 years

12 years

D

Autistic Support Teacher

Master’s Degree

3 months

6 years

E

Learning Support Teacher

Master’s Degree

10 years

10 years

F

Learning Support Teacher

Master’s Degree

8 years

8 years

G

Learning Support Teacher

Master’s Degree

13 years

13 years

H

Intensive Learning Support
Teacher

Master’s Degree

3 years

18 years

I

Autistic Support Teacher

Master’s Degree

15 years

20 years

J

Intensive Learning Support
Teacher

Master’s Degree

3 years

9 years

K

Autistic Support Teacher

Master’s Degree

18 years

24 years

L

Autistic Support Teacher

Master’s Degree

10 years

14 years

themes were aligned with the data. A code book (Table 4) was created in order to
complete the data analysis process. Developing a code book helped the researcher
cultivate coherence and structure, draw connections within the data, and support thematic

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91

analysis (Tracy, 2013). Analytic memos were also developed to organize connections to
literature, key findings, implications, and conclusions. Based on the responses to some
interview questions, constructed vignettes were identified to support the study’s essential
argument and claims.
Findings
The qualitative data collected from the semi-structured interviews were analyzed
from the perspective of special education teachers. This analysis examined their
knowledge of childhood trauma, how they implement trauma-informed practices within
their classrooms, and their perceptions of the professional development they have
received to support special education students with a history of childhood trauma. The
researcher systematically organized the findings according to the six interview guide
themes presented in Table 8.
Research Question 1 Findings
The relationship between childhood trauma and special education represents a
significant and multifaceted issue within the field of education. The first research
question examined special education educators' perceptions regarding the effects of
childhood trauma on students in special education. Childhood trauma is “an event, series
of events, or set of circumstances that is experienced by an individual as physically or
emotionally harmful or life-threatening and has lasting adverse effects on the individual’s
functioning and mental, physical, social, emotional, or spiritual well-being” (SAMHSA,
2014, p. 7). Exposure to trauma in childhood can be a fundamental factor contributing to
learning disabilities, health issues, and social challenges, which may result in behavioral
difficulties in the educational environment (Tuchinda, 2020). The analysis of responses

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Table 8
Research Questions, Interview Guide Questions, and Interview Guide Headings
Research Question

Interview Guide Question

Interview Guide
Theme

1) Briefly explain what you know about childhood trauma.
1 – What are
special education
teachers’
perceptions of the
prevalence and
impact of
childhood trauma
on the provision of
special education
services in the
district?

2 – what are special
education teachers’
perceptions of their
role in
implementing
trauma-informed
practices through
special education
services?

2) Describe the types of trauma students in your special
education classroom have been exposed to. How do you see
the complexities of trauma impacting your students’ shortterm and long-term?
3) What is currently happening in your school to promote
academic, behavioral, and social-emotional traumainformed practices for special education students?
4) What are your perceptions of how trauma-informed
practices are being implemented throughout the school
district and greater community to support special education
students?
5) As a special education teacher, you one member of a large
organization. What do you perceive as your role in
realizing, recognizing, responding, and resisting retraumatization when working with special education
students who have been exposed to childhood trauma?
6) How do you critically asses and apply up-to-date traumainformed practices and interventions in your classroom?
7) What trauma-informed practices have you found to be the
most helpful when working with special education students
in your classroom?
8) In your role, describe any barriers you face when
implementing trauma-informed practices.

3 – What are
special education
teachers’
perceptions of the
professional
development they
have received to
support children
who have
experienced trauma
and also qualify for
special education
services?

9) How does the district incorporate professional development
around policies and practices that are responsive to the
cultural needs of all students?
10) As a special education teacher, how are you impacted by
your special education students’ trauma experiences?
11) What professional development have you received to
support your work with students with childhood trauma
who qualify for special education services?
12) How could the district enhance its professional
development by incorporating trauma-informed practices to
support special education students?

1) The Impact of
Childhood
Trauma:
Perceptions of
Special
Education
Teachers
2) Current
TraumaInformed
Practices

3) The Impact
Childhood
Trauma has on
Special
Education
Teachers

4) Trauma

Informed
Practices:
Perceptions of
Special
Education
Teachers

5) Professional
Development
for All
Students:
Perceptions of
Special
Education
Teachers
6) Professional
Development
for Special
Education
Teachers: Past
and Future
Perspectives

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93

from the semi-structured interview guide related to this research question revealed two
themes identified by the special education teachers.
The impact of childhood trauma: Perceptions of special education teachers.
Children bring their trauma experiences into the school setting and research suggests that
adversity, trauma, and stress significantly affect a child’s social, emotional, and cognitive
development (Fyke, 2018; SAMHSA, 2014). It is imperative for all teachers to
understand how to recognize, address, and respond to childhood trauma. The special
education teachers observed that childhood trauma impacts a student’s functioning,
behavior, and social skills. They explained that special education students experience
many types of trauma, including family dynamics, socioeconomic factors, abuse, and
emotional impacts. Participant C explained,
I have a student right now who is a special education student who has neither
parent. Mom died of drug overdose; dad just died of cancer. Grandmother didn't
want her. The student found out that the grandmother was taking her social
security money. Now she is homeless and living in another district coming to our
district.
Sometimes, a student’s experience at home can make it difficult for them to want to come
to school. Teachers need to have an understanding of what a student is going through to
determine how to best support them.
Special education teachers shared how trauma affects children across all ages and
genders, influencing a wide range of physical, behavioral, and neurobiological functions.
Trauma also affects a student’s physical health, sleep patterns, and overall well-being
(Kerker et al., 2015). These teachers understand how trauma exposure can make it

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challenging for children to pay attention in school, think clearly, follow directions,
organize priorities, and learn during stressful situations (“Education Brief”, n.d.;
Nakazawa, 2015; Purser, 2022). Participant B voiced,
I have a student that his parents are separated up until, you know, recently. He
resided with his mom and then was taken from mom’s custody full-time. Now
lives with his dad. When he goes back and forth between the parents, I know that
that's very confusing to him. I can see when he comes in on a Monday, after being
with the parent that he doesn't see as often, he's a little more disorganized. He's
not as put together with his hair slicked back. He has different clothes on, or
maybe the same clothes that I saw him in wearing Friday. He's often very hungry,
so I don't know what the communication is at home of if he finished eating before
he came, or anything like that.
Participant B’s observations illustrate how a student's struggles with stability and basic
needs due to family dynamics pose challenges in the school environment.
All the special education teachers interviewed emphasized that not every child is
experiences trauma in the same way, leading to a wide range of reactions and behaviors.
Some children may exhibit increased behavioral issues, while others might mask their
experiences. A child’s trauma may stem from one or many personal experiences or from
witnessing a family member’s hardship, adding layers of complexity to how they process
and react to their surroundings at school (Pickens & Tschopp, 2017; SAMHSA, 2014).
A significant proportion of special education teachers emphasized the necessity of
understanding a child’s trauma history to optimize their support within the special
education setting. Participant G proclaimed,

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I don't always get to know, I think, all of the information, but probably not
enough to help them. I think sometimes it would be helpful to get a little bit more
information. You might know why these behaviors are coming up the way they
are…I think too, with me working with the younger kiddos, they're still exploring
how to emotionally respond to things and when they don't even understand what's
happening in their own world. I think asking them to respond, or even come to
school and give us their best, is just really hard for them.
Many special education teachers acknowledged that a child’s brain structure
changes and certain events or situations in a classroom might trigger a fight-or-flight
response, impacting their ability to regulate behavior and communicate in a socially
appropriate matter (Hudspeth, 2015). Understanding a student’s trauma history is
essential for tailoring effective support in special education. This insight is echoed by
Participant G, who highlighted the challenges in supporting students without
comprehensive background information and noted the difficulty students face in
navigating their emotions and behaviors.
The autistic support teachers interviewed, highlighted that trauma can manifest
differently in children with educational disabilities, such as intellectual disabilities or
autism, due to variations in their cognitive and communication capabilities. A child's
level of social communication and motivation may influence their response to adverse
experiences, leading to different reactions based on their individual motivators. The
polyvagal perspective explains, through neuroception, how children may unconsciously
adjust their behavior in response to the regulation of their nervous system and stress
responses (Delahooke, 2019; Purser, 2022).

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The findings from Felitti and Anda's study on the prevalence of adverse childhood
experiences (ACEs) highlight the profound impact that traumatic events can have on
children throughout their lives (Felitti et al., 1998). Short-term trauma can manifest as
challenges with self-esteem, behavioral dysregulation, depression, and difficulties in
academic performance (Brunzell et al.,2015; Hudspeth, 2015; Winder, 2015). Students
may struggle to build trust with adults in school, feel that their voices are not heard, and
have trouble expressing emotions. For instance, a special education student’s childhood
trauma may influence their immediate decision-making, social interactions, and
educational development, and it may also have long-term effects as the student transitions
into adulthood (Burke Harris, 2018; Potter-Efron, 2012; Romero et al., 2018).
Special education teachers reported that when special education students have
been exposed to childhood trauma, they may immediately experience behavioral
dysregulation, have difficulty maintaining academic performance, and struggle to
develop trusting relationships with teachers or other authority figures in a school
environment (Anderson-Ketchmark & Alvarez, 2010; Otten & Tuttle, 2011; Stormont et
al., 2008; Woods-Jaeger et al., 2018). Trauma impacts their grades, attention, and coping
skills, often leaving them distracted and un able to make satisfactory academic progress
(Fantuzzo et al., 2013; NCSEA, 2019). Referring to a student’s guardian, Participant C
explained,
that's why a lot of them fail classes. That's why a lot of them are behind credit
wise. Things get too hard, and then they just kind of give up emotionally. They
give up physically. They don't come to school. They fail things because they're
just trying to get done with it, and they don't want to worry about anything else.

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These insights highlight how trauma experiences directly affect special education
students, influencing both their attendance and academic performance.
One special education teacher reported an incident in which a student was
physically attacked by another student. The affected student had not previously
encountered trauma or had external support systems in place. The teacher observed
immediate effects of this event on the student's well-being. Although the long-term
implications of this experience are uncertain, the teacher believes it may influence the
student's academic success moving forward.
Long-term effects of trauma may not fully emerge until later in life, affecting an
individual’s ability to function in society and make sound life choices (Burke Harris,
2018; Potter-Efron, 2012; Romero et al., 2018). Adolescents and adults who experienced
trauma in childhood may face academic setbacks, substance abuse issues, and a general
lack of resources or support, which can compound feelings of failure and limit their
social and professional opportunities. The full impact of trauma may remain uncertain, as
its effects can continue to shape an individual’s life in unpredictable ways (“Adverse
Childhood Experiences,” 2014; Duplechain et al., 2008).
Starting as early as birth, the impact of trauma manifests through various physical
and emotional experiences, making it a pervasive factor that shapes developmental
outcomes in significant ways for special education students. Research shows that
childhood trauma has significant neurobiological and psychological effects on children’s
functioning. Special education teachers emphasized the importance of understanding
these trauma-related dynamics to better support their students' educational outcomes.

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Current trauma-informed practices. For children and adolescents exposed to
trauma and stress, support from multiple systems is critical, as schools alone cannot
address all the issues faced by children and their families. Therefore, collaboration with
various professionals in the school setting is essential (Bateman & Cline, 2019; Bateman
& Yell, 2019; Center on PBIS, 2022; Goh & Bambara, 2012; Stormont et al., 2008).
All the special education teachers interviewed expressed how trauma-informed
practices are integrated in their buildings. They shared that the district's approach to
trauma-informed support involves collaboration across various teams and support
systems. In-district support includes collaboration and consultation with various school
professionals such as school counselors, school psychologists, the school-wide behavior
coach, and school social workers. All buildings hold monthly meetings and frequent
discussions among teaching partners, administrators, and behavior teams. These teams
focus on recognizing trauma in students and coordinating supports and services. During
these meetings, teams discuss how to support students in the classroom from academic,
social-emotional, and behavioral perspectives. Often, these conversations lead to
additional meetings involving the student’s family or community partners to determine
appropriate supports and accommodations for the individual.
Many special education teachers acknowledge the district's collaborative
initiatives aimed at assisting students with a history of trauma; however, they have
observed that some educators are not consistently applying the provided support
measures. While some teachers may advocate for flexible classroom environments by
incorporating various seating options or utilizing softer lighting to cultivate a more

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trauma-sensitive atmosphere, this approach is not universally adopted by all teachers.
Participant F explained,
I think teachers expect students just to be able to deal with things, and I have
pushback from teachers sometimes about letting kids take breaks when they need
a minute, or maybe they don't agree with the coping strategy. I think there is a
stigma or maybe a lack of understanding that the kids just can't turn this off. They
can't turn the trauma or the PTSD off during the school day, and it's something
that needs to be supported.
The special education teachers shared that they believe some teachers may struggle to
understand the depth of a student’s trauma and its impact on classroom success. This
highlights a deeper need for consistent application and understanding across all educators
to better support student well-being and success.
In the district, programmatic supports include Responsive Classroomâ, buildinglevel Positive Behavior Intervention Supports (PBIS), community meetings at the K-6
elementary and intermediate buildings, and district professionals providing counseling
and social skill lessons to classrooms and small groups of students. Especially at the
elementary level, some curricular components support students with a traumabackground, but these practices are not widely implanted in all curricular areas. They
should be used across all K-12 buildings to foster a more inclusive and understanding
learning environment. In all district buildings, certain students who may benefit from
counseling services have the opportunity to access support from a local behavioral health
organization (Hudspeth, 2015; Losen et al., 2013). However, the organization has
encountered challenges in recruiting sufficient therapists to serve many of these students.

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Effective interventions for supporting students with multiple adverse childhood
experiences (ACEs) encompass trauma-informed practices, social-emotional learning
programs, individualized education programs (IEPs) focused on mental health support,
and the establishment of a supportive school environment (Brunzell et al., 2015; Cooley,
2018; SAMHSA, 2014). The district provides supportive learning environments,
including regular education transition classrooms, located in select buildings across the
district. These classrooms are designed with a focus on trauma-informed care and brain
science principles. They offer specialized educational and counseling services for
students to address behavioral and emotional challenges that may impact academic
performance. Additionally, the district has three alternative regular education classrooms
in the middle and high school. These classrooms cater to students who thrive in a smallgroup instructional setting tailored to their individual needs. Both supportive learning
environments aim to enhance the academic, behavioral, and social-emotional
development of all students, regardless of their eligibility for special education services.
When a student is not attending school, they are present within their local
neighborhood community. This community environment plays a crucial role in their
overall well-being. Research by Hall et al. (2012) indicates that between 21% and 67% of
behavioral and physical health issues prompting individuals to seek social services within
the community can be linked to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs).
Special education teachers shared that there is a growing understanding of the
impact of trauma, not only within the school district but the greater community,
highlighting a shift toward broader awareness and support for trauma-informed practices.
However, special education teachers have realized they are not aware of many of the

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supports available to families in the community or they hear from families that mental
health resources are difficult to access due to long waitlists. These barriers prevent
parents from getting the help they need for their child.
One special education teacher reported building-level efforts to support parents
through after-school training sessions. Theses parent trainings, offered a few times
throughout the school year in collaboration with a local mental health community
organization, cover various parenting techniques and strategies. While these trainings
provide valuable support for families, they are not offered in every building. The lack of
timely or consistent community resources accentuates the need for increased awareness
and collaboration with community services to ensure comprehensive support for students
impacted by childhood trauma within and beyond the school environment. Participant H
relayed what they know about mental health services:
I'm not too positive about it, because I think the waitlist is ridiculous. From what I
understand, I don't think we have a very good community [of resources], from
kids and from adults alike. I'm hearing long wait list, and kids can't get the
services that they need. We have two school counselors, but that's not even
enough some days.
Creating a system-wide approach to trauma-informed practices involving school and
community partners—such as mental health professionals, child advocacy and welfare
organizations, law enforcement, and juvenile justice workers—will consistently
strengthen support for children impacted by trauma who also qualify for special
education services, as emphasized by Participant H (Bateman & Cline, 2019; Bateman &

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Yell, 2019; Center on PBIS, 2022; Goldenthal et al., 2024; Pernebo & Almqvist, 2016;
Stormont et al., 2008).
Despite the supports and resources available for students in the district and in the
greater community, the district’s special education teachers acknowledged that traumainformed practices are still in the early implementation stages and often lack consistency
and depth. Participant A specified,
I feel that the district and the world knows that, that it's [childhood trauma] is a
problem, that there is a lot of need for trauma informed practices. But I also feel
that mental health is definitely something that, for some reason, we don't put a lot
of effort into as much as I would like to see in the district. I know we want to, but
I think it's also lack of knowing how to give the individuals the support they need.
I guess my perception is I know the goal is we want to be there to support the
trauma and the students struggling, but I also think sometimes we don't know how
to do it as a district.
While some teachers are aware of childhood trauma and attempt to incorporate traumainformed practices into the curriculum, research-based supports are limited. Teachers and
administrators are working to foster a supportive community and involve parents, but
gaps exist in addressing mental health needs and providing effective, trauma-informed
practices to meet the evolving needs of all students, regardless of their eligibility for
special education services. Participant A captured this sentiment: “The district
acknowledges the issue but there is [a] gap in the practical knowledge and comprehensive
strategies needed to support both students and staff effectively.”

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Overall, the district has implemented some collaborative trauma-informed
supports, but challenges remain in delivering consistent and trauma-informed practices in
the school setting and greater community.
Research Question 2 Findings
All educators need to understand instructional strategies that effectively support
children with trauma histories (NCSEA, 2019; NCTSN, 2012; Romero et al., 2018;
SAMHSA, 2014; Thomas et al., 2019). In the U.S., nearly half of all school-aged
children have been affected by trauma, with a similar proportion exposed to at least one
adverse childhood experience (ACE). Children carry these experiences into school, and
research shows that trauma, adversity, and stress significantly impact a child’s social,
emotional, and cognitive development (Fyke, 2018; SAMHSA, 2014). Research question
two identifies a special education teachers’ role in implementing trauma-informed
practices through the services they provide to students. The analysis of responses from
the semi-structured interview questions related to this research question revealed two key
themes identified by the teachers.
The impact childhood trauma has on special education teachers. The
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) serves as an important framework for
supporting students in developing the skills necessary to address and overcome childhood
trauma. Through the implementation of an IEP, special education teachers play a vital
role in supporting students affected by childhood trauma. Researchers report that children
who have experienced abuse and neglect are four times more likely to receive special
education services (Beckman, 2017; Blodgett & Lanigan, 2018; Chudzik et al., 2024).
Special education teachers have specific responsibilities when working with special

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education students who have experienced childhood trauma. Many teachers shared that
they embody the roles of realizing, recognizing, responding, and resisting retraumatization, as outlined in SAMHSA’s Trauma-Informed Approach: Key
Assumptions and Principals (2014) framework.
Special education teachers need to understand and recognize trauma, respect the
special education student’s diverse background, and avoid re-traumatization (SAMHSA,
2014). Through answering the interview guide questions, all special education teachers
perceived their role in supporting students with trauma as that of an advocate. They work
closely with school teams to understand and address each student's unique experiences. In
their classrooms, they strive to build trust, encourage resilience, and foster a safe
environment where their students feel accepted and understood (Cook & Newman, 2014;
SAMHSA, 2014). Over half of the teachers discussed the importance of collaborating
with all team members to develop plans that support students.
Effective communication with students is essential. Special education teachers
reported their efforts to understand each student's history, build strong relationships, and
engage parents in the support process. They also articulated that their responsibilities
include observing students' atypical behaviors, identifying trauma responses—such as
startle reactions and school absences—and noting instances of student withdrawal from
assignments or activities (Anderson-Ketchmark & Alvarez, 2010; Crone et al., 2010;
Gamache Martin et al., 2010; Lambert et al., 2022; Otten & Tuttle, 2011). Participant D
shared that they
assume [special education students] all have trauma, and try to work with them.
Be understanding. It's hard. I'm not yelling at students or causing a chaotic

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environment, trying to have a calm, peaceful space and then offering a sensory
corner if they need to calm down. I have other things that can help them, like, reregulate themselves. I feel like sometimes that's the best thing when you can tell
they're very dysregulated.
As part of their job requirements, special education teachers are tasked with delivering
individualized supports informed by these behavioral observations. They tailor
accommodations and encourage students to seek help when needed. Through
collaboration with school counselors, school psychologists, school social workers, and
other staff, they ensure that trauma-related practices are consistently applied and adapted
based on feedback. To effectively address the needs of special education students, the
U.S. Department of Education (2021) emphasizes the inclusion of a variety of related
services or mental health services in a child’s IEP. Special education teachers must
routinely share information with the other school team members to provide integrated
support and adjust students’ IEPs as they evolve (Bateman & Cline, 2019; Rossen, 2020;
Rossen & Bateman, 2020). Sharing information and strategies with other educators,
counselors, social workers, and support staff creates a unified support system for each
student (Slade & Wissow, 2007).
Lastly, special education teachers emphasized their commitment to fostering a
safe and supportive learning environment for all students, regardless of their trauma
experiences. They prioritize students' basic needs—such as food, clothing, and sleep—
before academic instruction, recognizing the critical importance of a stable foundation for
learning. The teachers shared that they teach self-advocacy and self-awareness skills,
encouraging students to approach trusted adults when they feel uncomfortable. While

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special education students do not want to miss out on instruction or events in a classroom,
teachers sometimes have to intervene to support students when they need time to take a
break, decompress, eat a snack, or take a short rest. Providing these strategies helps
students recognize and express their needs, fostering independence and self-confidence.
Teaching these skills aids students during periods of behavioral dysregulation (Williams
& Scherrer, 2017). By actively listening to students and striving to connect them with
necessary support, the special education teachers demonstrated a commitment to traumainformed practices, even in the absence of formal guidance from the district.
The New Haven Trauma-Focused Competencies emphasize the need for
practitioners to engage in self-reflection regarding intense emotions and content, uphold
an ethical responsibility for self-care, and remain aware of their own history, values, and
vulnerabilities when working with individuals who have experienced trauma (Cook &
Newman, 2014). Through their responses to the interview guide question about how they
are impacted by their students’ trauma experiences, special education teachers recognize
the significance of assisting students impacted by trauma and the practical implications
this has on their own well-being.
Special education teachers reported experiencing significant emotional and
practical challenges when supporting special education student affected by childhood
trauma. Participant L explained,
I think it is hard, especially in my room with all the sorts of disabilities and the
lower IQs that I have. They are still capable of a lot of things. I think that has
impacted me my first year in this role. You know, you want to coddle them, then

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you know it's not helping them be successful. There's a fine line. But I think they
can do things and be productive members of society with help.
Several other special education teachers stated that balancing high expectations with
compassion can be difficult when they have a student who has experienced childhood
trauma. While they understand they should not make tasks easier for their students, they
need to teach and encourage resiliency and consistency. This balancing act often extends
to managing their own emotional responses. Teachers conveyed that they struggle to
separate students’ trauma experiences from their personal lives, finding it hard to “turn
off” their empathy after hearing about students’ childhood trauma. A few teachers
described how hearing about a student’s trauma experience made it difficult to
compartmentalize and remain focused on providing instruction to the rest of the students
in the classroom.
Other special education teachers explained the importance of understanding a
student’s background and any prior trauma experiences they might have encountered. It
is difficult for teachers to know when and how to react to a situation involving one of
their students if they cannot determine whether the problem stems from a traumatic event
or another circumstance (Alisic, 2012). All the special education teachers expressed a
strong desire to help students, but they are not always provided with the necessary
information and are often excluded from collaborative efforts aimed at ensuring student
success. They understand the imperative to respect a student’s privacy and dignity, as
well as that of their families, but they felt that they are not consistently informed with
adequate information.

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Special education teachers also explained the challenge of knowing when to give
a student space and when to encourage them to persevere—a decision that requires
sensitivity and understanding of each student’s unique needs. A teacher’s dedication to
creating a stable and nurturing environment often leads to feelings of responsibility and
constant availability, even extending to interactions with parents outside of school hours.
Furthermore, special education teachers are sometimes confronted by their own triggers
when handling situations that mirror personal experiences, making compartmentalization
essential, yet challenging. Participant K shared,
I would say, since I've been at the district, [being confronted by my own triggers]
was a really big eye opener for me [at the grades] four [through] six, as well as
watching my own daughters and the trauma they've experienced in the last three
years. It's extremely difficult, and I think that that is one of the barriers that we
[special education teachers], will continue to face. How do you step up to the
plate to support your learners when maybe it's also a trigger for yourself?
With time constraints and frequent interruptions to provide behavioral support,
special education teachers confirm it is difficult to meet the needs of all special education
students, while also managing their own emotional and professional boundaries.
A few special education teachers expressed a desire to relate to their students with
childhood trauma but find it difficult due to their lack of similar childhood experiences.
They struggle to understand exactly what the student has gone through or how to help
them work through situations, especially when personal experience is lacking.
Additionally, special education teachers find it challenging to have limited authority in
effecting change within the school environment, as they aspire to have a broader impact.

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In summary, children who have experienced abuse and neglect are significantly
more likely to require special education services, placing special education teachers in a
vital advocacy role to recognize trauma, respect diverse backgrounds, and prevent retraumatization (Cook & Newman, 2014). Special education teachers prioritize creating
safe and trusting classroom environments, observing students for atypical behaviors and
trauma responses, and adapting individualized support based on these observations
(SAMHSA, 2014). They also foster open communication with students, build
relationships with families, and collaborate with school staff to ensure trauma-informed
practices and accommodations are consistently applied and updated to address each
student's needs (American Psychological Association, 2021; Anderson et al., 2015;
Pickens & Tschopp, 2017).
Trauma-informed practices: Perceptions of special education teachers.
Students who have experienced many adversities may require additional support within
the school setting (Dykes, 2008; “Education Brief”, n.d.; Losen et al., 2013; Shippen et
al., 2009). Little is known about special education teachers’ role in implementing traumainformed practices through special education services; however, research has identified
the impact ACEs have on the later identification of students qualifying for special
education services (Dykes, 2008; “Education Brief”, n.d.; Felitti, 1998; Losen et al.,
2013; Rogers, 2003; Shippen et al, 2009; Tuchinda, 2020).
When special education teachers were questioned about their implementation of
current trauma-informed practices and interventions in the classroom, as well as the
strategies they find most effective, many expressed uncertainties about whether the
approaches they are utilizing are aligned with research or best practices. The teachers

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recognize the importance of using trauma-informed best-practices and explained that they
have utilized a variety of such practices in their classrooms. One practice all special
education teachers mentioned was creating a supportive, safe, and predictable
environment for their students. When children have experienced a traumatic event, they
are often on guard and cannot trust anyone but themselves for safety (Delahooke, 2019;
Romero et al., 2018; Purser, 2022). Participant E discussed her approach:
Sometimes I provide them with a space where they are able to take a break. For
some students, that honestly might be like even under a table, where it's a little
quieter. I think even sometimes loud voices that can be triggering for students. So
sometimes it's giving them, like a heads up, like, ‘Hey, we're going to be having a
fire drill.’ So that way they are not in high alert in those type of situations
Participant L confirmed,
I think just giving them a place to feel safe, I think letting them know that here
we're safe. We can, you know, use safe words. We have safe actions. We're here
to support them, providing them even as much as food and a coat and those little
things that they might not even have in the home, providing them a calm
environment that's predictable for them so they know what they're coming into
each day. Kind of giving them that soft landing.
One consistent practice highlighted by both of these participants was fostering a
predictable and calm space for students, which is essential for helping children who have
experienced trauma feel secure.
The special education teachers also shared that they focus on accepting students
for who they are and acknowledging their unique experiences, while providing them with

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unconditional support and care. It was evident from their responses that they value
building strong relationships with students. The teachers also identified the significance
of developing and maintaining firm yet compassionate expectations, offering students
time and space to decompress, and guiding them through potentially unsettling changes,
such as schedule shifts or loud noises.
Special education teachers expanded upon how creating an empathetic classroom
environment—with structured support and accessible resources—helps cultivate a
nurturing environment for students affected by trauma. A majority of these teachers
discussed how their special education classrooms are designed to be calming spaces
equipped with tools, like sensory corners and various self-regulation strategies, to help
students manage stress. Meeting students’ basic needs is prioritized, with regular breaks
to reset their nervous systems through activities such as getting a drink, taking a walk, or
checking in with a school counselor. Teachers also draw on external resources, including
school and community mental health supports. One teacher mentioned attending Ukeru
Training when working in another school district. Ukeru is a cutting-edge program based
on the core philosophy of Comfort vs. Control® and trauma-informed care.
On the other hand, several special education teachers mentioned the QBS SafetyCare training they have attended in the district. Safety-Care offers a comprehensive
approach to managing behavioral challenges that prioritizes respect, safety, and positive
outcomes. Safety-Care is designed for individuals with various disabilities and those
affected by psychological or sexual trauma, ensuring a safe, adaptable framework for
support.

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Despite these efforts, special education teachers face considerable challenges in
delivering trauma-informed practices. Constraints such as limited time and resources, and
the complex nature of each student’s unique trauma triggers, complicate their work.
Participant A shared,
Time. There's just never enough time. Sometimes I feel like the students do just
need more time wherever they may feel safe. You know, I've had times where
they are in my calming corner and they're just having a rough day, but I may have
to leave to go to another group or to go get another group. I think that's a barrier
for sure. I think when they're having maybe an outburst or behavior, knowing how
to calm them down and what we're allowed to do versus not allowed to do can get
tricky, like sometimes a kid just needs a hug, but when they're in that moment,
you know our goal is to stay away. So just trying to balance all of that, I think it's
a barrier.
These barriers are intensified by the inherent limitations of the school environment.
Navigating the delicate balance between professional boundaries and compassionate
support, special education teachers recognize when a student may benefit from physical
reassurance.
The uncertainty surrounding potential trauma triggers can complicate interactions,
especially for special education teachers who may not share similar trauma experiences.
Staffing limitations and the need to balance emotional support with academic instruction
further add to the complexity, as trauma responses can disrupt classroom dynamics.
Although special education teachers prioritize emotional well-being, they are
mindful of the impact on instructional time. Communication challenges also arise due to

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limited opportunities for teachers to discuss trauma-sensitive strategies with colleagues,
which can affect the consistency of trauma-informed care across teams.
Special education teachers are also tasked with understanding how trauma
interacts with other disabilities, such as autism or intellectual disabilities, and providing
individualized support accordingly. The district’s lack of comprehensive traumainformed professional development has left special education teachers feeling uncertain.
As a result, some teachers have actively researched evidence-based trauma-informed
practices to effectively support their students and avoid re-traumatization. Participant K
illuminated,
My belief from a special education professional role [is that] I need to be able to
respond [to trauma] in the best way possible, and without the knowledge to move
forward, I can't respond. Then, of course, the re-traumatization, I think, is one of
the hard pieces, too. Because of the children's disability, it kind of blocks a little
bit of our ability to really know, well, actually, really to know all four of those
components [realize, recognize, respond, and resist re-traumatization], and truly
learn about our learners to prevent the re-traumatization. But I think those are the
pieces that we might not always realize we are doing, and it's not, of course,
intentional by any stretch to believe that some special education teachers don't
feel that they have the knowledge to be able to do these things right, implement
these things, or analyze it from the perspective that we need to.
Overall, the lack of comprehensive trauma-informed professional development leaves
special education teachers uncertain and reliant on independent research to avoid retraumatization and provide effective trauma-informed practices to support their students.

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As trauma-informed practices and strategies continue to evolve, special education
teachers must adapt to support each student’s dignity and unique needs. Special education
teachers unanimously confirmed that they encounter difficulties due to limited
professional development on trauma-informed practices. This impacts their capacity to
effectively support students who have experienced childhood trauma and require special
education services. Additional training and professional development are essential to
address the diverse needs of the varied student populations they serve (Hunter et al.,
2021).
Research Question 3 Findings
Research has highlighted the necessity for regular education teachers to recognize
the effects of childhood trauma on students within their classrooms (Alisic et al., 2012;
National Council of State Education Associations [NCSEA], 2019). However, the
exploration of methods to effectively enhance special education teachers' understanding
of childhood trauma remains insufficiently addressed (Chudzik et al., 2024; Goldenthal et
al., 2024; Gill et al., 2015; Hunter et al., 2015; Miller & Santos, 2020). Consequently,
despite possessing some knowledge of childhood trauma, special education teachers
exhibit a fragmented understanding of how to effectively implement trauma-informed
practices (Kumar, 2020; Markelz & Bateman, 2022; Tuchinda, 2020; Winder, 2015).
It is essential for all educators to know how to identify, address, and respond to
childhood trauma. Research question three addresses special education teachers’
perceptions of the professional development they have received to support children who
have experienced childhood trauma and also qualify for special education services. It also
explores how future professional development should be implemented to support them in

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their roles as special education teachers. The analysis of responses from the semistructured interview guide questions related to this research question disclosed the
following two themes identified by special education teachers.
Professional development for all students: Perceptions of special education
teachers. Teachers face the challenge of balancing their educational mission with the
need to support students affected by trauma (Alisic, 2012). Through a survey of over 700
teachers, it was found that 89% had worked with one or more children who had been
exposed to childhood trauma, yet only 9% indicated they had received relevant trauma
training (Alisic, 2012).
A trauma-informed approach in the classroom enables teachers to identify and
understand triggers that may elicit stress responses in students (NCSEA, 2019; Pickens &
Tschopp, 2017). Recognizing trauma allows teachers to provide better support and create
a safer classroom environment (NCSEA, 2019; SAMHSA, 2014). Additionally,
understanding the cultural context of a student’s traumatic experience is crucial in
selecting effective interventions (Rossen & Cowen, 2013; Thomas et al., 2019).
Participant B emphasized,
having a [trauma-informed approach] can help with staff interactions with
students. I think sometimes you could hear something [about a student and their
trauma experience], and it could change the whole way that you just interact with
the student” (Participant B, personal communication, October 11, 2024).
When students feel safe and connected at school, they are more prepared to learn.
Schools can reinforce this by implementing trauma-informed practices and interventions
that offer a supportive framework for students.

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Recently, the 2019 amendment to the Public School Code of 1949 mandated the
use of school-wide trauma-informed approaches, requiring public school professional
education plans to include at least one hour of training on trauma-informed practices
(P.L. 146, No 18 Cl. 24). The special education teachers interviewed reported a
significant lapse in district-wide trauma-focused professional development. Many
explained that there has not been any comprehensive training in trauma-informed
practices for at least six years. These same teachers reported perceived gaps in the
district-provided professional development aimed at helping all teachers understand
trauma through a culturally sensitive lens.
The district has implemented some professional development for teachers,
including Cultural Diversity training, Responsive Classroom Approachâ methods, and
de-escalation strategies through QBS Safety-Care Trainingâ. Two years ago, all teachers
and support staff received de-escalation training to assist them in managing interactions
with students who may exhibit elevated behavioral concerns, but nothing further has been
addressed. Additional trainings have touched on topics like homelessness and cultural
awareness, yet most of the professional development tailored to meet the cultural needs
of all students has been sporadic. Recently, professional development has solely focused
on developing a strong classroom culture, enhancing building-wide culture and climate,
and improving academic instruction.
Discussing childhood trauma and any explicit trauma-informed practices has been
limited. Although over half of the special education teachers participated in the traumainformed professional development sessions in 2019, the district has not provided any
further sessions. The special education teachers explained that there seems to be a lack of

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understanding in how to address trauma and mental health effectively, especially as these
issues vary across students and their individual cultural backgrounds. Participant F
elaborated,
But I think it really comes down to most teachers don't understand the brain, a
trauma brain, and how to teach and nurture that trauma brain. I think it's also hard,
because you want to, you don't want to coddle the kids. You want to teach them
the skills. It's kind of finding that balance between supporting them without
teaching them learned helplessness. You want to provide supports, while also
teaching them how to develop their own positive coping strategies.
Many teachers struggle to understand how to effectively teach and support students with
childhood trauma. They find it challenging to balance providing necessary support while
encouraging the development of positive coping strategies without fostering learned
helplessness.
In addition to providing professional development sessions that address policies
and practices responsive to the cultural needs of all students, special education teachers
expressed the need for ongoing, updated professional development that goes beyond onetime sessions. While polices and behavioral expectations are shared at the building level,
all teachers need clear guidance on the purpose and implementation of trauma-informed
practices to ensure their practical application in daily interactions with students (Fyke,
2018; Rossen & Bateman, 2020).
For example, behavioral de-escalation strategies have been offered, showing an
initial step in trauma-informed practices for behavior management. Nevertheless, there is
a need to expand these strategies within a trauma-informed context to support all teachers

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in addressing a wide-range of behaviors in their classrooms. Special education teachers
also emphasized the importance of recognizing that new staff join each year. There is a
need for recurring and updated professional development to ensure all staff, including
recent hires, have a shared foundation in culturally responsive and trauma-informed
practices.
In PDE’s 2021 published research agenda, it was acknowledged that Pennsylvania
teachers need to recognize and respond to childhood trauma, but one in two educators did
not feel prepared to recognize signs of childhood trauma within their classrooms. It was
also reported that three out of four educators believed they needed better preparation to
implement trauma-informed practices in their teaching (McDowell Institute, 2022).
Teachers are tasked with the dual responsibility of fulfilling their educational duties while
also supporting students who have experienced trauma. This responsibility is further
complicated by the necessity to identify and understand trauma triggers within a
culturally sensitive context. Trauma-informed practices enable educators to recognize
stress responses, foster safer learning environments, and implement interventions that are
respectful of students' cultural backgrounds (Anderson et al., 2015; Knoster et al., 2021).
Professional development for special education teachers: Past and future
perspectives. Special education teachers play a vital role in identifying signs of trauma,
abuse, and neglect in children during the school day. Research is limited on special
education teachers’ perceptions of the professional development they have received for
responding to children who have experienced trauma and qualify for special education
services (Chudzik et al., Goldenthal et al., 2024; Hunter et al., Miller & Santos, 2020).
However, recent developments in legislation and trauma research highlight the need for

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enhanced support and training to equip these educators to effectively address childhood
trauma (Tuchinda, 2020; Winder, 2015). An integrated approach to professional
development on trauma, combining comprehensive academic, social-emotional, and
behavioral support for special education students, necessitates a revision of current
prevention and intervention strategies within the district. Understanding special education
teachers’ perspectives on the prevalence and impact of childhood trauma is essential for
this transition. These teachers require a clear understanding of their roles in implementing
trauma-informed practices and access to sufficient professional development to support
students affected by trauma who qualify for special education services (Hunter et al.,
2021).
Feedback from special education teachers indicates significant gaps in the
district’s current professional development training to incorporate trauma-informed
practices. They recommend developing professional development opportunities
specifically designed for special education teachers, as the existing training on traumainformed practices has been limited.
Special educations teachers have expressed that professional development should
be purposeful and practical. Trauma-informed training must be relevant and tailored to
the specific roles of special education teachers. Comprehensive trauma education should
cover the effects of trauma on brain functioning and student behavior. By examining
student behavior through a trauma-informed lens, special education teachers can gain
insights into the underlying causes of dysregulation to foster empathy (Knotek, 2003;
Tuchina, 2020). They believe that providing toolkits and resources from both the district

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and the community could enhance their ability to support students affected by childhood
trauma.
Additionally, there is consensus that all educators would benefit from training
focused on effective coping strategies to promote emotional resilience in students
experiencing trauma responses. Participant I described the need for the district to be
very judicious by what that professional development looks like, and being very
specific and systematic in terms of what that looks like. We have a lot of people
who come in to talk about things, and if that doesn't align with the larger sort of
global organization of what our district is moving towards … it doesn't quite fix
the problem, but simply, again, is another two and a half hours of telling us it's a
problem. You will get a lot more resistance with people's ability to adopt
techniques and terminology if they feel like we've had the same conversation so
many times … I would just be specific about it and what that looks like in a very
purposeful way.
Professional development should also address behavior management for students
impacted by trauma, particularly those with disabilities that have limited cognitive and
communication skills (Gamache Martin et al., 2013). Teachers need to understand how
district initiatives are designed to support students affected by trauma, thereby creating a
cohesive support system. Furthermore, the professional development should include
training on how to engage effectively with parents who are dealing with their own trauma
and mental health issues.
In contrast, while some special education teachers reported that other school
districts have made progress in establishing foundational trauma training on topics such

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as ACEs and trauma-informed practices, they acknowledge that there is always room for
more professional development (Felitti, 1998). Educators have expressed a desire for
trauma-informed training that not only provides general overviews but also offers
targeted strategies to meet the diverse needs of all students, particularly those in special
education (Chudzik et al., 2024; Karoliina et al., 2007; Miller & Santos, 2020).
Participant A suggested,
I think getting more professionals that are qualified in trauma informed practices
would be really helpful. I think for something like [trauma training], we really
need to bring in someone that's more qualified and can help us with what to do.
You know, we know there's trauma. What I think we need to know as a staff is
know what can we do to support the student and also to help regular education
and special education teachers have a better understanding of why some of the
behaviors happen. I think then there's more compassion when there is a behavior,
and more of an understanding of like, this isn't just a bad kid. This is a kid that's
had a lot and doesn't know how to deal with it. I think it needs to not just be one
day. It needs to be an ongoing topic throughout the school year.
Special education teachers believe that having more qualified professionals to
provide ongoing trauma-informed training would greatly enhance staff understanding and
response to student behaviors, supporting both regular education and special education
teachers. These teachers play a crucial role in identifying signs of childhood trauma.
Transitioning to an integrated approach that offers comprehensive academic, socialemotional, and behavioral support for special education students requires revising current
prevention and intervention methods within the district. Teachers' perspectives on the

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prevalence and impact of childhood trauma are essential for this shift, as is equipping
them with a clear understanding of their roles and providing targeted professional
development. Feedback from teachers reveals significant gaps in the current training.
While some districts have made progress in foundational trauma training, special
education teachers feel there is still a need for targeted, comprehensive training to support
the diverse needs of all students, especially those in special education.
Summary
Special education teachers recognize the profound impact of trauma on students,
noting its effects on social, emotional, and cognitive development. They observe that
trauma manifests differently across students, influenced by various personal and
environmental factors, and often requires tailored support. In classrooms, teachers
implement trauma-informed practices, like creating calm environments and offering
flexible support options, although they face challenges such as limited time, resources,
and comprehensive training. Collaborative support systems within schools, including
counselors and social workers, help address trauma, but teachers report inconsistency in
applying these practices across all staff members.
Special education teachers emphasize the importance of understanding students'
trauma histories and call for more targeted professional development. They value training
that provides practical strategies for managing trauma-affected behaviors and fostering
resilience, but express concerns over current gaps in trauma-informed training. Teachers
suggest that ongoing, specific professional development—aligned with broader district
goals—would enhance their ability to support trauma-impacted students effectively.

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CHAPTER FIVE
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to investigate the perceptions of
special education teachers regarding the influence of childhood trauma on the delivery of
special education services, to delineate their understanding of their roles in the
implementation of trauma-informed practices within these services, and to examine their
perceptions of the professional development they have received in responding to children
who have experienced trauma and are eligible for special education services. Special
education teachers answered semi-structured interview guide questions. Themes and
patterns were identified, aligning with the literature. The qualitative data provided
valuable insights into the perceptions of special education teachers regarding childhood
trauma, their application of trauma-informed practices, and their perspectives on existing
and future professional development to support special education students. To fulfill the
purpose of this study, the following research questions were addressed:
1. What are special education teachers’ perceptions of the prevalence and impact
of childhood trauma on the provision of special education services in the
district?
2. What are special education teachers’ perceptions of their role in implementing
trauma-informed practices through special education services?
3. What are special education teachers’ perceptions of the professional
development they have received to support children who have experienced
trauma and also qualify for special education services?

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Summary of Findings
The relationship between childhood trauma and special education presents a
significant challenge in education. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and childhood
trauma can profoundly impact a student’s learning abilities, social interactions, and
overall development (Anda et al., 2006; Felitti et al., 1998). Special education teachers
work with a variety of students with disabilities and spend extensive time with children
during the school day, making them vital in identifying signs of trauma, child abuse, and
neglect (Alisic et al., 2012; SAMHSA, 2014). Consequently, special education teachers
need a clear understanding of their role in implementing trauma-informed practices
through the services they provide, and they require sufficient professional development to
support children who have experienced trauma (Chudzik et al., 2024; SAMHSA, 2014).
The district reportedly implements various trauma-informed practices to support
special education students through collaboration with school counselors, school
psychologists, school social workers, and community agencies (Rossen & Cowan, 2013).
Nevertheless, special education teachers navigate the dual responsibility of instructing
while addressing the trauma-related needs of their students, necessitating an
understanding of trauma triggers in a culturally sensitive context (Pickens & Tschopp,
2017). While they actively engage in supporting special education students impacted by
childhood trauma, they also carry an emotional burden, finding it challenging to separate
students' trauma from their personal experiences (Hudspeth, 2015). Special education
teachers strive to balance high expectations with empathy, working to create stable
environments that foster trust while managing their emotional responses (Cook &
Newman, 2014).

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Despite their efforts, many special education teachers report a lack of
comprehensive and consistent trauma-informed training, which limits their ability to
adequately support special education students. They need targeted professional
development that is intentional and practical, providing insights into how childhood
trauma affects brain functioning and behavior, as well as behavior management strategies
tailored to students with trauma and disabilities impacting communication and cognitive
skills (Kerker et al., 2015; Delahooke, 2019). Such professional development should
support educators in adopting a trauma-informed perspective, analyzing the root causes
of student behavior, and cultivating empathy to prevent dysregulation (Purser, 2022).
Implications
The findings of this qualitative study on childhood trauma in special education
present several important considerations. First, there is a clear necessity for ongoing,
targeted professional development aimed at equipping special education teachers with
trauma-informed practices. Comprehensive trauma-informed training and professional
development for special education teachers are necessary to enhance their understanding
of how childhood trauma affects students' cognitive, emotional, and social functioning.
This, in turn, fosters positive teacher-student interactions and leads to better educational
and behavioral outcomes (Blodgett & Lanigan, 2018; Chudzik et al., 2024; Goldenthal et
al., 2024; SAMHSA, 2014).
Furthermore, the study suggests that implementing trauma-informed frameworks
across entire schools, not just within special education, can create a more supportive
environment for all students affected by trauma (Cook & Newman, 2014; SAMHSA,
2024). Implementing a school-wide trauma framework would ensure that all staff

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members are knowledgeable about the complexities of childhood trauma and can
effectively collaborate to provide supportive strategies for special education students with
childhood trauma (Rossen & Cowan, 2013).
Additionally, partnerships with community mental health organizations are
recommended to provide a broader network of support (Bateman & Yell, 2019; Rossen &
Cowen, 2013). Establishing partnerships with community mental health organizations
can create a more comprehensive support network. This network can address the wider
needs of students with traumatic experiences and nurture improved academic engagement
and resilience within the special education setting (Anda et al., 2006; Woods-Jaeger et
al., 2018).
These implications emphasize the critical role of coordinated efforts and
initiatives between the school and community to effectively supporting students impacted
by childhood trauma (Cook & Newman, 2014; Delahooke, 2019).
Conclusions
This quantitative study aimed to examine special education teachers' perceptions
regarding the impact of childhood trauma on the provision of special education services
(Chudzik et al., 2024; SAMHSA, 2014). It also explored special education teachers’ roles
in implementing trauma-informed practices and their views on the professional
development they have received for supporting students with childhood trauma who also
qualify for special education (Goldenthal et al., 2024; Miller & Santos, 2020). Twelve
special education teachers from a K-12 public school district in central Pennsylvania
participated in the study. Each teacher was assigned a letter code for data analysis, and
semi-structured interviews were conducted over a three-week period. The interview

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transcripts were printed, organized by research question, and analyzed through multiple
stages.
In the initial review, themes and patterns were identified, followed by a second
review to assess code frequencies and establish dominant themes. A third review
prioritized key themes, culminating in a secondary-cycle coding list. A final review
confirmed that the findings aligned with the data, resulting in a comprehensive codebook
connecting literature, findings, and implications. The qualitative data provided valuable
insights into the perceptions of special education teachers regarding childhood trauma,
their application of trauma-informed practices, and their perspectives on the existing and
future professional development to support special education students (Cook & Newman,
2014).
Analysis of the qualitative data revealed six distinct themes from the special
education teachers’ responses. The findings highlighted the vital role that special
education teachers play in supporting students affected by childhood trauma within the
special education classroom (Alisic et al., 2012; Rossen & Cowen, 2013). Special
education teachers' insights illuminate the various ways that trauma influences students'
behavior, cognitive functioning, and social interactions. This underscores the urgent need
for trauma-informed practices tailored to the unique challenges these special education
students encounter (Blodgett & Lanigan, 2018; NCTSN, 2012).
While special education teachers are dedicated to implementing trauma-informed
practices, they frequently express feelings of inadequate preparation due to the limited
and inconsistent professional development provided by the district. The teachers voiced a
strong preference for ongoing, practical training that addresses both the foundational

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effects of trauma on student behavior and specific strategies for managing complex
trauma-related challenges within the special education classroom (Markelz & Bateman,
2022).
This study also highlights the necessity for school districts to adopt a
comprehensive and consistent approach to trauma-informed education, which includes
culturally sensitive and recurring training opportunities to equip all staff, particularly
those in special education, with the necessary tools to effectively support special
education students (Bateman & Yell, 2019; Kumar, 2020). By addressing the gap in
trauma-focused professional development and fostering a collaborative environment that
involves all stakeholders, school districts can enhance the academic, social-emotional,
and behavioral development of special education students impacted by ACEs and
childhood trauma (Cook & Newman, 2014; SAMHSA, 2014).
Recommendations for Further Research
Recommendations for future research, informed by the findings of this study,
should consider the sample size and the generalizability of the results. With only twelve
special education teachers from a single K-12 public school district in central
Pennsylvania participating in the study, the findings may not be generalizable to other
districts or regions (Chudzik et al., 2024). Additionally, the study does not capture
potential differences in trauma-informed practices, training, or resources that might exist
in other school districts, especially those with differing socioeconomic and demographic
characteristics (Goldenthal et al., 2024).
This study concentrates specifically on the perspectives of special education
teachers. While previous research has focused on the perceptions of general education

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teachers, it would be beneficial to broaden the sample size to include school
administrators, school counselors, school psychologists, school social workers, and
support staff who interact with special education students facing childhood trauma (Cook
& Newman, 2014). Incorporating insights from these additional roles could offer a more
holistic understanding of trauma-informed practices within the school environment. It
could also identify further opportunities for district-level support in professional
development aimed at working with students affected by childhood trauma who also
qualify for special education services (Hunter et al., 2015).
The qualitative nature of this study constrains the ability to quantify the direct
impact of trauma-informed practices on the outcomes of special education students.
Implementing a mixed methods approach could provide a more comprehensive insight
into the effects of trauma-informed practices for special education students and
emphasize the necessity for professional development to support special education
teachers (Kumar, 2020; Miller & Santos, 2020).
To address the emotional challenges faced by special education teachers, further
research into effective strategies and resources for promoting teacher resilience and wellbeing is warranted. Special education teachers working with students with childhood
trauma may experience secondary trauma. Moreover, districts could consider offering
professional development opportunities focused on self-care practices and stress
management (Anderson et al., 2015). Promoting resilience is crucial not only for the
mental health of teachers but also for sustaining a stable and supportive atmosphere for
students (NCSEA, 2019).

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Given the number of autistic support teachers who participated in this study,
further research on how trauma intersects with various disabilities, particularly autism
and intellectual disabilities, is essential (Hudspeth, 2015). Students with autism and
intellectual disabilities may process trauma differently due to differences in
communication abilities, social understanding, and sensory processing. Specialized
trauma-informed practices tailored to these unique needs could support emotional
regulation, enhance coping skills, and improve classroom engagement. For example,
understanding how sensory sensitivities in students with autism may be exacerbated by
trauma is crucial (Delahooke, 2019). Additionally, trauma-informed training for
educators could address specific strategies for working with students who have limited
verbal communication, enabling teachers to better recognize and respond to traumarelated behaviors (Purser, 2022).
Lastly, expanding research on the culturally sensitive trauma-informed practices
could provide valuable insights into how special education students' cultural backgrounds
shape their trauma responses, thereby allowing educators to offer more personalized and
effective support (Rossen & Cowan, 2013). By understanding cultural influences on
coping mechanisms and behavioral adaptations, all educators can better address the
unique needs of students from diverse backgrounds (Thomas et al., 2019). Furthermore,
integrating culturally relevant strategies into trauma-informed practices can improve
student engagement, trust, and feelings of safety to foster a more inclusive learning
environment. A culturally sensitive approach may also reduce misunderstandings or
misinterpretations of behavior that might arise from cultural differences, ultimately

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leading to improved academic and emotional outcomes for special education student with
childhood trauma (SAMHSA, 2014).
The findings from this qualitative study indicate the profound impact adverse
childhood experiences and childhood trauma have on students receiving special education
services. The special education teachers’ perceptions uncover the challenges they face in
supporting these students, as well as the gaps in training and resources that hinder
effective intervention. Their insights also highlight the critical need for trauma-informed
practices district-wide. Implementing a comprehensive trauma-informed framework can
transform educational environments for all students. Such a framework can equip all
teachers with the essential tools and strategies to foster resilience and enrich academic
success among students affected by childhood trauma. Addressing these needs is crucial
to creating inclusive and supportive learning environments where every child, regardless
of their trauma history, has the opportunity to meet their full potential.

\

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APPENDIX A – SIGNATORY PAGE OF DISSERTATION TOPIC APPROVAL
Name of Doctoral Candidate: Elizabeth Mason
We, the dissertation committee, authorize the student above to proceed with the
proposal topic of: Childhood Trauma, Trauma-informed Practices, and Special
Education.

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APPENDIX B – APPROVAL OF WRITTEN AND ORAL COMPREHENSIVE
EXAMINATION

August 30, 2024

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APPENDIX C – PILOT STUDY INTERIVEW GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. Is your districts special education referral and evaluation process, through the
discrepancy or Multi-Tiered System of Support (MTSS) model, effective in providing
students with ACEs support?
a. If your district’s evaluation process is effective, how does your district
provide students with ACEs adequate support?
b. If your district’s evaluation process is ineffective, what levels of support is
your district missing? Where do improvements need to be made?
2. How do you see how ACEs significantly affecting students who are already receiving
special education services?
3. How do administrators, teachers, and other staff members build relationships, create
positive interactions, nurture, and make connections with children who have been
exposed to ACEs?
4. How do you see the socio demographic factors of your school community
contributing to ACEs?
5. What role does your district play in being a trauma-responsive school?
6. Does your district embrace the role of teachers partnering with parents to develop a
child who is socially and emotionally aware?
a. If your district is embracing the role of teachers partnering with families to
develop a child who is socially and emotionally aware, how is this being
accomplished?

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b. If your district is not embracing the role of teachers partnering with families to
develop a child who is socially and emotionally aware, how can this
philosophy be changed?
7. How do the disciplinary procedures and/or policies, such as zero tolerance, positively
or negatively impact students with ACEs?

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APPENDIX D – REQUEST FOR PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH
WITH FACULTY
Name
Title
School District
District Address
REQUEST FOR PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH WITH FACULTY
Dear ______,
My name is Elizabeth Mason, and I am a Doctoral student at Slippery Rock University in
Slippery Rock, PA. I am reaching out to you to request that I be allowed to conduct
research with your special education teaching faculty for my Doctoral dissertation on
special education teachers’ perceptions of childhood trauma, their perspectives of the
professional development they have received, and their role in supporting students with a
history of childhood trauma. This research will be conducted under the direct supervision
of Dr. Jessica Hall-Wirth, Associate Professor of Special Education at Slippery Rock
University.
Special education teachers offer a unique perspective of childhood trauma in its natural
and real-life context. I seek your consent to conduct semi-structured interviews with your
special education teaching faculty. Each special education teacher can engage honestly
and express their complex viewpoints and experiences through face-to-face interviews.
Using narrative and naturalistic inquiry, each interview guide question directly relates to
the special education teachers’ perceptions regarding childhood trauma, trauma-informed
practices, and the intersection of special education.
Upon completing the qualitative case study, I will provide Slippery Rock University with
a copy of the entire research report. If you require any further information, please do not
hesitate to contact me at 724-679-0628 or at eak8905@sru.edu. Thank you for your time
and consideration in this matter.
Sincerely,

Elizabeth Mason
Slippery Rock University

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APPENDIX E – PARTICIPANT EMAIL
September, 2024
Dear Participant,
I am currently enrolled in the Doctorate in Special Education program at Slippery Rock
University in Slippery Rock, PA, and am writing my Doctoral dissertation. I invite you to
participate in a research study entitled “The Intersection of Childhood Trauma, Traumainformed Practices, and Special Education: Perceptions of Special Education Teachers.”
For the purpose of this study, the research aims to determine your perceptions as a special
education teacher working with students with childhood trauma, your role in supporting
students with a history of childhood trauma, and the perspectives of professional
development you have received. Participation in this project will include completing the
required consent forms, answering a demographic questionnaire, and participating in an
hour-long semi-structured interview.
Your participation in this research study is completely voluntary. There are no known
risks to participation beyond those encountered in everyday life. Your responses will
remain confidential. Data from this research will be kept in a password-protected file. No
one other than the researchers will know your answers to the interview questions.
An informational letter for participants in this study, as far as the reasoning behind it and
any potential risks/benefits, can be found here: informational letter.
If you agree to participate in this study, complete the consent form. Once your consent
form is received, complete the demographic questionnaire. It can be found by following
this link - demographic questionnaire. Once the consent form and demographic
questionnaire is complete, the semi-structured interview will be scheduled. After you
complete the semi-structured interview, you will be sent a transcription of your interview
to review and approve. After you approve your interview transcription, you will receive a
$25 Amazon gift card in appreciation for your participation in the research study.
If you have any questions about this project, feel free to contact me at 724-679-0628 or at
eak8905@sru.edu.
Thank you for your assistance in this important endeavor.
Sincerely,
Elizabeth Mason
Principal Investigator
Slippery Rock University

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APPENDIX F – RESEARCH PARTICIPANT INFORMED CONSENT LETTER
________________________________________________________________________
RESEARCH PARTICIPANT INFORMED CONSENT LETTER
THE INTERSECTION OF CHILDHOOD TRAUMA, TRAUMAINFORMED PRACTICES, AND SPECIAL EDUCATION: PERCEPTIONS
OF SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHERS
Elizabeth Mason, eak8905@sru.edu, 724-679-0628
Invitation to be Part of a Research Study
You are invited to participate in a research study. In order to participate, you must
be [eligibility criteria; e.g., age, gender, language, etc.]. Taking part in this research
project is voluntary.
Important Information about the Research Study
•

•
•

•

•

•

Things you should know:
The purpose of this study is to decisively and homogeneously sample special
education teachers’ perceptions and prevalence of childhood trauma, their role in
implementing trauma-informed practices, and their perceptions of the professional
development services received to support special education students. Case study
data will be analyzed through a single instrumental approach since the problem
and research in this study provided insight to childhood trauma through the
perceptions of special education teachers.
If you choose to participate, you will be asked to participate in an hour-long semistructured interview that will be audio-recorded.
Once the consent form and demographic questionnaire are completed, the
participant and researcher will establish an agreed upon interview time and
location. The interview location will be in a quiet space free of distractions and
provide the researcher and participant adequate privacy, including a closed door,
or a mutually agreed upon space.
Risks or discomforts from this research are minimal, but include taking the time
to complete the demographic questionnaire and participate in the interview
process. Answering the interview questions will also not cause no more than
minimal invasion of privacy or breach of confidentiality.
The results of this study will be used in a dissertation for the College of Graduate
and Professional Studies within the Department of Special Education. Also, the
results of this study will be used to theorize how school districts can support
special education teachers who work with students with childhood trauma and
receive special education services.
Taking part in this research project is voluntary. You do not have to participate
and you can stop at any time.

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Please take time to read this entire form and ask questions before deciding
whether to take part in this research project.
What is the Study About and Why are We Doing it?
The purpose of the study is to determine your perceptions as a special education
teacher working with students with childhood trauma, your role in supporting students
with a history of childhood trauma, and the perspectives of professional development you
have received. If you choose to participate, you will be asked to participate in an hourlong semi-structured interview.
What Will Happen if You Take Part in This Study?
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in an hour-long
semi-structured interview that will be audio-recorded. Your responses will remain
confidential.
Within two calendar days of the interview, we will email you the transcribed
audio recording and my field notes. Please review the field notes within 24-hours and
confirm their credibility. If there is any aspect of the transcribed field notes that is not
accurate, please contact us immediately.
How Could You Benefit From This Study?
Although you will not directly benefit from being in this study, others might
benefit because the study could help determine future research in developing professional
development tailored to special education teachers within the district they are working in
or it could be generalized to apply to other districts in the county or state.
What Risks Might Result From Being in This Study?
You might experience some risks from being in this study. There are The 12,
semi-structured, narrative, and pedagogical interview questions are non-invasive and are
based on each special education teacher's perceptions and experiences, which would not
put a participant at risk damaging to their employability, reputation, or cause
stigmatization. Answering the interview questions will also not cause no more than
minimal invasion of privacy or breach of confidentiality. Based on each special education
teacher's experiences and perceptions, discussing childhood trauma may cause some
psychological discomfort for the participant. Special education teachers, as with any
educator, take their position seriously and demonstrate a level of care for their students'
academic, behavioral, and social well-being.
How Will We Protect Your Information?
I/We plan to publish the results of this study. To protect your privacy, I/we
will/will not include information that could directly identify you.
I/We will protect the confidentiality of your research records by keeping all
questionnaires and interview responses in a password protected Google Drive account

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only accessed by the researcher. Your name and any other information that can directly
identify you will be stored separately from the data collected as part of the project.
What Will Happen to the Information We Collect About You After the Study
is Over?
I/We will not keep your research data to use for future research or other purposes.
Your name and other information that can directly identify you will be kept secure and
stored separately from the research data collected as part of the project.
How Will We Compensate You for Being Part of the Study?
If you complete the consent form, demographic questionnaire, interview, and
transcription approval within the two-week period, you will receive a $25 Amazon gift
card.
What Other Choices do I Have if I Don’t Take Part in this Study?
If you choose not to participate, there are no alternatives.
Your Participation in this Research is Voluntary
It is totally up to you to decide to be in this research study. Participating in this
study is voluntary. Even if you decide to be part of the study now, you may change your
mind and stop at any time. You do not have to answer any questions you do not want to
answer. If you decide to withdraw before this study is completed, you can contact any of
the researchers and we will remove your information from the data collection.
Contact Information for the Study Team and Questions about the Research
If you have questions about this research, you may contact Dr. Jessica HallWirth, principal investigator at jessica.hall-wirth@sru.edu, or Elizabeth Mason, coinvestigator, at eak8905@sru.edu or 724-679-0628.
Contact Information for Questions about Your Rights as a Research
Participant
If you have questions about your rights as a research participant, or wish to obtain
information, ask questions, or discuss any concerns about this study with someone other
than the researcher(s), please contact the following:
Institutional Review Board
Slippery Rock University
104 Maltby, Suite 302
Slippery Rock, PA 16057
Phone: (724)738-4846
Email: irb@sru.edu

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APPENDIX G – INTERVIEW PARTICICPATION CONSENT FORM
Interview Consent Form
By signing this document, you are agreeing to be in this study. Make sure you
understand what the study is about before you sign. I/We will give you a copy of this
document for your records. I/We will keep a copy with the study records. If you have any
questions about the study after you sign this document, you can contact the study team
using the information provided above.
I understand what the study is about and my questions so far have been answered.
I agree to take part in this study. I understand that I can withdraw at any time. A copy of
this signed Consent Form has been given to me.
____________________________
Printed Participant Name

______________________________
Signature of Participant

_________
Date

By signing below, I indicate that the participant has read and to the best of my
knowledge understands the details contained in this document and have been given a
copy.
____________________________
Printed Name of Investigator

___________________________
Signature of Investigator

_________
Date

Audiotape Release Form:
We request the use of audiotape material of you as part of our study. We
specifically ask your consent to use this material, as we deem proper for professional
publications to our study. Regarding the use of your likeness in audiotape, please check
one of the following boxes below:
I do…
I do not…
Give unconditional permission for the investigators to utilize audiotapes of me.
___________________________
Print Name
Date

__________________________
Participant Signature

_________

PLEASE NOTE: Should you choose not to allow your image or voice to be used, we can
still benefit from your inclusion as a research study participant.

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APPENDIX H – PARTICIPANT DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONNAIRE
Participant ID __________
1. Your Name
2. What is your professional title?
3. What gender do you identify with?
a. Male
b. Female
c. Other
4. What racial/ethnic group do you identify with?
a. Hispanic
b. White
c. African American or Black
d. Asian
e. American Indian or Alaska Native
f. Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander
g. Other
5. What is the highest degree you have earned?
a. Bachelor’s Degree
b. Master’s Degree
c. Doctorate Degree
6. How many years have you been a special education teacher in the district?
7. Have you held other teaching positions? What was your role and how long did
you hold the position?

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APPENDIX I – INTERVIEW PROTOCOL SCRIPT
Co-Investigator – Step 1: Thank for voluntarily agreeing to participate in this research
study. Even if you decide to be part of the study now, you may change your mind and
stop at any time. You do not have to answer any questions you do not want to answer. If
you decide to withdraw before this study is completed, you can contact any of the
researchers and we will remove your information from the data collection.
The objectives of this qualitative study are:
1. Obtain special education teachers' perceptions of the impact trauma has
concerning the provision of special education services they provide students.
2. Explore special education teachers' perceptions of their role when
implementing trauma-informed practices through special education services.
3. Examine special education teachers' perceptions of the professional
development they have received to support children who have childhood trauma
and qualify for special education services.
Co-Investigor – Step 2: Review the slides from the PowerPoint Presentation.
Each slide of the PowerPoint Presentation will be presented in the same mannor to each
participant. The co-investigator will read the presentor notes prepared by the coinvestigator.
Slide 1: Before you answer the 12, semi-structured, narrative, and pedagogical
interview questions, I will review with you information about childhood trauma and the
two frameworks used to develop the research questions and interview guide questions.
While I review information about childhood trauma, I want you to reflect how the
information relates to your current practices as a special education teacher and your
service delivery.
Slide 2: Read points on the slide.
Slide 3: Read points on the slide, then state: Since the inception of the ACE’s
study and the longitudinal impact, additional research has been developed to expand upon
the influence other adverse experiences have on children of all ages, such as poor
academic achievement, incarceration, unemployment, poverty, and the diagnosis of a
disability.
Slide 4: Read the points on the slide.
Slide 5: Read the points on the slide.
Slide 6 Read the Trauma-Focused Competencies.

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Slide 7: Read the Trauma-Informed Key Assumptions and Principals, then state:
These two frameworks were used to develop the research questions and interview guide
questions. We will move into the interview portion at this time.
Co-Investigor – Step 3: Present the 12, semi-structured interview guide to research
questions breakdown to the participant.
Interview Guide to Research Questions Breakdown
Research Questions

Research Question 1 – What are
special education teachers’
perceptions regarding the prevalence
and impact of trauma in relation to
the provision of special education
services in the district?

Research Question 2 - What are
special education teachers’
perceptions of their role in
implementing trauma-informed
practices through special education
services?

Interview Guide Question/Topic
5) Briefly explain what you know about childhood
trauma.
6) Describe the types of trauma students in your special
education classroom have been exposed to. How do
you see the complexities of trauma impacting your
students’ short-term and long-term?
7) What is currently happening in your school to
promote academic, behavioral, and social-emotional
trauma-informed practices for special education
students?
8) What are your perceptions of how trauma-informed
practices are being implemented throughout the
school district and greater community to support
special education students?
13) As a special education teacher, you are one member
of a large organization. What do you perceive as your
role in realizing, recognizing, responding, and
resisting re-traumatization when working with
special education students who have been exposed to
childhood trauma?
14) How do you critically assess and apply up-to-date
trauma-informed practices and interventions in your
classroom?
15) What trauma-informed practices have you found to
be the most helpful when working with special
education students in your classroom?
16) In your role, describe any barriers you face when
implementing trauma-informed practices.

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Research Question 3 – What are
special education teachers’
perceptions of the professional
development they have received to
support children who have
experienced trauma and also qualify
for special education services?

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17) How does the district incorporate professional
development around policies and practices that are
responsive to the cultural needs of all students?
18) As a special education teacher, how are you impacted
by your special education students’ trauma
experiences?
19) What professional development have you received to
support your work with students with childhood
trauma who qualify for special education services?
20) How could the district enhance its professional
development by incorporating trauma-informed
practices to support special education students?

This part of the interview will be audio recorded to be used for transcription and analysis
purposes. Once I start the audio recording, I will read each question to you and give you
adequate time to respond to the questions. At any point during the interivew, you may
reference the interview guide questions. Also, at any point during the interivew, if you do
not feel confortable answering the question, let me know. While you are answering the
questions, I will be documenting notes on your responses.
Co-Investigator – Step 4: Completion of the interview questions.
Now that you have answered the interview questions, I will complete a fidelity checklist
to ensure each interview started and ended in the same manner. Once the fidelity
checklist is complete, this will conclude the semi-structured interivew. Within two
calendar days of the interview, I will email you the transcribed audio recording and my
field notes. Please review the field notes within 24-hours and confirm their credibility. If
there is any aspect of the transcribed field notes that is not accurate, please contact me
immediately.

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APPENDIX J – BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON CHILDHOOD TRAUMA

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APPENDIX K – FIDELITY CHECKLIST
Date of
Interview

Participant
ID

Signed
Interview &
Audio
Consent

Demographic
Questionnaire

Reviewed
Interview
Protocol

Reviewed
Trauma
Background
Presentation

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APPENDIX L – SIGNATORY PAGE FOR DISSERTATION

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