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TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
Effects of implementing a transition curriculum using Google Classroom on the selfdetermination, post-secondary readiness, and career readiness skills of high school
students with high incidence disabilities
_______________________
A Dissertation
Presented to
The College of Graduate and Professional Studies
Department of Special Education
Slippery Rock University
Slippery Rock, Pennsylvania
______________________
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctorate of Special Education
_______________________
by
Katie R. Williams
Proposed Graduation December 2021
Katie R. Williams, 2021
Keywords: transition, Google Classroom, self-determination, career readiness,
post-secondary readiness, high incidence disabilities
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TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Committee Chair: Jeremy Lynch, Ed. D.
Associate Professor of Special Education
Slippery Rock University
Committee Member: Toni Mild, Ed. D.
Assistant Professor of Special Education
Slippery Rock University
Committee Member: Jeffrey Keeling, Ed. D.
High School Principal
Greenville Area School District
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ABSTRACT
Students with high incidence disabilities continue to fall behind when compared to their
nondisabled peers who experience much greater post-secondary and employment success after
high school. The purpose of the study was to determine if using Google Classroom to implement
a transition curriculum would affect the career readiness, post-secondary readiness, and selfdetermination skills of students with high incidence disabilities. The literature review revealed
that there are several definitions and theories defining the components that comprise an effective
transition curriculum. Using Google Classroom transition modules were created and
implemented that focused on the components: age-appropriate assessments, individualized and
student-centered planning and goal setting, career exploration, post-secondary training
exploration, employment preparations, and self-determination. A quantitative study was designed
to determine whether utilizing Google Classroom had an effect on the self-determination, career
readiness, and post-secondary readiness skills of the student participants. Two rating scales were
utilized, and a Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to analyze the data. Utilizing Google
Classroom had an overall positive effect on the self-determination, career readiness, and postsecondary readiness skills. The transition curriculum also had a positive effect on all areas except
leisure activities. This positive effect has many implications on future transition educational
practices and post-high school outcomes for students with disabilities. This positive effect could
help students secure financial stability and successfully live independently after high school.
Keywords: transition, Google Classroom, self-determination, career readiness,
post-secondary readiness, high incidence disabilities
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DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my family. First to my loving husband who supported my
decision to pursue earning my doctorate degree and my children, Lydia and David, who were
patient while I wrote. Next I dedicate this to my mom Susie, mother-in-law Peg, and father-inlaw Bruce. Thank you for watching David and Lydia and for encouraging me along the way.
Lastly, I dedicate this to my late father, Ernie, who always asked me how my paper was going
and when I would be done.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to begin by thanking my dissertation chair, Dr. Jeremy Lynch. Every step of
the way he was there to answer my many questions and offer encouragement. I would like to
thank my committee members, Dr. Toni Mild and Dr. Jeff Keeling. I am thankful for all of the
support and time my team dedicated to helping me achieve success.
I would like to thank Slippery Rock University special education doctoral faculty. Every
one of my professors helped me to grow as an educator. I would also like to thank my fellow
students but especially Katie, Wendy, Lydia, and Kristyn for all of your support and assistance
throughout this process. I would not have completed this journey if it was not for your continued
encouragement.
Next, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to my coworkers, administrators,
students, and families at Greenville Area School District. Thank you to my coworkers for their
willingness to complete rating scales and encourage me throughout this journey. Thank you
especially to Megan, Renee, Liz, Maddie, and Tyler for all of your help and support. Thank you
also to the family members of my students who were also willing to complete rating scales and
assist with my study.
Finally a special thank you to my husband, Aaron, and entire family. Thank you for
allowing me to embark on this journey and for watching the kids so that I could do school work
or work on this study. Thank you for your continued support and encouragement. I could not
have completed this journey without it.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. iii
DEDICATION.................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................................................v
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................... vii
CHAPTER 1: Introduction ...........................................................................................................1
Background of the Study ................................................................................................................ 2
Educational Implications ...............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................................ 8
Definitions of Critical Terms ........................................................................................................ 10
Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................. 13
Career Development Therories ..................................................................................................... 15
The Importance and Benefits of Self-Determination .................................................................... 19
Transition Curriculum Components ............................................................................................. 26
Using Technology for Implementation ......................................................................................... 35
Conclusion ...................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.0
Purpose.........................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.1
Research Questions ......................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.2
Need for Study .............................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.2
CHAPTER 3: Methodology .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.5
Population ....................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.7
Sampling ......................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.9
Plan for Implementation ............................................................................................................... 51
Rating Scales ................................................................................................................................. 56
Data Anaylsis ................................................................................................................................ 62
Site Permission.............................................................................................................................. 63
Presentation of Results .................................................................................................................. 63
Limitation of Study ....................................................................................................................... 63
Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 64
CHAPTER 4: Results ..................................................................................................................65
Results ........................................................................................................................................... 66
Findings......................................................................................................................................... 82
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 82
CHAPTER 5: Discussion.............................................................................................................83
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 83
Implications................................................................................................................................... 83
Recommentations for Further Research........................................................................................ 91
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 92
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................93
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: SITE PERMISSION .......................................................................................100
APPENDIX B: PARENTAL CONSENT.................................................................................101
APPENDIX C: STUDENT ASSENT .......................................................................................104
APPENDIX D: TEACHER CONCENT ..................................................................................106
APPENDIX E: AIR TOTAL SCORES ...................................................................................109
APPENDIX F: TPI-2 TOTAL SCORES .................................................................................110
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of Population .................................................................... 49
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of Sampling ...................................................................... 51
Table 3. AIR Self-Determination Knowledge Results ..................................................... 68
Table 4. AIR Self-Determination Ability Results............................................................. 69
Table 5. AIR Self-Determination Rating Scale Total Results .......................................... 70
Table 6. TPI-2 Career Choice and Planning Results. ....................................................... 71
Table 7. TPI-2 Employment Knowledge and Skills Results ............................................ 72
Table 8. TPI-2 Further Education and Training Results. .................................................. 73
Table 9. TPI-2 Functional Communication Results ......................................................... 74
Table 10. TPI-2 Self-Determination Results. ................................................................... 75
Table 11. TPI-2 Independent Living Results. ................................................................... 76
Table 12. TPI-2 Personal Money Management Results. .................................................. 77
Table 13. TPI-2Commnity Involvement and Usage Results ............................................ 78
Table 14. TPI-2 Leisure Activities Results. ...................................................................... 79
Table 15. TPI-2 Health Results. ........................................................................................ 80
Table 16. TPI-2 Interpersonal Relationships Results. ...................................................... 81
Table 17. TPI-2 Total Scores. ........................................................................................... 82
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Post-secondary and employment outcomes for students with disabilities are lacking (Benz
et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2009; Izzo et al., 2010; Kreider et al., 2015). The overall employment
rates for individuals with disabilities continue to fall behind those without disabilities (Benz et
al., 2000; Carter et al., 2009; Izzo et al., 2010; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011;
Luecking & Luecking, 2015; Morningstar, 1997; 2014; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rabren et al.,
Test et al., 2009; Trainor et al., 2016). Additionally, students with disabilities continue to have
low success rates in post-secondary schools and training programs. Students with disabilities
continue to drop-out or fail out at high rates from secondary programs (Fullarton & Duquette,
2015; Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; Young, 2007). Thus, improvements must be made to
the delivery of transition curriculum for students with disabilities. It must be implemented
consistently and with fidelity. The curriculum needs to be engaging, student centered, and
encourage family involvement. It should be comprised of age appropriate assessments and
content as well as contain a coordinated set of activities that focuses on career exploration, postsecondary training exploration, individualized and student-centered planning and goal setting,
employment preparations, study skills lessons, self-determination, and technological skills (Benz
et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Lindstrom
et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar, 1997; Trainor et al., 2016).
This chapter will discuss the history and background of transition curriculum for students
with disabilities and the legal requirements of school districts outlined by special education laws.
The education implications of post-secondary and career readiness skills, self-determination
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skills, and family involvement for students with disabilities will also be discussed. The statement
of the problem and purpose of the study will be explained and all critical terms will be defined.
Background of the Study
Transition curriculum for students with disabilities is not a new concept. The first
transition curriculum was implemented in the 1930’s (Morningstar, 1997). However, public
schools were not mandated to provide transition curriculum for individuals with disabilities until
1990 with the reauthorization and renaming of the Education for all Handicapped Children Act
to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (Benz et al., 2000; Trainor et al., 2016;
Van Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016; Young, 2007). This mandate was instrumental in creating a
link between transition curriculum and successful post-secondary outcomes for students with
disabilities. Amendments were made to IDEA in 1997 to clearly define the role of students,
school personnel, families, and community agencies in the transition process for students with
disabilities (Benz et al., 2000; Young, 2007). IDEA 1990 and 1997 mandates also introduced the
concept of student involvement in their Individualized Education Plan (IEP) meeting whenever
transition services or plans were being discussed. This mandate was the start of students’
preferences and interests being incorporated into the transition process (Benz et al., 2000; Traitor
et al., 2016; Young, 2007).
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA 2004)
mandated changes be made to the transition curriculum for students with disabilities. High
school transition curriculums were required to address student preparation for post-secondary
schooling, employment, community participation, and independent living (Carter et al., 2008;
Lombardi et al., 2020; Trainor et al., 2016; Young, 2007). IDEA 2004 also brought about a
requirement that the IEPs of transition aged students include individualized, measurable, and
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appropriate post-secondary goals based on a student’s needs, interests, strengths, preferences,
and the results of transition assessments. It mandated the goals be related to post-secondary
training or schooling, employment, and independent living skills. The goals are required to be
implemented for the student no later than the age of 16 (Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al. 2009;
Lombardi et al., 2020; Trainor et al., 2016; Van Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016).
Then in 2015, the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) was passed in effort to improve
transition curriculum and services (Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020). This act shifted the focus of
transition curriculum and the post-secondary and employment readiness skills students were
acquiring. Prior to ESSA, students were only required to be provided curriculum that would
allow them to access post-secondary training and employment. ESSA now required students be
prepared to be successful in those settings. (Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020). In other words the
focus shifted from teaching students how to get accepted in a post-secondary program or hired at
a place of employment to also teaching them the skills necessary to succeed such as time
management and self-advocacy skills. ESSA also outlined the use of digital or blended learning
to strengthen the skills students acquired. Blended learning is practice where teachers utilize a
combination of technology based and teacher lead instruction. An even greater priority was
placed on including digital or blended learning in the special education settings. The emphasis
was to provide students with the opportunity to acquire technological skills necessary to have
post-secondary training and employment success and give all students with disabilities an equal
opportunity to acquire these skills (Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020).
These legislative decisions were stepping-stones to preparing students with disabilities to
acquire post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills necessary for
successful futures and active participation in their communities. They also brought about some
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improvements in the outcomes of students with disabilities. The first and second National
Longitudinal Transition Studies showed an improvement in the dropout rates of students with
disabilities with 17% fewer students dropping out from 1987 to 2003 (Carter et al., 2009; Izzo et
al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Trainor et al., 2016). Post-secondary education enrollment also
improved and doubled during the time between the two studies (Trainor et al., 2016). However,
despite legislative efforts, the second National Longitudinal Transition Study data showed that
the transition efforts still require attention. The study showed that two years after graduating
from high school only 44.6% of individuals with specific learning disabilities were employed
and 34.7% were enrolled in a form of post-secondary training (Carter et al., 2009; Izzo et al.,
2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Trainor et al., 2016). Even today, the most current employment
statistics show that students with disabilities struggle to find employment compared to their
nondisabled peers with only 30.9% of individuals with disabilities between the ages of 16-64
being employed compared to 74.6% of individuals without disabilities in the same age range
(U.S. Department of Labor, 2020). These statistics demonstrate the need for continued efforts to
prepare students with disabilities for life after high school.
Educational Implications
A transition curriculum is an integral part of education programming for students with
disabilities (Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al, 2009). Transition curriculums are designed to
ensure students with disabilities acquire the necessary skills and experiences needed to attain
important life outcomes after graduating from high school. Transition curriculums are designed
to provide students with disabilities the opportunity to learn a skill set focused on independent
post-secondary, employment, and living goals. The purpose of a transition curriculum is to help
students with disabilities acquire the skills they need to successfully contribute to society and
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engage in their communities after graduating from high school (Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al.,
2020; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al., 2018). There are many different definitions and theories
surrounding transition curriculums for students with disabilities, but the majority focus on the
concept of students acquiring post-secondary or career readiness skills and self-determination
skills. There is a positive correlation between the implementation of a quality transition
curriculum that includes family involvement and students acquiring post-secondary, career
readiness, and self-determination skills (Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Rodriguez et al.,
2017; Test et al., 2018). Studies have shown acquisition of this skill set as a prediction for a
positive post-secondary and employment outcome for students with disabilities (Fullarton &
Duquette, 2015; Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al.,
2017; Test et al., 2009; Test & Fowler, 2018).
Post-Secondary and Career Readiness Skills
Post-secondary and career readiness skills include the ability of a student to determine
the correct post-secondary program and career that fits their individual interest, abilities, and
needs. It requires that students possess a knowledge base of the variety of post-secondary
training and career options (Benz et al., 2000; Herbert et al., 2010; Izzo et al., 2010; Lindstrom et
al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020; Rodriguez et al, 2017). Additionally, students need to possess
study skills or the ability to take notes, work collaboratively in groups, organize information and
materials, utilize a variety of methods to prepare for exams and quizzes, and manage their time
(Kreider et al., 2015; Morningstar et al., 2017; Rodriguez et al., 2017). Employment preparation
skills including the ability to apply for a job, create a resume, dress for an interview, and
participate in an interview are essential for individuals to possess in order to obtain and secure
employment (Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020; Luecking & Luecking, 2015;
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Morningstar et al., 2017). According the Pennsylvania Department of Education (Career
Readiness Guidance, 2019, p. 3), post-secondary and career readiness skills can be defined as:
Preparations for meaningful engagement in postsecondary education, in workforce
training, in career pathways, and to be responsible, involved citizen. This involves
understanding career options in relationship to individual interests, aptitudes and skills
including the relationship between changes in society, technology, government and
economy and their effect on individuals and careers.
Post-secondary and career readiness skills create the foundation that ensure students with
high incidence disabilities achieve post-secondary and employment success and thus secure
long-term financial stability (Lindstrom et al., 2011). A high incidence disability is a disability
that is encountered most frequently within the classroom. However, the acquisition of postsecondary and career readiness skills requires students to have the ability to identify their
individual disability, strengths, and weaknesses and possess self-determination skills.
Self-Determination Skills
A considerable amount of attention has been devoted to the importance of teaching
students with high incidence disabilities self-determination skills while in high school, since the
1990s (Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016; Shogren et al., 2008; Young, 2007). Self-determination
skills encompass a variety of skills that allow students with disabilities to make decisions and
choices without the aid of family or agency support. Self-determination instruction involves
equipping students with high incidence disabilities with the knowledge and skills necessary to
make personal life decisions and the ability to exert more control over their lives (LaarhovenMyers et al., 2016; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Shogren et al., 2008; Young, 2007). The sub-skills of
self-determination include disability awareness, self-advocacy, and goal setting and decision
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making skills. Students who possess self-determination skills have the ability to make conscious
decisions and cope with the constant changes and demands of school and work environments.
They possess the ability to take ownership over their learning and to advocate for their
individualized needs and preferences. They respond appropriately to difficult situations they face
and continually set and make adjustments to personal goals (Carter et al., 2008; Hadley, 2006;
Kreider et al., 2015; Van Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016; Wehmeyer et al., 2019).
Research has shown that enabling students to acquire and exercise self-determination
skills in high school is linked to more positive education, employment, and independent living
outcomes (Lee et al., 2011). Families can significantly impact a student’s acquisition of selfdetermination, career readiness, and post-secondary readiness skills.
Family Involvement
Families play a critical role in a child’s development and often serve as role models.
Thus, family involvement is a critical component of a transition curriculum. Although the
involvement of families in the transition planning process for students with disabilities is
mandated by state legislation, family involvement is much more than attending meetings. Family
involvement includes acceptance of their child’s disability, participating in meetings, advocating
for their child, setting goals, participating in activities and assignments, and guiding their child as
they make decisions (Carter et al., 2009; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Landmark et al., 2013;
Morningstar, 1997; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Test and Fowler, 2018;
Trainor et al., 2016; Young, 2007).
Family involvement in the transition process has been linked to successful postsecondary outcomes for students with disabilities (Carter et al., 2009; Cavendish & Conner,
2018; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Landmark et al., 2013; Morningstar, 1997;
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Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Test and Fowler, 2018; Trainor et al., 2016;
Young, 2007). However, studies have also shown there needs to be a balance in how involved a
family is in the student’s transition process (Brown et al., 2016; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015;
Rodriguez et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et al., 2019; Young, 2007). Although it is important that
families advocate and set goals for their child, it is essential that, as their child gets older, these
responsibilities gradually become their child’s so they learn to successfully advocate for their
needs.
Post-secondary readiness skills, career readiness skills, self-determination skills, and
family involvement in the transition process are linked to improved quality of life for students
with disabilities after they graduate from high school (Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton & Duquette,
2015; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011 Rodriguez et al., 2017; Young, 2007). Despite
this fact, many schools struggle to implement a quality transition curriculum that focuses on this
skill set and family involvement. As a result of this, students with disabilities continue to have
poor post-secondary training, employment, and independent living outcomes.
Statement of the Problem
The overall employment rates for students with disabilities continues to lag behind those
of their peers without disabilities. This contributes to the persistently high poverty rates of
students with disabilities (Lindstrom et al., 2011). Studies have shown that students are not being
provided with adequate transition curriculum due to a variety of time constraints (Baer et al.,
2003; Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2008; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Test & Fowler, 2018).
Students are educated in their least restrictive environment. This results in students being
included in the general education classroom for the majority of their classes and lacking room in
their schedules for a daily transition class. Special education teachers, especially those in rural
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districts, are teaching and co-teaching in content areas while also providing students with
supports to be successful in the general education classroom (Baer et al., 2003; Test & Fowler,
2018). As a result, student schedules and teacher obligations make it difficult to find a common
period for implementation. This results in transition curriculum being implemented haphazardly
in fragments when time allows. Thus, students with disabilities continue to graduate without the
skills necessary to navigate employment and post-secondary schooling. This results in students
often dropping out and struggling to obtain or keep a job their entire lives (Benz et al., 2000;
Carter et al., 2009; Izzo et al., 2010; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Luecking &
Luecking, 2015; Morningstar, 1997; 2014; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rabren et al., Test et al.,
2009; Trainor et al., 2016). This can result in students being unable to financially and selfsufficiently support themselves and result in their dependence on family or public assistance
(Lindstrom et al., 2011).
The purpose of this quantitative study is to determine the effectiveness of using Google
Classroom to implement a transition curriculum on the post-secondary readiness, career
readiness, and self-determination skills of students with high incidence disabilities. A transition
curriculum will be developed incorporating research emphasized essential components of a
transition curriculum including: age appropriate assessments, individualized and studentcentered planning and goal setting, career exploration, post-secondary training exploration,
employment preparations, and self-determination (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015;
Herbert et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020;
Morningstar, 1997; Trainor et al., 2016). The curriculum will be student centered and emphasize
family involvement.
More specifically this research is designed to answer the following research questions:
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1. How does the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum affect the selfdetermination skills of students with high incidence disabilities?
2. How does the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum affect the postsecondary and career readiness skills of students with high incidence disabilities?
Google Classroom might be the tool to help school districts improve the delivery and
instructional methods of providing transition curriculum to students with disabilities. By
collecting and analyzing quantitative data using a pre/posttest method, the researcher hopes to
determine if Google Classroom can bridge the current gaps schools face when implementing a
transition curriculum. The implications of implementing a quality transition curriculum with
fidelity for students with disabilities is paramount for improving student success after high
school (Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al., 2018).
Acquisition of post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills is
essential so that after high school graduation students with disabilities can effectively interact
and contribute to their communities independently.
Definitions of Critical Terms
Blended Learning. Blending learning is a style of teaching in which students receive
instruction through a combination of technology based and teacher lead instruction.
Disability awareness. Disability awareness is the ability to identify and describe their
identified disability and knowledge of their personal strengths and weaknesses.
High Incidence Disabilities. A high incidence disability is a disability that is
encountered most frequently within the classroom and include autism spectrum disorders,
communication disorders, intellectual disabilities, specific learning disabilities, emotional or
behavioral disorders, and other health impairments such as attention deficit disorder.
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Google Classroom. Google classroom is an online platform utilized for digital learning.
It allows teachers to create and distribute curricular content such as notes, taped instruction,
activities, assignments, and assessments. The platform can also be utilized to initiate discussions
among peers and video conference.
Post-secondary and Career readiness. Post-secondary and career readiness can be
defined as the ability of a student to determine the correct post-secondary program and career
that fits their individual interest, abilities, and needs.
Self-advocacy. Self-advocacy is the ability to speak on one’s behalf to obtain personal
needs and express personal interests.
Self-determination. Self-determination is a person’s ability to make decisions and
choices relating to their quality of life that are free of influence of others and includes the subskills disability awareness, self-advocacy, and goal setting and decision making skills.
Transition Curriculum. A transition curriculum is a curriculum containing student
centered activities and lessons that align with student’s individualized needs, interests, and
abilities and focus on career exploration, post-secondary exploration, career preparations,
personal goal setting, and self-determination.
Summary
Due to the continued number of students with disabilities struggling to achieve success at
post-secondary settings and obtain and maintain employment, there is relevance for research into
a way to provide children with disabilities a quality transition curriculum that accounts for the
time constraints special education teachers’ face. Lack of success after high school can result in
students with disabilities facing years of poverty and struggling to support themselves. It is
imperative that school districts implement a quality transition curriculum with fidelity that allows
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students the ability to acquire the necessary skills to successfully complete post-secondary
schooling or training, acquire and maintain a full-time job, live independently, and successfully
contribute to society. Adults with disabilities who complete post-secondary training significantly
improve their chances of securing employment and achieving greater levels of financial
independence (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011).Utilizing Google Classroom
to provide transition curriculum in a blended format may be the solution to this very problem.
Without the research into the effect of Google Classroom on the post-secondary
readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills of students with high incidence
disabilities, the problem will still exist. Teachers will continue to struggle with implementing a
transition curriculum with fidelity and students with disabilities will continue to have poor postsecondary outcomes and face a lifetime of struggles. It is imperative that research is conducted to
see if utilizing Google Classroom to implement a transition curriculum for students with
disabilities can improve their skill acquisition.
Throughout history, the structure of an effective transition curriculum has been debated.
The debate surrounds several theories relating to career development for children and adults.
Chapter two will examine these various career development theories and the history of transition
curriculums for students with disabilities. Additionally, throughout the literature review, focus
will be on research supported components and qualities of an effective transition curriculum and
the proposed benefits of utilizing Google Classroom to implement a transition curriculum in a
blended format.
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Chapter 2
Literature Review
Transition is a critical part of a person’s lifetime. One of the most significant transitions
in a person’s life is from high school to a post-secondary school or place of employment. Thus,
transition services is an integral part of education programing for students with disabilities
(Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al, 2009). Transition services involve implementing a curriculum
designed to ensure students with disabilities acquire the necessary skills and experiences needed
to attain important life outcomes after graduating from high school. A transition curriculum is
designed to help students acquire the necessary self-determination, post-secondary readiness, and
career readiness skills for successful enrollment in post-secondary schooling or training,
employment, community participation, and independent living (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton &
Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Lee et al., 2011; McConnell et al., 2012; Morningstar, 1997;
Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al., 2009; Trainor et al., 2016; Wehmeyer et al., 2011, 2019;
Young, 2007). Transition curriculums focus on implementing student centered activities and
lessons that align with student’s individualized needs, interests, and abilities (Benz et al., 2000;
Carter et al., 2009; Cavendish & Conner, 2018; Landmark et al., 2013; McConnell et al., 2012;
Rodriguez et al, 2017; Test & Fowler, 2018; Trainor et al., 2016; Young, 2007). However, the
quantity and quality of transition curriculum students receive continues to depend on the
individual student’s state and school district (Carter et al., 2008; Lindstrom et al., 2011;
Morningstar, 1997).
This chapter will discuss the literature surrounding career development theories and how
they have evolved over the years. It will also explore the importance of self-determination skills
including the subskills disability awareness, self-advocacy, and goal setting and decision making
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skills. Components of effective transition curriculums will be discussed including age
appropriate assessments, individualized student centered planning and goal setting, career
exploration, and post-secondary exploration. The final component of this literature review will
discuss utilizing technology for implementation and the blended learning strategy.
There is a positive correlation between the implementation of a quality transition
curriculum and students acquiring self-determination, post-secondary readiness, and career
readiness skills (Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al.,
2018). Studies have shown acquisition of this skill set as prediction for a positive post-secondary
and employment outcome for students with disabilities (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Izzo et al.,
2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al., 2009; Test &
Fowler, 2018). Studies have also shown a positive correlation between student acquisition of
skills and family involvement.
Although family involvement at IEP meetings and transition planning meetings is
mandated by federal legislature (IDEA, 2014), family involvement is much more than attending
meetings. Family involvement includes acceptance of their child’s disability, actively
participating in meetings, advocating for their child, setting goals, participating in activities and
assignments, and providing their child with support and guidance during the decision making
process (Carter et al., 2009; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Landmark et al., 2013; Morningstar,
1997; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Test and Fowler, 2018; Trainor et al.,
2016; Young, 2007). However, studies have shown there needs to be a balance in how involved a
family is in the student’s transition process (Brown et al., 2016; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015;
Rodriguez et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et al., 2019; Young, 2007). When a family is too involved and
does not transfer any responsibility to their child, their child is at risk for developing learned
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helplessness and struggling to acquire self-determination (Brown et al., 2016; Fullarton &
Duquette, 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011). Thus it is important that schools encourage the balance
and implement a quality transition that focuses on the development of self-determination and its
subskills.
Transition services for students with disabilities is not a new concept. The first transition
curriculum was implemented in the 1930’s for students with deafness and students with hearing
impairments (Morningstar, 1997). However, the first transition curriculum for students with
disabilities that addressed employment and career education issues was not implemented until
the 1960’s (Morningstar, 1997). Even then the structure of an effective transition curriculum was
debated. The debate surrounded several theories relating to career development for children and
adults (Ginzberg, 1972; Morningstar, 1997; Savickas, 2005; Super, 1953; Wehmeyer et al.,
2019).
Career Development Theories
The development of post-secondary and employment readiness for students with
disabilities dates back to the introduction of career development theories for children and adults
without disabilities (Morningstar, 1997; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Many of the early theories
focused on ideas relating to occupational choice, vocational development, vocational adjustment,
and career development. These theories also focused on several factors affecting a child’s career
readiness development including the role of environment, education, relationships, personal
values, and psychological constructs (Super, 1953; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). These factors are
still emphasized as core elements that are considered when planning transition curriculums today
(Test et al., 2009; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Some of the early theories stated that career
aspirations are developmental in nature while others stated that career development only
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occurred during adolescence (Ginzberg, 1972; Morningstar, 1997; Super, 1953; Wehmeyer et al.,
2019). Yet other theories emphasize stages of career readiness development. One of these
theories was Super’s (1953) life span theory of career development (Morningstar, 1997; Super,
1953; Wehmeyer et al., 2019).
Super’s life span theory was one of the most significant career readiness development
theories that still impacts the field of transition today. Super (1953) proposed that career
readiness development was comprised of five predictable major life stages that began at birth and
did not end until retirement (Morningstar, 1997; Super, 1953; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Super’s
theory supports the current argument that transition curriculums should be implemented for
students with disabilities beginning in elementary school and continuing into early adulthood
(Hadley, 2006; Morningstar, 1997; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et
al., 2019). Super (1953) also theorized that career readiness development can be guided and is
affected by student interactions. These interactions deal not only with other individuals but also
with the environment and experiences (Super, 1953). This theory is still relevant today and
supports the important role both teachers and family play in a child’s career readiness
development (Baer et al., 2003; Benz et al., 2000; Cavendish & Conner, 2018; Fullarton &
Duquette, 2015; Landmark et al., 2013; Lindstrom et al., 2011). It also supports the current
argument that all students with disabilities need immersed in transition curriculum comprised of
a variety of career exploration activities (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Herbert
et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar, 1997; Trainor et al.,
2016).
Another career readiness development theory that emphasized stages was Tiedeman’s
(1961) career decision-making theory. Tiedeman’s (1961) proposed career development occurred
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in seven sequential stages that could not be skipped and were aligned to Eric Erikson’s stage
based identity development theory (Wehmeyer et al., 2019). He identified several factors that are
still emphasized in transition curriculums today including teaching students decision-making
processes. Today we refer to the decision making processes as self-determination skills. Student
acquisition of self-determination skills is necessary to guide and support career readiness
development (Tiedeman, 1961; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Just like several factors or Tiedeman’s
career readiness developmental theory are relevant today so is Ginzberg’s theory of occupational
choice.
A focus on occupational choice was the basis of the Ginzberg theory. It is often referred
to as the theory of occupational choice. It consists of four stages of development. Ginzberg
(1972) theorized that a person experienced a period of career development for about ten years.
He theorized that experience during career readiness development is important and produces
change (Ginzberg, 1972; Morningstar, 1997; Super, 1953). This theory is still present today as
several transition curriculums emphasize participation of students with disabilities in a variety of
career exploration activities. These experiences vary from: enrolling in a vocational program
during high school, participating in job shadowing experience, attending a job fair, and viewing
post-secondary programs (Baer et al., 2003; Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015;
Herbert et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez
et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et al., 2011).
Another component of the theory of occupational choice is compromise (Ginzberg, 1972;
Super, 1953). All students must make several decisions about their future by compromising
between their interests, capabilities, and opportunities (Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton & Duquette,
2015; Lee et al., 2011; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Morningstar et al., 1997; Rodriguez et al., 2017;
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Wehmeyer et al., 2019; Young, 2007). A transition curriculum should address this concept and
provide curriculum to help students develop self-determination skills necessary to navigate
(Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Morningstar, 1997;
Rodriguez et al., 2017; Young, 2007).
The existence of three periods of occupational choice is the fourth and final component
of the theory (Ginzberg, 1972; Super, 1953). It was theorized that career readiness development
begins early in an individual’s life as they fantasize about different career options. This fantasy
evolves to realistic job choice as the individual participates in a variety of career related
experiences (Morningstar, 1997; Super 1953). This also supports the present argument of
professionals in the transition field that schools need to begin providing children with transition
services in elementary school (Hadley, 2006; Morningstar, 1997; Piers & Duquette, 2016;
Rodriguez et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et al., 2019).
Career Construction theory is a more current theory that ties together Ginzberg’s theory
of occupational choice and Tiedeman’s career decision making theory (Savickas, 2005;
Wehmeyer et al., 2019). The premise of the career construction theory is that careers are built
through student interactions and experiences. It is thought that life experience affect and guide
occupational choice. The theory emphasizes that individuals make choices that relate to their
goals and their role in the work force (Savickas, 2005; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Another
component of career construction theory is career adaptability. Students should set goals, selfmonitor and self-evaluate their process, and make necessary adjustments to their goal or plan
(Izzo et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Savickas,
2005; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). This theory emphasizes the current argument that students with
disabilities need provided an opportunity to develop self-determination skills to assist with goal
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setting. It also emphasizes the need for students to be provided with a transition curriculum
containing a variety of activities focused on career and post-secondary exploration that occurs
outside of the classroom.
Super’s Life Span Theory, Tiedman’s career decision-making theory, Ginzberg theory of
occupational choice, and Savickas theory of career construction recognize and emphasize that
career readiness is a developmental process (Savickas, 2005; Super, 1953; Morningstar, 1997;
Wehmeyer et al., 2019). They also emphasize the need for student immersion in activities that
focus on student exploration of careers and post-secondary training (Savickas, 2005; Super,
1953; Morningstar, 1997; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). These theories call for a life planning and
construction perspective. Through transition lessons and guidance of family and school
personnel, students should begin planning their lives and constructing goals for after graduating
from high school. These theories of career development remain a reference for conceptualizing
the efforts of a transition curriculum to promote the move of students with disabilities to postsecondary education, employment, and independent living. One concept these theories promote
to help students achieve success with this move is the inclusion of self-determination in a
transition curriculum.
The Importance and Benefits of Self-Determination Skills
Active participation in personal IEP meetings improves the outcomes of individuals with
disabilities in post-secondary schooling, employment, and independent living (Lee et al., 2011;
Van Laarhoven-Myers, 2016; Young, 2007). However, active participation requires the student
possesses self-determination skills (Lee et al., 2011). IDEA requires that individuals with
disabilities be invited to attend their IEP meetings beginning at the age of 16 (Lee et al., 2011).
However, studies have shown that an invite and attendance does not mean that individuals are
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active participants and that the majority report lacking knowledge related to how to participate in
their IEP meetings (Lee et al., 2011; Young, 2007). Studies have even shown that some
individuals lack knowledge relating to what an IEP is and how it relates to their lives (Hadley,
2006; Young, 2007). Therefore it is imperative that students be provided direct instruction to
improve their self-determination skills.
The development of self-determination skills is critical for students with disabilities. The
skill set allows students to fully participate in their post-secondary training, places of
employment, and community. Individuals who are self-determined take charge and make things
happen in their own lives. Self-determined individuals take ownership of their learning and
engage, initiate, and make adjustments when faced with trials (Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton &
Duquette, 2015; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al.,
2017; Young, 2007; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Research has shown a positive correlation between
students possessing self-determination skills and positive post-secondary, employment, and
independent living outcomes (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Lee
et al., 2011; McConnell et al., 2012; Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al., 2009;
Trainor et al., 2016; Van Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016; Wehmeyer et al., 2011, 2019; Young,
2007). However despite these positive correlations, many school districts do not provide students
with support, instruction, or IEP goals that promote self-determination skills (Carter et al., 2009;
Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; Lee et al., 2011; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Young, 2007). Selfdetermination skills encompass a variety of skills that allow students with disabilities to make
decisions and choices without the aid of family or agency support. Subskills of selfdetermination include: disability awareness, self-advocacy, choice making and goal setting skills
(Carter et al., 2008; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Young, 2007).
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Disability Awareness Skills
Disability awareness can be defined as individuals having the ability to identify and
describe their identified disability (Kreider et al., 2015; Piers & Duquette, 2016). Understanding
one’s disability provides the foundation for all transition skills (Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton &
Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; McConnell et al., 2012; Piers & Duquette,
2016; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Students possessing disability awareness skills are aware of their
disability but they do not let it define who they are. They possess knowledge of their strengths
and weaknesses. They know how it affects the way they learn and what accommodations they
need to be successful. They should be able to explain their disability to others and ways different
accommodations help them achieve success in the classroom, work environment, and
community. Students should be provided with guided practice starting at an early age to gain
critical self-advocacy and self-awareness skills (Kreider et al., 2015; Morningstar, 1997; Piers &
Duquette, 2016). However, studies have shown that the majority of graduating seniors with
disabilities do not have disability awareness skills (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Kreider et al,
2015; Young, 2007).
Disability awareness should also include instruction relating to their IEP. In order to be
active members in their IEP meetings, students must first understand the importance and purpose
of the document and meeting. Students must also understand their rights and role associated with
the IEP document and meeting (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Kreider et al., 2015; Young, 2007).
Possessing this knowledge allows students to be active participants and allows students to take
ownership over their learning.
A student’s family plays a critical role in the development of a student’s disability
awareness skills. Research has shown when families speak openly with their student about their
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disability soon after identification, students develop a better understanding and knowledge base
of their disability (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Kreider et al., 2015; McConnell et al., 2012;
Piers & Duquette, 2016). Students develop an authentic understanding of their abilities as a
learner and employee. They are able to accept their disability with the support of their family
(Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Piers & Duquette, 2016). However, when families do not accept
their child’s identification, it can leave the child uneducated and unaware. These children lack an
important knowledge base they need in order to request later services and accommodations to be
successful. It can often leave students confused and in denial of possessing a need for assistance
(Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Piers & Duquette, 2016). Students must possess an understanding
of their disability symptoms and have a positive self-perception in order to set attainable goals
and courses of action for their lives (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Kreider et
al., 2015; Piers & Duquette, 2016). Lacking these qualities can result in a student’s decision to
set unrealistic goals or not to pursue required supports for success.
Self-Advocacy Skills
Self-Advocacy skills can be defined as the ability of an individual to request services and
accommodations to meet their individual needs (Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015;
Hadley, 2006). Self-advocacy builds upon the individuals’ disability awareness skills. It is
essential that individuals with disabilities are able to identify their disability and prescribed
accommodations in order to properly advocate for themselves (Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton &
Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011; McConnell et al.,
2012; Morningstar et al., 2017; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Young, 2007).
Studies show that individuals with disabilities should begin advocating for their accommodations
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in high school while special education teachers still have the ability to provide them with support
(Carter et al., 2008; Kreider et al., 2015).
Under the Americans with Disabilities Act and Section 504, individuals with disabilities
are entitled to be provided with reasonable accommodations at their post-secondary school
(Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015). However the students are responsible for establishing a
relationship with the disability services office and requesting accommodations from professors
or instructors (Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; Piers & Duquette, 2016). Family members and
disability service staff members do not have the ability to make accommodation requests
(Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; Piers & Duquette, 2016). Students lacking self-advocacy
skills often leads to poor post-high outcomes for students with disabilities (Kreider et al., 2015;
Morningstar, 1997; Young, 2007). Students must possess the ability to self-advocate for
accommodations in the work place, school, and the community in order to achieve success
(Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom
et al., 2011; McConnell et al., 2012; Morningstar et al., 2017; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez
et al., 2017; Young, 2007). As a result, it is imperative that individuals have the ability to selfadvocate when they graduate from high school
Families of students with disabilities and teachers play an important role in the
development of self-advocacy skills. Students who are encouraged by their families and teachers
to begin advocating for accommodations, modifications, and services in high school, are more
inclined to be successful in post-secondary placements and employment. This presents an
opportunity for special education teachers to mentor and support students in the development of
self-advocacy skills (Carter et al., 2008; Kreider et al., 2015). However, there needs to be a
balance between how involved a family is in the student’s transition process (Brown et al., 2016;
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24
Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et al., 2019; Young, 2007).
Students, whose parents and teachers do not work to shift responsibilities to the student and
instead continue to advocate for their services and accommodations, are not provided with
opportunities to self-advocate for themselves before post-secondary training. These students
often report feeling uncomfortable or unable to make such requests and often are unsuccessful at
post-secondary schools as a result. This is partly due to the fact that some students acquire
learned helplessness (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; Young,
2007). Learned helplessness is the belief that one is incapable of completing the task or tasks at
hand (Brown et al., 2016). Thus, students possessing learned helplessness do not believe they are
capable of advocating for accommodations they require to achieve success. They may also
believe they are incapable of making any decisions about their future or setting appropriate
goals. (Brown et al., 2016; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011). Therefore it is
important that teachers encourage the shift of responsibilities to students to help them acquire
self-advocacy skills. It is also important that they provide students with disabilities with
instruction focusing on goal setting and decision making skills.
Goals Setting and Decision Making
Goal setting and decision making skills builds upon a student’s disability awareness.
Students must possess knowledge relating to their strengths and weaknesses in order to set
appropriate goals and make important decisions. Researchers emphasize the best way to improve
a student’s goal setting and decision making skills is for students to actively participate and take
ownership of their transition planning and learning (Rodriguez et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et al.,
2019; Young, 2007). However, a student’s goals should start broad and become more specific as
students complete transition activities such as career and post-secondary training exploration
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(Izzo et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al., 2017). Goal
setting in high school allows students to set goals and benchmarks under the guidance of their
teachers and family.
Families and teachers can impact a student’s goal setting and decision making skills.
When families have high expectations for students and participate in their IEP meetings, students
with disabilities are more inclined to set high standards for themselves. Students are more
inclined to set goals that will require diligence to achieve but are not unattainable (Fullarton &
Duquette, 2015; Rabren et al., 2014). However, when families are absent and make no effort to
participate in the IEP meeting or transition process, it is imperative that teachers fill that void.
Teachers must serve as mentors for their students. It is their job to set high standards for all
students and serve as a guide throughout the exploration and planning process (Baer et al., 2003;
Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Rabren et al., 2014).
Researchers have shown a positive correlation between students being provided
opportunities to make personal decisions in high school and positive post-high school outcomes
(Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015). Students need to be provided with
opportunities to make decisions that result in success and failure while they are still in high
school. However, all too often family members and teachers take this ability and responsibility
away from students. One way teachers and schools can help students develop and strengthen
their decision making skills is providing students an opportunity to plan their high school course
schedules (Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015). High schools offer a plethora of
course options for students to choose from. Therefore, students are provided an opportunity to
use their disability awareness, goal setting, and decision making skills to plan their schedule
while being guided by school personnel and family (Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton & Duquette,
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2015). Students enrolling in post-secondary training will be required to make similar decisions
but independently.
Students must arrive at their place of employment, post-secondary school, or training
facility determined; aware of their disabilities, strengths, and weaknesses; and able to advocate
effectively for the supports and services they need to be successful. Students must be able to set,
adjust, and complete appropriate goals. They must also have the ability to make decisions and
possess problem solving skills. Research confirms that students possessing these selfdetermination skills have positive life outcomes (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015;
Hadley, 2006; Lee et al., 2011; McConnell et al., 2012; Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al.,
2017; Test et al., 2009; Trainor et al., 2016; Van Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016; Wehmeyer et al.,
2011, 2019; Young, 2007). They are able to be successfully enrolled in post-secondary training,
possess and maintain a job, live independently, and contribute to their communities. They
possess the skills to be independent and not rely heavily on their families and agencies for
support. However, researchers argue that a transition curriculum should be designed to help
students acquire post-secondary and career readiness skills in addition to self-determination
skills (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020;
Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar, 1997; Trainor et al., 2016).
Transition Curriculum Components
Post-secondary and career readiness skills are a common theme for transition curriculums
for students with disabilities. However, this term continues to be vaguely defined. Many efforts
to adapt and change transition curriculums do not converge. Instead they occur separately and in
isolation resulting in contradictory results (Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar et al., 2017). For
example, schools often develop transition programs, social-emotional support services, and
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behavior interventions for students separately instead of converging them to create a program
that would prepare students with disabilities for a successful post-high school outcome
(Lombardi et al., 2020; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Changes and adaptations to career readiness
development theories that exist appear to still need attention as technological advancements
continue to radically change work environments and the skill set required to achieve success
(Morningstar et al., 2017; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). The vague definition of an effective transition
curriculum and the variety of career readiness development theories in existence has resulted in a
variety of transition curriculum models that schools all over the United States are implementing.
It has also left many in the transition field continuing to strive to determine what components
encompass an effective transition curriculum (Benz et al., 2000; Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020;
Morningstar, 1997; Super, 1953; Test et al., 2009; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Despite this,
researchers have emphasized several components a quality transition curriculum should contain
to assist students to acquire essential post-secondary and career readiness skills. The components
emphasized by the researchers include: (a) age appropriate assessments, (b) individualized and
student-centered planning and goal setting, (c) career exploration, (d) post-secondary training
exploration, and (e) employment preparations (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015;
Herbert et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020;
Morningstar, 1997; Trainor et al., 2016).
Age Appropriate Assessments
Age appropriate assessments are central to the transition of students with disabilities. Not
only are they required under IDEA 2004, but they provide teachers, family members, and the
student (team members) with pertinent information related to student abilities and interests (Benz
et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2009; Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Herbert et al., 2010;
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Rodriguez et al., 2017; Trainor et al., 2016; Van Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016). There are many
different styles of transition assessments that can be implemented. However, all students with
disabilities should be assessed with a comprehensive assessment to provide the team members
with information relating to the student’s academic grade levels such as reading comprehension,
fluency, math computation, etc. (Carter et al., 2009; Herbert et al., 2010). This enables the team
to determine areas of strength and need for the student. Researchers have found students with
disabilities, who are aware of their personal strengths and needs, are more likely to successfully
participate in post-secondary training and employment (Izzo et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011;
Kreider et al., 2015; McConnell et al., 2012). Knowing a student’s strengths and needs allows
the team to determine extra supports and services the student should receive during and after
high school (Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2009; Herbert et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011;
McConnell et al., 2012; Rodriguez et al., 2017).
All undecided students should be administered an age appropriate career interest
inventory (Morningstar, 1997; Herbert et al., 2010; Izzo et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011;
Lombardi et al., 2020). Career interest inventories align student personalities and interests to
different careers and majors (Herbert et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020). The results of this
assessment can help students focus their career exploration activities. They can also serve as a
guide for helping the teacher and team members assign appropriate transition activities for the
student (Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2009; Herbert et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011;
Lombardi et al., 2020).
Individualized and Student-Centered Planning and Goal Setting
All transition plans for students with disabilities should be individualized and studentcentered. Individualized plans can be defined as plans that align to the individual student’s
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interests, post-secondary goals, career goals, strengths, and needs (Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al.,
2009; Cavendish & Conner, 2018; Landmark et al., 2013; McConnell et al., 2012; Rodriguez et
al, 2017; Test & Fowler, 2018; Trainor et al., 2016; Young, 2007). The team should utilize the
information gathered through the assessments to create a student’s transition plan or map. IDEA
2004 mandates that the IEPs of transition aged students include individualized, measurable and
appropriate post-secondary goals. All students need an IEP related to post-secondary
training/schooling, employment, and independent living. They are mandated to be included in
the IEP no later than the age of 16 (Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al. 2009; Lee et al., 2011;
Lombardi et al., 2020; Trainor et al., 2016; Van Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016). Researchers
argue that this is not soon enough for students with disabilities to have a transition plan in place.
With some students graduating at age 17, researchers feel that transition goals and services
should begin before high school (Hadley, 2006; Lee et al., 2011; Morningstar, 1997; Piers &
Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). In the state of Pennsylvania, the
goals must be included in the students’ IEPs no later than age 14 (Herbert et al., 2010).
Emphasis should be placed on the student being an active member and participant of the
team. Student participation in the planning and goal setting process improves the post-high
school outcomes of students with disabilities (Benz et al., 2000; Izzo et al., 2010; Lee et al.,
2011; Lombardi et al., 2017; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Trainor et al., 2016; Van Laarhoven-Myers
et al., 2016). However, studies have shown that schools frequently fail to include the students in
the planning process (Lee et al., 2011; Rodriguez et al., 2007; Van Laarhoven-Myers et al.,
2016). Despite legislature mandates, students frequently do no attend their IEP meetings (Lee et
al., 2011; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Van Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016). This often leads to generic
and sometimes inappropriate transition goals being set for students (Lee et al., 2011; Rodriguez
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et al., 2017; Van Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016; Young, 2007). This is alarming given there
continues to be disappointing post-secondary and employment outcomes for students with
disabilities.
Career Exploration
Career exploration activities allow students to begin developing and strengthening their
career readiness skills. Students with disabilities should be encouraged to research and explore
careers of interest or careers determined by interest surveys (Baer et al., 2003; Benz et al., 2000;
Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020;
Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et al., 2011, 2019). However, teachers
should guide the exploration process or career guidance systems should be used to help students
focus their research (Herbert et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020;
Morningstar, 1997). Students should be encouraged to not only research but also compare and
contrast different careers of interest. Career exploration activities are important because studies
have shown that individuals lacking career choice have a more difficult time acquiring and
maintaining a job after graduation (Carter et al., 2008; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Morningstar,
1997). However, families should be involved and included in the career exploration process.
Families play a critical role in career exploration (Landmark et al., 2003; Morningstar,
1997). Family members serve as role models for students and students often aspire to pursue the
careers of family members they are close with. Students are more inclined to be interested in a
career of a parent or grandparent because it is familiar. Researchers have shown that family
involvement and emphasis placed on the careers of family members, improves the development
of student career goals (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Landmark et al., 2013; Morningstar, 1997).
However, transition programs lacking family involvement outside of participation in IEP
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31
meetings have a negative effect on the career readiness development of students (Landmark et
al., 2013; Morningstar, 1997). Family involvement does not require face-to-face interactions
(Cavendish & Conner, 2018; Landmark et al., 2013). Simple ways to increase family members’
involvement in the transition curriculum is the inclusion of assignments involving family
interviews or sharing student exploration activities with family members (Cavendish & Conner,
2018; Landmark et al., 2013). Topics of the family interviews can include family careers, family
reactions to career interest survey results, and family input in regards to career exploration
activities. Career exploration does not only include activities in the classroom but should also
include activities in the student’s community.
Career exploration must go beyond research and beyond the classroom walls (Baer et al.,
2003; Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011;
Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Trainor et al., 2016). Career research should also
include activities that allow the students to build connections within the field. Such activities can
include job shadowing, work based learning, career fairs, paid work experience in field of
interest, and participation in a high school vocational learning program (Benz et al., 2000;
Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Luecking & Luecking,
2015; McConnell et al., 2012; Rodriguez et al., 2017). There is a correlation between students
building connections within the field through the development of career readiness skills and
improved post-secondary and employment outcomes (Lindstrom et al., 2011; Luecking &
Luecking, 2015; McConnell et al., 2012). However, individuals need to complete career
exploration activities and job shadowing experiences in fields of interest, before enrolling in a
vocational program (Lindstrom et al., 2011; Morningstar, 1997; Rabren et al., 2014). Studies
have shown that the majority of individuals graduating from high school vocational programs are
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obtaining jobs in different fields than their certifications (Lindstrom et al., 2011; Morningstar,
1997). This may have been prevented, if students were provided an opportunity to explore and
experience the work environment before enrolling in the high school vocational program.
Students should also be provided with an opportunity to complete post-secondary training
exploration before enrolling in a program.
Post-Secondary Training Exploration
Post-secondary exploration allows students to develop and strengthen their postsecondary readiness skills. Post-secondary training exploration first involves students
researching, comparing, and contrasting their post-secondary options including universities,
colleges, community colleges, trade schools, technical schools, and apprenticeship programs.
Teachers should guide student research to ensure they consider several factors including not only
their desired major but also cost of tuition, availability of disability services, availability of
housing, and feasible commuting distance (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Izzo et al., 2010;
Lombardi et al., 2020; Rodriguez et al., 2017).
By researching the post-secondary schools, students not only acquire pertinent
information about the school, but they also learn to navigate the school website. Navigating a
post-secondary schools’ website is a necessity today. The school website is utilized for
scheduling classes, accessing transcripts, contacting student services, paying tuition bills, etc.
(Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar et al., 2017).
Obtaining information about disability services offered at the post-secondary school is
also imperative for students with disabilities. Several studies have shown students dropping or
failing out of post-secondary placements due to lack of services or services they require to be
successful (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; Young, 2007). Post-
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
33
secondary exploration should also include activities focusing on filling out post-secondary and
scholarship applications, financial aid, and practice writing essays (Herbert et al., 2010; Izzo et
al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar et al., 2017). This enables teachers to help students
jump start their progress towards achieving their post-secondary goals.
Post-secondary exploration also goes beyond the school building (Fullarton & Duquette,
2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Trainor et al., 2016).
Activities allowing the students to build connections within the post-secondary campus are
critical and strengthen a student’s post-secondary readiness skills. Such activities include field
trips to tour the post-secondary campus or training facility, college fairs, trade fairs, opportunities
to attend classes, opportunities to interact with current students and school staff, attending open
houses, and opportunities to interact with coaches and players if a high school athlete (Fullarton
& Duquette, 2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Trainor et
al., 2016). Poor post-secondary outcomes occur when students are not provided with
opportunities to interact with and explore their post-secondary school before enrolling in classes
(Lindstrom et al., 2011; Rodriguez et al., 2017). The lack of opportunity leads to underdeveloped
post-secondary readiness skills leading to students dropping out. Students reported lack of
disability services and feeling overwhelmed by the class sizes and campus size as reasons for
dropping out (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; Young, 2007).
Employment Preparations
Employment preparations are an important part of a transition curriculum for students
with disabilities (Baer et al., 2003; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Izzo et al.,
2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020; Luecking & Luecking, 2015; Morningstar et
al., 2017; Rodriguez et al, 2017). Employment preparations assist with the development of a
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34
student’s career readiness skills and are essential for all students to learn. Employment
preparations can be defined as a skill set individuals learn to assist with the process of acquiring
employment. They are skills individuals must possess to gain employment. Employment
preparations include learning how to create a resume, writing a cover letter, learning how to load
or create a resume online, learning how to search for jobs in a newspaper and online, learning
how to fill out paper and electronic applications, and learning interview etiquette (Izzo et al.,
2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020; Luecking & Luecking, 2015;
Morningstar et al., 2017). Studies have shown that participation in multiple mock job interviews
that require professional dress improves employment outcomes (Lindstrom et al., 2011;
Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020; Luecking & Luecking, 2015; Morningstar et al., 2017). There is a
positive correlation between students who acquire employment in high school and increased
career readiness skills leading to successful post-secondary and employment outcomes
(Lindstrom et al., 2011; Luecking & Luecking, 2015; McConnell et al., 2012).
Employment preparations also include study skills which are important for the
development of both post-secondary and career readiness skills. Study skills include note-taking,
working collaboratively in groups, organizational skills, study habits, and time management
skills. Studies have shown that students entering the work force or post-secondary training after
high school also benefit from the ability to prioritize their time (Kreider et al., 2015; Morningstar
et al., 2017; Rodriguez et al., 2017). Students with disabilities have reported spending more time
than their non-disabled peers studying and completing work (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015;
Kreider et al., 2015). As a result, it is important that the students are able to schedule their time
accordingly. It is also important that they are organized in order to meet important deadlines.
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35
Age appropriate assessments, individualized and student-centered planning and goal
setting, career exploration, post-secondary training exploration, and employment preparations,
are all essential components of a quality transition curriculum for students with disabilities. A
quality transition curriculum assists students in acquiring the post-secondary and career readiness
skills needed for students to be successful after high school. However, given the requirement for
students with disabilities to be educated in their least restrictive environment, schools are
struggling to find time to implement a transition curriculum with fidelity resulting in students
lacking post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills. It raises the
question of when, where, and how are educators to provide students with transition services in
order to promote development of the skill set students need to be successful after high school
(Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2008; Lindstrom et al., 2011).
Utilizing Technology for Implementation
IDEA 2004 and No Child Left Behind of 2001 require that schools educate students in
their least restrictive environments (Carter et al., 2008; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). They also
require that students access the same rigorous curriculum as their nondisabled peers (Carter et
al., 2008; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). This emphasis on students accessing the general curriculum
as frequently as appropriate leaves several school districts struggling to find time to implement a
transition curriculum with fidelity. The schedules of students are full of core classes and
electives in the general education classroom making it difficult to find a common period for a
transition class (Carter et al., 2008; Test & Fowler, 2018; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Teachers in
small and rural districts often teach or co-teach core subjects in addition to serving as the districts
transition coordinator for students with disabilities (Baer et al., 2003; Test & Fowler, 2018).
Using technology for implementation can improve student acquisition of post-secondary
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36
readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills (Lee et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2019,
2020; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). So could the use of technology be the answer for finding time to
implement a transition curriculum with fidelity?
ESSA 2015 outlines the use of digital or blended learning for the implementation of a
transition curriculum (Lombardi et al., 2019, 2020). It calls for school districts to utilize
technology to strengthen student learning and acquisition of skills (Lombardi et al., 2019, 2020).
This includes using word processing programs, web-based program, computer based
assessments, and web-based search engines. The use of technology and blended learning expands
the ways teachers are able to present and provide students with transition instruction. It creates
flexibility for how students receive and respond to instruction. Blended programs allow teachers
to assign students specific modules that align to their areas of interest and need while also
providing time for teachers to mentor and collaborate with the students (Lee et al., 2011;
Lombardi et al., 2020). This flexibility can account for the issue of time that many special
education teachers face when trying to implement a transition curriculum with fidelity. Teachers
can assign work for students to complete during a convenient time for the individual students.
Teachers can then meet with students at mutually convenient times to discuss the completed
assignments and for students to receive guidance and input. However, flexibility is not the only
benefit of a blended program.
Blended programs allow teachers to include families in the transition process. Several
online platforms, including Google Classroom, allow teachers to add family members as
collaborators (Iftakhar, 2016; Rosita et al., 2020). This enables families to provide input and
guidance and stay connected with their child’s transition process. Studies have shown that family
involvement improves the career readiness skills of students with disabilities (Carter et al., 2009;
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
37
Cavendish & Conner, 2018; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Landmark et al., 2013;
Morningstar, 1997; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Test and Fowler, 2018;
Trainor et al., 2016; Young, 2007). The use of technology has also been shown to improve
student engagement with and accessibility of a transition curriculum (Lee et al., 2011; Lombardi
et al., 2019, 2020; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Students acquire more skills when they are engaged
and interact with the curriculum.
Technological advancements continue to radically change work environments and the
skill set required to achieve success (Iftakhar, 2016; Izzo et al., 2010; Lee et al., 2011; Lombardi
et al., 2017, 2020; Morningstar et al., 2017; Rosita et al., 2020; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Students
with disabilities enrolling in post-secondary training or schools must now be able to navigate a
computer and websites to complete classwork, access class materials, schedule courses, and in
some instances complete assessments and turn in assignments. Students also must be able to
extract information from online sources (Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020). Many places of
employment now require that students are able to navigate a computer and the internet. In several
instances, to apply for a job or post-secondary training or schooling, students must have the
ability to access and complete applications on online (Izzo et al., 2010; Lee et al., 2011;
Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020). However, the utilization of technology for transition instruction,
improves a student’s technological skills (Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020; Lee et
al., 2011). Lacking technological skills can negatively impact students. It can result, in low wage
jobs, post-secondary school failure, and limited opportunities for career advancements
(Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020).
The utilization of technology for the implementation of a transition curriculum has shown
to not only improve a student’s technological skills but also their self-determination, career
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
38
readiness, and reading comprehension skills (Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020; Lee
et al., 2011; Wehmeyer et al., 2011). Several researchers utilized a technology-based transition
curriculum, Envision IT, which was created by Ohio State University. This program requires
students to complete assignments on the computer using an online platform entitled Schoology,
Microsoft Office, and web-based search engines. Envision IT covers several transition
components including career exploration, career preparation, goal setting, and self-determination
skills (Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020). Researchers found a significant gain in students
with disabilities self-reported career readiness scores (Lombardi et al., 2020). Researchers also
reported increased transition knowledge in the areas of goal setting, finding jobs, and finding
information about colleges (Lombardi et al., 2017). Other researchers found improved student
self-determination scores (Lee et al., 2011). This shows that the use of an online platform, word
processing and presentation software, and web-based search engines to implement a transition
curriculum can improve students’ post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and selfdetermination skills. So, would other online platforms result in the same success for students?
Utilizing Google Classroom
Google Classroom is an online platform that is free for schools and nonprofit institutions
to use (Iftakhar, 2016; Rosita et al., 2020). However, it is a part of an even larger collection of
Google applications entitled G suite that does cost the district money (Johns et al., 2017; Rosita
et al., 2020). Google Classroom allows teachers to post assignments, videos, tests, quizzes,
surveys, notes, and discussion posts. It allows students and teachers to interact through
comments, discussion boards, and video chat through the utilization of the Google Meet video
chat feature. The variety of features allow teachers to utilize the platform to maximum student
learning and improve student technological stills (Iftakhar, 2016; Johns et al., 2017; Rosita et al.,
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39
2020). The Google Classroom platform can be utilized for a blended learning platform or a fully
online environment. This is essential given the recent COVID-19 pandemic that left many school
districts scrambling to provide students with services such as transition services (Hooker, 2020;
Iftakhar, 2016; Rosita et al., 2020). Google Classroom and G suite contain a plethora of tools and
resources for teachers and students.
Google classroom and G suite allow students and teachers to share work with others and
attach a family member’s email to a student account (Iftakhar, 2016; Johns et al., 2017; Rosita et
al., 2020). This allows teachers to share assignments and work with families. This also allows
students to receive feedback from their family members. This is a critical feature considering
several studies have shown that family engagement with the transition process improves student
outcomes (Carter et al., 2009; Cavendish & Conner, 2018; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Hadley,
2006; Landmark et al., 2013; Morningstar, 1997; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez et al, 2017;
Test and Fowler, 2018; Trainor et al., 2016; Young, 2007). However, studies have shown several
barriers prevent families from becoming engaged including time and other children (Cavendish
& Conner, 2018; Landmark et al., 2013; Rodriguez et al, 2017). Family members have work
commitments or other children at home that do not allow them to frequently attend meetings.
However, by sharing student work with families, they can stay involved in the transition process.
Documents could be easily printed for families without access to technology at home.
Google classroom allows teachers to implement a curriculum that is individualized,
interactive, and engaging. The flexibility of the program allows teachers to implement
curriculum when students have availability. It also allows for implementation in a blended
format or completely online platform ensuring that student transition services could be continued
even if schools must close again. However, would the utilization of Google Classroom have an
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40
effect on the acquisition of post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination
skills if utilized to implement a transition curriculum?
Conclusion
Implementing a transition curriculum for students with disabilities is not a new concept.
However, there is a gap in what researchers emphasize as essential components of a transition
curriculum and what school districts are providing. This gap is the result of several factors and a
call for concern. Students with disabilities need to be provided with an effective transition
curriculum in order to acquire the necessary skill set to be successful after graduating from high
school.
The gap in transition curriculum implementation is partly the product of technological
advancements. Technology continues to radically change work environments and the skill set
required to achieve success in post-secondary schooling and training. To be successful after high
school, students must be able to use a computer and navigate the internet. Utilizing technology
for implementation of the transition curriculum, though, can help students acquire these ever
changing and essential skills.
The gap is also the product of lack of time. Students are educated in their least restrictive
environment resulting in students being included in the general education classroom for the
majority of their classes. This also results in lack of room in student schedules for a transition
class that meets every day. Special education teachers, especially those in rural districts, are
teaching and co-teaching in content areas while also providing students with supports to be
successfully in the general education classroom. Student schedules and teacher obligations make
it difficult to find a common period for implementation. This results in transition curriculum
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
41
being implemented haphazardly and without fidelity. However, the utilization of an online
platform such as Google Classroom, may be the answer to this problem.
Google Classroom is an online platform that is easily accessible by students when they
have availability in their schedules. Teachers can individualize student assignments based on
student interests, needs, and learning preferences. It can be utilized in a blended format to
provide flexibility to instruction and continued teacher mentoring and guidance throughout the
transition process. Google classroom also allows for the inclusion of family members so they can
stay involved in the transition process.
It is imperative that school districts strive to implement a quality transition curriculum for
students with disabilities. Too many students are graduating from high school lacking postsecondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills that are imperative for
student success because schools are not implementing quality curriculums with fidelity. There is
a gap in research to determine if utilizing Google Classroom to implement a quality transition
curriculum will improve student acquisition of post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and
self-determination skills. Given the tools and flexibility of Google Classroom, it may be the tool
that school districts need to improve the accessibility and implementation of transition
curriculums.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to improve the post-high school outcomes of students with
disabilities. Students are graduating from high school lacking skills that are imperative for their
success (Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2009; Izzo et al., 2010; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom
et al., 2011). Studies show that students with disabilities continue to have poor post-secondary
and employment outcomes (Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2009; Izzo et al., 2010; Kreider et al.,
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42
2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Luecking & Luecking, 2015; Morningstar, 1997; 2014; Piers &
Duquette, 2016; Rabren et al., Test et al., 2009; Trainor et al., 2016). This results in students
relying on family members and services in order to have their basic needs met. As a result, high
schools must make it a priority to provide students with a quality transition curriculum.
Google Classroom might be the tool to help school districts improve the delivery and
instructional methods of providing transition curriculum to students with disabilities. By
collecting and analyzing quantitative data using a pre/posttest method, researchers hope to
determine if Google Classroom can bridge the current gaps schools face when implementing a
transition curriculum. The implications of implementing a quality transition curriculum with
fidelity for students with disabilities is paramount for improving student success after high
school. Acquisition of post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills is
essential so that after high school graduation students with disabilities can effectively interact
and contribute to their communities independently.
Research Questions
1. How does the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum affect the selfdetermination skills of students with high incidence disabilities?
2. How does the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum affect the postsecondary and career readiness skills of students with high incidence disabilities?
Need for Study
As studies have shown, students are not being provided with adequate transition
curriculum due to time constraints (Baer et al., 2003; Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2008;
Lindstrom et al., 2011; Test & Fowler, 2018). As a result, students with disabilities continue to
graduate without the skills necessary to navigate employment and post-secondary schooling.
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43
This results in students often dropping out and struggling to obtain or keep a job and ultimately
poor post-secondary and employment outcomes their whole lives (Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al.,
2009; Izzo et al., 2010; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Luecking & Luecking, 2015;
Morningstar, 1997; 2014; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rabren et al., Test et al., 2009; Trainor et al.,
2016). Students are educated in their least restrictive environment resulting in students being
included in the general education classroom for the majority of their classes and lack room in
their schedules for a daily transition class. Special education teachers, especially those in rural
districts, are teaching and co-teaching in content areas while also providing students with
supports to be successfully in the general education classroom. As a result, student schedules and
teacher obligations make it difficult to find a common period for implementation. This results in
transition curriculum being implemented haphazardly in fragments when times allows.
The goal of this quantitative research study is to determine if Google Classroom will
assist special education teachers with the implementation process. Having a curriculum built and
that will be accessible to all high school students with disabilities, will allow teachers to assign
students lessons based on their individualized needs, interests, goals, and abilities. While
students are working on modules, teachers can still continue to meet with individual students or
groups of students to provide guidance and feedback. If schools would be closed again due to
COVID-19 or for any other reason, school districts would have a platform to utilize to ensure
students still receive mandated transition services. It will also determine if the utilization of
Google Classroom has an effect on the post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and selfdetermination skills of students with disabilities. It is imperative that students with disabilities
are provided with a quality transition curriculum to ensure they acquire post-secondary
readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills to be successful after high school.
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44
Although several studies have been conducted surrounding effective transition services
for students with disabilities, no studies have been conducted to determine if utilizing Google
Classroom will improve student retention of skills. Chapter 3 will discuss in detail the
methodology that will be utilized to determine if using Google Classroom to implement
transition curriculum for students with disabilities improves students’ career readiness, postsecondary readiness, and self-determination skills. The chapter will also discuss the rating scales
being implemented and data analysis being used.
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45
Chapter 3
Methodology
In 2019, only 30.9% of individuals with disabilities between the ages of 16-64 were
employed compared to 74.6% of individuals without disabilities in the same age range (U.S.
Department of Labor, 2020). Failure to successfully complete post-secondary schooling or
training or successfully obtain employment can be attributed to inadequate transition curriculum
implementation at the high school level (Baer et al., 2003; Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2008;
Lindstrom et al., 2011; Test & Fowler, 2018). Research has shown that student acquisition of
post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills is positively correlated
to student success in post-secondary schooling and training and obtaining employment (Fullarton
& Duquette, 2015; Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al.,
2017; Test et al., 2009; Test & Fowler, 2018). Although, the law requires school districts to
implement and provide a transition curriculum for all students with disabilities, studies have
shown there is a gap in what researchers emphasize as essential components of a transition
curriculum and what school districts are implementing (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette,
2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020;
Morningstar, 1997; Trainor et al., 2016). The gap is the product of continual technological
advancements and a lack of time for curriculum implementation (Baer et al., 2003; Benz et al.,
2000; Carter et al., 2008; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Test & Fowler, 2018). However, research has
shown the utilization of technology can bridge the technological and time gaps and improve
student acquisition of secondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills to
improve student post-high school outcomes (Lee et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2019, 2020;
Wehmeyer et al., 2019).
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46
This chapter will discuss the population and sampling that was utilized for this study. The
plan of implementation is explained and includes a breakdown of lessons and activities that
comprised each module of the curriculum. The chapter also describes in detail the two rating
scales that were used and who completed them. The data analysis process is explained as well as
how site permission was obtained, how the results were presented and to whom, and the
limitations of the study.
The purpose of this quantitative study was to determine the effectiveness of using Google
Classroom to implement a transition curriculum on the post-secondary readiness, career
readiness, and self-determination skills of students with high incidence disabilities. A transition
curriculum was developed incorporating researcher emphasized essential components of a
transition curriculum including: age appropriate assessments, individualized and studentcentered planning and goal setting, career exploration, post-secondary training exploration,
employment preparations, and self-determination (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015;
Herbert et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020;
Morningstar, 1997; Trainor et al., 2016). The curriculum is student centered and emphasizes
family involvement.
The use of Google Classroom allows school districts to implement a transition curriculum
in a blended learning format. Blended learning expands the ways teachers are able to present and
provide students with transition instruction. It also creates flexibility for how students receive
and respond to instruction. Blended programs allow teachers to assign students specific modules
that align to their areas of interest and need while also providing time for teachers to mentor and
collaborate with the students (Lee et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020). The use of technology and
blended programs has also been shown to improve student engagement and accessibility of
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
47
transition curriculums (Lee et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2019, 2020; Wehmeyer et al., 2019).
Google Classroom also provides school districts with a platform to implement and provide
students with transition curriculum for distance learning to ensure transition instruction continues
to be provide even if school districts are faced with another school closure (Hooker, 2020;
Iftakhar, 2016; Rosita et al., 2020). This can be very beneficial to smaller and rural school
districts who have more limited teachers and resources (Baer et al., 2003; Test & Fowler, 2018).
Population
Research has shown that rural and small school districts struggle most to implement
transition curriculums with fidelity due to time and financial constraints (Baer et al., 2003; Test
& Fowler, 2018). As a result, a small, rural school district located in Western Pennsylvania was
chosen for this study. According to the United States Census Bureau the population of this town
was 5,272 with an average household income of $44,438 in 2019. The community was 95%
White, 1% Black, .2% American Indian, .9% Asian, 1.8% two or more races, and 1.1% Hispanic.
The poverty rate of the town was 19% (Census Quick Facts, 2019). The school district already
has a license for Google Classroom and all students in the district were issued Google email
accounts during enrollment. The study took place within the high school setting. The high school
houses student in grades seven through twelve. However, only students in grades nine through
twelve were targeted for the sampling. Grades 9-12 were chosen because they are the grade
levels when students with disabilities receive transition instruction within the school district.
Additionally, Pennsylvania law does not mandate students with disabilities have a transition plan
until age 14 which is traditionally when a student enters the ninth grade. A transition plan
outlines an individual student’s goals related to post-secondary training, employment, and
independent living. The plan also includes what activities the student will be encouraged to
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48
complete in order to help them achieve their goal such as completing job shadowing (Hadley,
2006; Morningstar, 1997; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et al.,
2019).
The sampling consisted of students in grades nine through twelve who had been
identified as having a high incidence disability. These high incidence disabilities include students
with Specific Learning Disabilities, Autism, Other Health Impairments, Emotional Disturbance,
and Intellectual Disabilities. All student participants had an active IEP and received itinerant
learning support or emotional support services. Itinerant support indicates that all students are
included in and educated in the general education classroom at least 80% of their school day with
their non-disabled peers while also receiving support from a special education teacher to assist
them with the learning and emotional needs. There are currently 51 students within the school
district that meet the study requirements. The age of the student population ranges from fourteen
to nineteen with the majority of the students being age 16. The majority of the student population
is white. See Table 1 for details.
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49
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics of Population
N
%
Female
19
37
Male
32
63
9th
13
25
10th
10
20
11th
18
35
12th
10
20
Specific Learning
31
60
Other Health Impairment
12
24
Emotionally Disturbed
2
4
Autism
3
6
Intellectual Disability
3
6
Black
2
3
White
49
97
Gender
Grade
Disability
Race
Given the age of students, the parents/guardians and participants were contacted through
email to provide information on the study and to obtain parental consent for student
participation. Parent/guardian participation was included and promoted through the use of
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parent/guardian rating scales. Upon receipt of parental consent for student participation, the
researcher met with the students to obtain their assent to participate in the study.
Sampling
Parental consent and student assent was received from 10 participants. However, only 9
of the participants completed the study. One student withdrew from the study at parental request.
The age range of the sample was 15-18. All five high incidence disabilities and all four grade
levels were represented by the sampling. The sampling was comprised of both female and male
students. See Table 2 for more details.
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Table 2
Descriptive Statistics of Sampling
N
%
Female
2
22
Male
7
78
9th
3
33
10th
3
33
11th
2
22
12th
1
11
Specific Learning
4
44
Other Health Impairment
2
22
Emotionally Disturbed
1
11
Autism
1
11
Intellectual Disability
1
11
Black
1
11
White
8
89
Gender
Grade
Disability
Race
Plan for implementation
The implementation plan is a three step process focusing on a pretest/posttest format.
However, before implementation began, permission was obtained from the superintendent to use
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the site (Appendix A). Additionally, parental consent (Appendix B), student assent (Appendix
C), and teacher consent to participate was also obtained.
The initial step of the implementation process is to gather pretest data on all student
participants. The Transition Planning Inventory-Second Edition was used to measure student
post-secondary and career readiness skills and the AIR Self-Determination Scale to measure
student self-determination skills before implementation of a transition curriculum using Google
Classroom (see the Rating Scales section below for a detailed description of each tool). The
scales were completed by a regular education teacher, special education teacher, and a
parent/guardian. Consent was obtained from both the parent/guardian and teachers to utilize the
data for the study. The results were averaged to determine the mean. Upon completion of the
surveys, the students were ready for step two of implementation.
Step two of the implementation process was to implement the transition curriculum using
Google Classroom. The transition curriculum contains five modules that include a variety of
materials and videos focusing on individualized and student-centered planning and goal setting,
career exploration, post-secondary training exploration, employment preparations, and selfdetermination.
Module One
Module one of the transition curriculum focused on self-determination. Students learned
about their rights as a student with an IEP and about section 504. They learned about the
purpose of an IEP, as well as how to become an active participant in their IEP meetings. The
teacher and students conferenced one-on-one to discuss personal disabilities, strengths,
weaknesses, accommodations, and modifications. Additionally, students participated in
instruction and watched videos that focus on asking for accommodations and modifications in
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the work place and school environment and about how to actively participant in their IEP
meetings. They also listened to a recorded presentation from a local community college about
disability services at post-secondary placements and how to access them. Students were provided
with opportunities to role play making such requests and being active participants in their IEP
meetings. Upon completion of the module, students were encouraged and guided to make
requests for accommodations within their general education classrooms. They were also
encouraged and guided to attend and be active participants in their IEP meetings.
Module Two
Module two focused on goal setting. Students learned about short term and long term
goals. Instruction was provided on how to monitor personal progress and adjust goals
accordingly. Students created a goal board electronically that was updated as they completed
more modules. The goal board focused on their personal goals related to post-secondary training,
employment, and independent living. The students shared their goal boards with their teacher
and family. They were required to write a journal entry after discussing their board with a family
member that provided information on who they talked to and reflected their family member’s
reaction and how they plan to achieve their goals.
Module Three
Module three focused on career exploration. Undecided students completed career
interest surveys to gain knowledge about careers that relate to their individual interests. Students
then read articles and watched videos relating to their careers of interest. Students compared and
contrasted their top two career choices by conducting research that focuses on the training
involved, skill sets required, average salary, career advancement opportunities, and job
placement. Students chose the career they were most interested in and created a Google Slide
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Presentation that will be shared with their family and teacher for feedback. Students were
required to complete a journal entry that focused on their family’s feedback and reflected on
their research results. The module consisted of virtual job shadowing and virtual interviews with
someone in the field of study. These experiences were done virtually due to COVID-19
restrictions. Upon completion of the job shadowing and interview experiences, students
completed reflections that focused on what they learned and what questions they still had.
Module Four
Module four focused on Post-Secondary Exploration. Students began by learning about
all of their post-secondary training options including: trade schools, technical schools,
community colleges, universities, apprenticeship programs, and the United States military.
Students watched videos and read articles about the different training options in addition to
watching a teacher created Google Slide presentation with voiceover. Students interested in the
military learned about ASVAB requirements, took practice tests, and met with recruiters
virtually. Students were also provided with opportunities to participate in virtual tours of local
community colleges, trade schools, technical schools, and apprenticeship programs. The tours
were virtual due to COVID-19 restrictions. After learning about their post-secondary options,
students began researching places that have the major of their interest. Students completed
research forms that focused on location, availability of disability services, availability of dorm
rooms or if it is within driving distance, class size, cost of tuition, placement test requirements,
school sports, and school sponsored activities. This activity helped the students learn how to
navigate the school websites. Students shared these research results with a family member and
teacher. They were required to write a reflection that focused on the reaction of their family
members and which program or school they felt would be the best fit.
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Module Five
Module five focused on employment readiness. During this module, students created a
resume and cover letter using a Google Doc template. They learned how to dress for interviews
and were provided with opportunities to participate in mock job interviews. How to find job
openings and apply for jobs was another topic of study. Students learned how to search for jobs
online and in newspapers as well as how to fill out job applications both paper and electronic.
They were provided opportunities to complete practice paper and electronic applications.
Students also received instruction on study skills and habits and time management. Students
watched videos and review Google Slide presentations focused on each skill set of the module.
The learning support teacher assigned modules for students to complete based on student
goals, progress, grade level, and needs. The teacher utilized the data they gathered from age
appropriate assessments to determine student levels and skill deficits in relation to postsecondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination. The implementation was a blended
learning process. This means that the assignments were posted onto Google Classroom but the
teachers also provided students with in-person and live virtual lessons. Teachers also continued
to meet and collaborate with the student in person or through virtual meetings. This allowed for
the teacher to continue to collaborate and mentor students throughout the learning process. All
students were assigned at least one period of academic support or resource room as part of their
IEP, either in person or virtually, which was utilized for student and teacher collaboration and
mentoring. The curriculum was implemented for one semester of school or an 18 week period of
time. Upon completion of the semester, student progress was assessed.
The final stage of the implementation process was to gather posttest data on all students
using the same initial rating scales: the Transition Planning Inventory-Second Edition and AIR
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Self-Determination Scale. The same people who completed the initial rating scale were solicited
to complete the post rating scales. The data was averaged to determine the mean and compared
to the mean obtained from the pretest data. The difference between the two means was then
analyzed using a Wilcoxon signed-rank test.
The following research questions were used to navigate this quantitative study:
1. How does the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum affect the
self-determination skills of students with high incidence disabilities?
2. How does the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum affect the
post-secondary and career readiness skills of students with high incidence
disabilities?
Rating Scales
A systematic review of literature was conducted to ensure best practice was utilized when
selecting the appropriate data collection and analysis system. The American Institutes for
Research (AIR) Self-Determination rating scale has been utilized by researchers to determine the
effects of a computer based intervention in previous quantitative studies that utilize a
pretest/posttest design (Lee et al., 2011; Wehmeyer et al., 2011). Researchers have also
previously utilized the Transition Planning Inventory to assess the effectiveness of a transition
curriculum on a student’s post-secondary and career readiness skills (Carter et al., 2009). Both
the AIR Self-Determination and Transition Planning Inventory-Second Edition are rating scales
that were utilized for this study.
Transition Planning Inventory-Second Edition
The Transition Planning Inventory-Second Edition (TPI-2) is a comprehensive
assessment tool that is designed to identify a student’s readiness to transition into a post-
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secondary schooling or employment setting. This criterion-referenced instrument can be utilized
to gather transition related information about student’s knowledge, skills, and behaviors in
eleven critical functioning domains identified in IDEA 2004. (Carter et al., 2009; Patton & Clark,
2018; Rehfeldt et al., 2012). The assessment contains 57 items linked to the eleven domains:
career choice and planning, employment knowledge and skills, further education/training,
functional communication, self-determination, independent living, personal money management,
community involvement and usage, leisure activities, health, and interpersonal relationships
(Patton & Clark, 2008). Every item the assessment contains required raters to assess the student’s
current level of competence using a six-point Liker-type scale from zero, which signifies
strongly disagree, to five which signifies strongly agree (Carter et al., 2009; Patton & Clark,
2018; Rehfeldt et al., 2012). Raters also had the options of choosing “not appropriate” if they do
not believe the item is an appropriate planning area for the student or “don’t know” if the rater
felt they do not have a sufficient knowledge base to assess a student’s level of competence in that
area (Carter et al., 2009; Patton & Clark, 2018). Multiple people can rate each student.
The TPI-2 consists of three rating forms: home, school, and student. All three versions of
the scale address the same planning areas and domains (Carter et al., 2009; Patton & Clark,
2018; Rehfeldt et al., 2012). However, the wording is altered slightly to ensure the respondent is
always reflecting on the strengths and needs of the student. Additionally the student and home
forms have a lower readability (Patton & Clark, 2008). All three forms of the assessment also
include sections requesting student demographic information and anticipated settings for Postsecondary outcomes in the areas of employment/further education or training and living
arrangements (Carter et al., 2009; Patton & Clark, 2018; Rehfeldt et al., 2012). However,
information on anticipated settings for Post-secondary outcomes was not collected for this study.
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For this study, only the home and school forms were utilized. Research has shown that
students self-rating scores are significantly higher than educator and home rating scores (Carter
et al., 2009; Rehfeldt et al., 2012). This score discrepancy can affect the reliability of the results
(Carter et al., 2009; Rehfeldt et al., 2012).
Research has found the TPI-2 to have acceptable validity (Carter et al., 2009; Patton &
Clark, 2018; Rehfeldt et al., 2012). The TPI-2 items were drawn from an extensive examination
of legislative transition guidelines articulated in IDEA 2004 as well as a review of career
development and transition literature (Carter et al., 2009). A selected panel of experts and
practitioners evaluated drafts of the assessment and provided suggested revisions to structure,
wording, and item inclusion. The panel also assessed the social validity of the overall assessment
through a pilot test that involved 227 caregivers, 329 school staff members, and 288 students
across 10 different states (Carter et al., 2009). Carter et al. (2009) also conducted exploratory
factor analyses which showed a uni-dimensional structure for each of the domains addressed in
the inventory. The variance averaged 74.5% and suggested the items for each domain shared a
significant amount of common variability (Carter et al., 2009). A content validity assessment was
also conducted during field testing that assessed the degree to which the content was ageappropriate and consistent with current knowledge in the area of transition planning through
surveys and feedback from field-test participants and the panel of experts (Patton & Clark,
2018). The majority, 87% to 94%, of the respondents indicated that the instrument was
consistent with the IEP planning process under IDEA 2004 and that it covered basic
considerations for transition planning (Patton & Clark, 2018). This assessment also possesses
acceptable reliability.
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Reliability was reported in the form of internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and
temporal stability (Rehfeldt et al., 2012). Reliability tests indicated strong internal consistency
with the average alpha equaling .85 and adequate test-retest reliability of .86 after two weeks
(Carter et al., 2009; Patton & Clark, 2018; Rehfeldt et al., 2012). Time sampling reliability
coefficients averaged across all three TPI-2 rating forms and for all eleven planning domains
ranged from .78 to .92 (Patton & Clark, 2018; Rehfeldt et al., 2012). These scores are indicative
of a good reliability for all planning areas for all raters. They also indicate that the assessment
can be utilized in a pretest/posttest format and the researchers can still obtain reliable results.
TPI-2 was utilized in a pre/posttest format to determine if a student with a high incidence
disability’s post-secondary and career readiness skills are effected by the implementation of a
transition curriculum using Google Classroom. TPI-2 is aligned with federal legislation and
consistent with current transition planning knowledge. As a result, it can also be used to provide
data driven information to assist with a student’s individualized transition planning development
but it cannot identify skill deficits (Patton & Clark, 2018; Rehfeldt et al., 2012). Special
education teachers utilized the results of the TPI-2 to drive individual module assignments for
student participants. Although, self-determination is one of the eleven domains of the TPI-2 only
nine items are devoted to the area. Given the important correlation between acquisition of selfdetermination skills and post-secondary success, a separate rating scale devoted to assessing selfdetermination was also utilized.
The American Institutes for Research Self-Determination Scale
The American Institutes for Research Self-Determination Scale (AIR) measures a
student’s capacity for and opportunity to act in a self-determined manner (Cho et al., 2017; Lee
et al., 2011; Shogren et al., 2008; Wehmeyer et al., 2011). The scale is designed to not only
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assess a student’s current level of self-determination but also identify areas of strength and need.
The information gathered from the scale can be used to identify individual IEP goals, guide
student transition instruction, and develop strategies to build a student’s self-determination
capacities and provide students with more opportunities to act in a self-determined manner (Lee
et al., 2011; Wehmeyer et al., 2011). Unlike most self-determination scales that contain only a
student rating scale, AIR contains three different rating forms (Cho et al., 2017; Lee et al., 2011;
Shogren et al., 2008; Wehmeyer et al., 2011).
AIR contains rating forms for educators, caregivers, and students to complete. The forms
are broken into two sub-categories: capacity and opportunity. Each form contains a different
number of Likert-style items ranging from one, which signifies never, to five, which signifies
always (Cho et al., 2017; Lee et al., 2011; Shogren et al., 2008; Wehmeyer et al., 2011). Capacity
and opportunity subscale scores can be calculated in addition to a self-determination score by
adding the two subscales together (Cho et al., 2017; Shogren et al., 2008).
For this study, again only the home and school forms were utilized since research has
shown that students self-rating scores are significantly higher than educator and home rating
scores. Additionally, only the capacity subscales of the AIR assessment were utilized. The
opportunity home scale requires parents to provide information based on opportunities their child
is provided at school to utilize self-determination skills. Researchers found that parents
frequently indicated they did not possess adequate knowledge to answer these questions
accurately and often left them blank (Cho et al., 2017; Shogren et al., 2008). Likewise, the
opportunity school scale requires teachers to provide information based on opportunities the
student is provided at home to utilize self-determination skills. Teachers also reported lacking
adequate knowledge to answer the questions adequately (Cho et al., 2017; Shogren et al., 2008).
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Thus, inaccurate information could be obtained if teachers and parents were to complete the
sections despite inadequate knowledge base affecting the reliability of results (Cho et al., 2017;
Shogren et al., 2008).
The AIR was developed and normed with a group of 450 teachers and their students with
and without disabilities in California and New York. All forms for the scale were found to
demonstrate adequate reliability and validity in the measurement of self-determination for
students with and without disabilities (Cho et al., 2017; Shogren et al., 2008; Wehmeyer et al.,
2011).
The AIR can be used to assess a student’s self-determination capacity. Thus it can be
utilized in a pre/posttest format to determine if a student with a high incidence disability’s selfdetermination skills are effected by the implementation of a transition curriculum using Google
Classroom. It is designed to identify a student’s strengths and needs related to self-determination.
As a result, it can also be used to provide data driven information to assist with a student’s
individualized goal setting. Special education teachers utilized the results of the AIR to drive
individual module assignments for student participants.
Three sources of data were gathered for each research question. This triangulation of the
data ensures the validity of the study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The researcher utilized the
Transition Planning Inventory-Second Edition and AIR Self-Determination Scale rating scores
for each participant from a regular education teacher, special education teacher, and a
parent/guardian. The use of three different data sources for each question fortified the results and
averted the ineffective analyses drawn from single-source studies (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Once gathered the data was averaged to determine the means and the difference was analyzed
utilizing a Wilcoxon signed-rank test.
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Data Analysis
Both the Transition Planning Inventory and AIR Self-Determination rating scales contain
Likert-type scales with ordinal responses. Long standing misinterpretation of Likert-type data
has resulted from researchers viewing the data as interval rather than ordinal even though the
distance between ratings, such as strongly agree and agree, is not equal (Bishop & Herron, 2015;
Laered Statistics, 2015). The Wilcoxon signed-rank test is the nonparametric test equivalent to
the parametric t-test. Unlike the t-test, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test does not assume normality
in the data (Laered Statistics, 2015). Thus non-parametric statistical measures and the
Wilcoxon’s Signed Rank Test are a more appropriate analysis method given the Likert-type scale
and ordinal data that was obtained from this research study.
The dependent variable, post-secondary and career readiness, was measured through
three TPI-2 rating scales: parent, special education teacher, and regular education teacher. The
scores were averaged to determine the mean. Upon completion of the 16-week implementation
of the transition curriculum utilizing Google Classroom, the three TPI rating scales were again
completed by the original raters. The scores were again averaged to determine the mean. The two
mean scores were compared to determine whether the mean score for the posttest or second
rating was higher or lower. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was run using Excel to determine
whether any difference between the means is statistically significant.
The dependent variable self-determination was measured through three AIR rating scales
(parent, special education teacher, and regular education teacher. The scores were averaged to
determine the mean. Upon completion of the 18 week implementation of the transition
curriculum utilizing Google Classroom, the three AIR rating scales were again completed by the
original raters. The scores were again averaged to determine the mean. The two mean scores
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were compared to determine whether the mean score for the posttest was higher or lower than the
pretest mean score. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was run using Excel to determine whether
any difference between the means is statistically significant.
Site Permission
Permission for the study was granted by school district superintendent. Given the school
district does not possess their own IRB, approval was obtained by the IRB at Slippery Rock
University. Participants of the study range in age of 14-19. As a result, informed assent was
obtained from all student participants and informed consent from the parents of student
participants under the age of 18.
Presentation of Results
The results of this study were utilized to further examine the initiative of improving
transition curriculum implementation at the high school. The results were provided to all
interested stakeholders including the superintendent, director of special education, building
principals, school board members, and transition coordinators.
Limitations of the study
This study is limited by sample size. The sample of this study was obtained from one
rural, Pennsylvania high school. Thus, the results may not be generalizable to other high schools
within Pennsylvania, other states, or other countries. Although, participation was solicited from
all students in grades 9-12 who fit the criteria of a high incidence learning disability, the sample
of students who agree to participate may not be representative of the student population of
students with high incident disabilities.
Another limitation to this study is it was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic. As a
result, school closures and limited in-person instruction, as a result of migration efforts, resulted
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in students participating in online learning in the home setting. Online learning may not be
conducive to student learning and progress. Students and schools staff may also experience
connectivity issues resulting in limited guidance and interactions between staff and participants.
As a result, student progress may be effected by the use of online learning in the home setting.
Summary
This study used quantitative methods to study the effects of using Google Classroom to
implement a transition curriculum on the post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and selfdetermination skills of students with high incidence disabilities. Ethical considerations were
addressed before implementation of the study through obtaining permission from the
superintendent, student participants, and parents/guardians of any participants under the age of
18. Approval for the study and all data collection tools were granted by the Slippery Rock IRB.
Two Likert-style rating scales, the Transition Planning Inventory-Second Edition and AIR SelfDetermination Rating Scale, were utilized to gather pretest and posttest data. Three raters
completed each rating scale for each student participant and the scores were averaged to
determine the mean. This triangulation of the data ensures the validity of the study. The
Wilcoxon signed-rank test was run using Excel to determine whether any difference between the
means is statistically significant. The specific results of the study will be presented in Chapter
Four.
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Chapter 4
Results
I used two rating scales, the Transition Planning Inventory Second Edition (TPI 2) and
the AIR Self-Determination rating scale to collect pre-and post-test data. These rating scales
were completed by a parent or guardian, general education teacher, and special education teacher
and then I averaged the scores. Both the Transition Planning Inventory and AIR SelfDetermination rating scales contain Likert-type scales with ordinal responses. Long standing
misinterpretation of Likert-type data has resulted from researchers viewing the data as interval
rather than ordinal even though the distance between ratings, such as strongly agree and agree, is
not equal (Bishop & Herron, 2015; Laered Statistics, 2015). Thus, non-parametric statistical
measures and the Wilcoxon’s Signed Rank Test were utilized to determine whether any
difference between the Likert-type scale and ordinal data means obtained from this research
study were statistically significant.
Chapter 4 contains multiple tables outlining the pretest and posttest data obtained for
each participant. The data is organized by the rating scale and then broken down into each rating
scale category in order to better evaluate the effectiveness of utilizing Google Classroom. In
addition to the data, an explanation of the findings and calculations will also be included within
this chapter.
I received consent and assent from ten student participants. However, one student did not
complete the study and was removed at parental request. I received consent to participate and
completed pretest and posttest rating scales from three general education teachers and two
special education teachers. Upon receipt of consent and assent, I sent pretest rating scales to a
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general education teacher, special education teacher, and parent to be completed for each
participant.
After receiving the pretest rating scales, the learning support teacher assigned modules
for students to complete based on student goals, progress, grade level, and needs. The
implementation was a blended learning process with assignments being posted onto Google
Classroom and the teachers still providing students with in-person and live virtual lessons. The
Teacher also continued to meet and collaborate with the student in person or through virtual
meetings. It should be noted that during the first five weeks of implementation the school was
still utilizing a blended virtual learning format and students would access Google Classroom
from their homes two days a week. Upon completion of the semester, student progress was
assessed by sending out the rating scales to the same teachers and parents who previously
completed the rating scales for each student. The results of the rating scales can be found in
Appendix D. To protect the identity of the participants, the name of the students will be replaced
by student 1, student 2, etc.
Results
The Wilcoxon’s Signed Rank Test was utilized to determine whether any difference
between the pretest and posttest means was statistically significant. If when subtracting the
pretest and posttest scores a zero is obtained, the individual’s score will be eliminated from the
data analysis and the sample size will be decreased. Therefore if one participate has no difference
or zero difference between their scores and there are nine participants total, the sample size will
be decreased to eight. With the Wilcoxon’s Signed Rank Test, the participants’ difference scores
are ranked or numbered in order. If two or more participants have the same difference score,
each of the tied scores was assigned the average of the tied ranks. For example if two participants
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scored a 3 which would be ranked fifth, each participant would receive the rank score 5.5. The
critical values of T for .05 level of significance for a two-tailed test was utilized for the
calculations (Gravetter & Wallnau, 2017). A Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test was completed for
each category of both rating scales. Both the Wilcoxon T-test and interpretation using the
Wilcoxon T-table were utilized to determine if each difference was statistically significant.
Self-Determination Skills
The AIR assesses individuals’ self-determination skills using two categories: knowledge
and ability. The null and alternative hypotheses for the first research question: How does the use
of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum affect the self-determination skills of
students with high incidence disabilities? are listed below.
𝐻0 : There is no difference between the pretest and posttest scores. Therefore, the use of
Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has no effect on the self-determination skills
of students with high incidence disabilities.
𝐻1 : There is a difference between the pretest and posttest scores. Therefore, the use of
Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has a positive or negative effect on the selfdetermination skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
Knowledge. Seven out of the nine students had a positive difference between their pretest
and posttest average scores (see table 3). When calculating the Wilcoxon Signed Rank the
positive sum was 42 and the negative sum was 3 resulting in a T value of 3. Given the sample
size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When the sample data produces a T
that is less than or equal to the table value, the null hypothesis is rejected. Given that the critical
value is 5 and the T value is 3, the null hypothesis is rejected and the conclusion that there is a
significant difference between the pretest and posttest can be drawn. A z-score of -2.35 was
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obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon T was performed. With the critical
values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the boundary and significant at the 0.05 level.
Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of Google Classroom to provide transition
curriculum has a positive effect on the Self-Determination knowledge skills of students with high
incidence disabilities.
Table 3
AIR Self-Determination Knowledge Results
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference
abs difference
rank abs difference
signed rank
1
19.7
19.0
-0.7
0.7
1
-1
2
20.3
23.7
3.3
3.3
5.5
5.5
3
23.0
25.0
2.0
2.0
3
3
4
16.0
18.7
2.7
2.7
4
4
5
15
14.0
-1.0
1.0
2
-2
6
17.0
24.0
7.0
7.0
9
9
7
17.7
21.3
3.7
3.7
7
7
8
22.0
25.3
3.3
3.3
5.5
5.5
9
21.0
25.0
4.0
4.0
8
8
Ability. Six out of the nine students had a positive difference between their pretest and
posttest average scores. One student had no difference between their scores (see table 4). When
calculating the Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive sum was 33 and the negative sum was 3
resulting in a T value of 3. The scores of the student with no difference were eliminated resulting
in a sample size of 8. Given the sample size of 8 the T critical value was 3 on the Wilcoxon T
Table. When the sample data produces a T that is less than or equal to the table value, the null
hypothesis is rejected. Given that the critical value is 3 and the T value is 3, the null hypothesis is
rejected and the conclusion that there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest
can be drawn. A z-score of -2.26 was obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon
T was performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the
boundary and significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of
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Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on the SelfDetermination ability skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
Table 4
AIR Self-Determination Ability Results
Student Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference abs difference
rank abs difference signed rank
1
22
21
-1
1
2
-2
2
20.3
24.3
4
4
7
7
3
24.7
28.7
4
4
7
7
4
17.3
17.3
0
0
5
17.7
18.3
0.7
0.7
1
-1
6
20.7
24
3.3
3.3
5
5
7
21.3
22.7
1.3
1.3
3
3
8
23
26
3
3
4
4
9
17.7
21.7
4
4
7
7
AIR Self-Determination Rating Scale total. Seven out of the nine students had a
positive difference between their pretest and posttest average scores (See table 5). When
calculating the Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive sum was 42 and the negative sum was 3
resulting in a T value of 3. Given the sample size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon
T Table. When the sample data produces a T that is less than or equal to the table value, the null
hypothesis is rejected. Given that the critical value is 5 and the T value is 3, the null hypothesis is
rejected and the conclusion that there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest
can be drawn. A z-score of -2.31 was obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon
T was performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the
boundary and significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of
Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on the SelfDetermination skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
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Table 5
AIR Self-Determination Rating Scale Total Results
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference
abs difference
rank abs difference
signed rank
1
41.7
40.0
-1.7
1.7
2
-2
2
40.7
48.0
7.3
3.3
4
4
3
47.7
53.7
6.0
6.0
6
6
4
33.3
36.0
2.7
2.7
3
3
5
32.7
32.3
-0.3
0.3
1
-1
6
37.7
48.0
10.3
10.3
9
9
7
39.0
44.0
5.0
5.0
5
5
8
45.0
51.3
6.3
6.3
7
7
9
38.7
46.7
8.0
8.0
8
8
Career and Post-Secondary Readiness Skills
The Transition Planning Inventory Second Edition assesses individuals’ career and postsecondary readiness skills using 11 categories: Career Choice Planning, Employment Knowledge
and Skills, Further Education/Training, Functional Communication, Self-Determination,
Independent Living, Personal Money Management, Community Involvement and Usage, Leisure
Activities, Health, and Interpersonal Relationships. The null and alternative hypotheses for the
second research question: How does the use of Google Classroom to provide transition
curriculum affect the post-secondary and career readiness skills of students with high incidence
disabilities? are listed below.
𝐻0 : There is no difference between the pretest and posttest scores. Therefore, the use of
Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has no effect on the post-secondary and
career readiness skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
𝐻1 : There is a difference between the pretest and posttest scores. Therefore, the use of
Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has a positive or negative effect on the postsecondary and career readiness skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
71
Career Choice and Planning. Eight out of the nine students had a positive difference
between their pretest and posttest average scores (See table 6). When calculating the Wilcoxon
Signed Rank the positive sum was 44 and the negative sum was 1 resulting in a test statistic (T
value) of 1. Given the sample size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When
the sample data produces a T that is less than or equal to the table value, the null hypothesis is
rejected. Given that the critical value is 5 and the T value is 1, the null hypothesis is rejected and
the conclusion that there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest can be drawn.
A z-score of -2.55 was obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon T was
performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the boundary and
significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of Google Classroom
to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on the Career Choice and Planning skills of
students with high incidence disabilities.
Table 6
TPI-2 Career Choice and Planning Results
Career Choice Planning
Student Pretest Average Posttest Average
Difference abs difference rank abs difference signed rank
1
15.7
15.3
-0.3
0.3
1
-1
2
6.7
13.0
6.3
6.3
9
9
3
11.7
16.0
4.3
4.3
6
6
4
10
15.7
5.7
5.7
8
8
5
4.3
7.3
3.0
3.0
3
3
6
14.0
17.7
3.7
3.7
4
4
7
9.3
14.7
5.3
5.3
7
7
8
15.3
18.0
2.7
2.7
2
2
Employment Knowledge and Skills. Nine out of the nine students had a positive
difference between their pretest and posttest average scores (See table 7).When calculating the
Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive sum was 48 and the negative sum was 0 resulting in a T
value of 0. Given the sample size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
72
the sample data produces a T that is less than or equal to the table value, the null hypothesis is
rejected. Given that the critical value is 5 and the T value is 0, the null hypothesis is rejected and
a conclusion can be drawn that there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest.
A z-score of -2.71 was obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon T was
performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the boundary and
significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of Google Classroom
to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on the Employment Knowledge and Skills
of students with high incidence disabilities.
Table 7
TPI-2 Employment Knowledge and Skills Results
Employment Knowledge and Skills
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference abs difference rank abs difference
signed rank
1
12
15.33
3.33
3.3
4
7
2
7.7
16.3
8.7
8.7
9
9
3
17.7
25
7.3
7.3
8
8
4
8
11.3
3.3
3.3
4
4
5
5.7
7.3
1.7
1.7
2
2
6
11.7
18.7
7
7
6.5
6.5
7
11
18
7
7
6.5
6.5
8
16.3
19.7
3.3
3.3
4
4
Further Education and Training. Nine out of the nine students had a positive
difference between their pretest and posttest average scores (see table 8). When calculating the
Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive sum was 46 and the negative sum was 0 resulting in a T
value of 0. Given the sample size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When
the sample data produces a T that is less than or equal to the table value, the null hypothesis is
rejected. Given that the critical value is 5 and the T value is 0, the null hypothesis is rejected and
a conclusion can be drawn that there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest.
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
73
A z-score of -3.13 was obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon T was
performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the boundary and
significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of Google Classroom
to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on the Further Education and Training skills
of students with high incidence disabilities.
Table 8
TPI-2 Further Education and Training
Further Education/Training
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference
abs difference rank abs difference
signed rank
1
10.7
14.7
4
4
2.5
2.5
2
4
11.7
7.7
7.7
6.5
6.5
3
10
17.7
7.7
7.7
6.5
6.5
4
5.7
7.7
2
2
1
1
5
1.7
7.7
6
6
5
5
6
5.3
14.7
9.3
9.3
9
9
7
6.3
15
8.7
8.7
8
8
8
11.7
16.3
4.7
4.7
4
4
9
9.7
13.7
4
4
3.5
3.5
Functional Communication. Eight out of the nine students had a positive difference
between their pretest and posttest average scores. One student had no difference between their
scores (See table 9). When calculating the Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive sum was 36 and
the negative sum was 0 resulting in a T value of 0. The scores of the student with no difference
were eliminated resulting in a sample size of 8. Given the sample size of 8, the T critical value
was 3 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When the sample data produces a T that is less than or equal to
the table value, the null hypothesis is rejected. Given that the critical value is 3 and the T value is
0, the null hypothesis is rejected and a conclusion can be drawn that there is a significant
difference between the pretest and posttest. A z-score of -2.56 was obtained when the normal
approximation for the Wilcoxon T was performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
74
z-score is outside of the boundary and significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be
drawn that the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on
the Functional Communication skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
Table 9
TPI-2 Functional Communication
Functional Communication
Student Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference abs difference
rank abs difference signed rank
1
14
14.7
0.7
0.7
1
1
2
16
17.3
1.3
1.3
2
2
3
16.3
19.3
3
3
7
7
4
10.3
13
2.7
2.7
5.5
5.5
5
10
14.3
4.3
4.3
8
8
6
11.7
14
2.3
2.3
4
4
7
12
14.7
2.7
2.7
5.5
5.5
8
14
14
0
0
9
13
15
2
2
3
3
Self-Determination. Nine out of the nine students had a positive difference between their
pretest and posttest average scores (See table 10). When calculating the Wilcoxon Signed Rank
the positive sum was 45 and the negative sum was 0 resulting in a T value of 0. Given the sample
size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When the sample data produces a T
that is less than or equal to the table value, the null hypothesis is rejected. Given that the critical
value is 5 and the T value is 0, the null hypothesis is rejected and a conclusion can be drawn that
there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest. A z-score of -2.67 was obtained
when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon T was performed. With the critical values of
±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the boundary and significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the
conclusion can be drawn that the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has a
positive effect on the Self-Determination skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
Table 10
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
75
TPI-2 Self-Determination
Self Determination
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference abs difference rank abs difference
signed rank
1
22
22.7
0.7
0.7
1
1
2
19.3
31.3
12
12
8
8
3
28
38.3
10.3
10.3
7
7
4
13.3
21.3
8
8
4
4
5
14.3
18.3
4
4
3
3
6
18.7
28.3
9.7
9.7
5
5
7
14.3
19.3
15
15
9
9
8
21.3
31.3
10
10
6
6
9
22.7
25
2.3
2.3
2
2
Independent Living. Eight out of the nine students had a positive difference between
their pretest and posttest average scores. One student had no difference between their scores (See
table 10).When calculating the Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive sum was 36 and the negative
sum was 0 resulting in a T value of 0. The scores of the student with no difference were
eliminated resulting in a sample size of 8. Given the sample size of 8 the T critical value was 3
on the Wilcoxon T Table. When the sample data produces a T that is less than or equal to the
table value, the null hypothesis is rejected. Given that the critical value is 5 and the T value is 0,
the null hypothesis is rejected and a conclusion can be drawn that there is a significant difference
between the pretest and posttest. A z-score of -2.57 was obtained when the normal
approximation for the Wilcoxon T was performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained
z-score is outside of the boundary and significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be
drawn that the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on
the Independent Living skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
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76
Table 11
TPI-2 Independent Living
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference
abs difference rank abs difference signed rank
1
17.0
17.0
0.0
0.0
2
18.0
23.3
5.3
5.3
6.5
6.5
3
23.0
28.0
5.0
5.0
5
5
4
11.3
16.7
5.3
5.3
6.5
6.5
5
12.7
14.0
1.3
1.3
1
1
6
18.0
22.0
4.0
4.0
3.5
3.5
7
19.0
21.0
2.0
2.0
2
2
8
22.7
26.7
4.0
4.0
3.5
3.5
9
16.7
22.7
6.0
6.0
8
8
Personal Money Management. Nine out of the nine students had a positive difference
between their pretest and posttest average scores (See table 12). When calculating the Wilcoxon
Signed Rank the positive sum was 45 and the negative sum was 0 resulting in a T value of 0.
Given the sample size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When the sample
data produces a T that is less than or equal to the table value, the null hypothesis is rejected.
Given that the critical value is 5 and the T value is 0, the null hypothesis is rejected and a
conclusion can be drawn that there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest. A
z-score of -2.67 was obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon T was
performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the boundary and
significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of Google Classroom
to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on the Personal Money Management skills
of students with high incidence disabilities.
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77
Table 12
TPI-2 Personal Money Management
Personal Money Management
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference
abs difference
rank abs difference
signed rank
1
9
11
2
2
2
2
2
8
13
5
5
5
5
3
10.7
19.3
8.7
8.7
9
9
4
3.3
10.3
7
7
8
8
5
4.7
10
5.3
5.3
6
6
6
7.3
14
6.7
6.7
7
7
7
11.3
12.3
1
1
1
1
8
12.7
16.3
3.7
3.7
4
4
9
11.7
15
3.3
3.3
3
3
Community Involvement and Usage. Eight out of the nine students had a positive
difference between their pretest and posttest average scores (See table 13). When calculating the
Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive sum was 44 and the negative sum was 1 resulting in a T
value of 1. Given the sample size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When
the sample data produces a T that is less than or equal to the table value, the null hypothesis is
rejected. Given that the critical value is 5 and the T value is 1, the null hypothesis is rejected and
the conclusion that there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest can be drawn.
A z-score of -2.59 was obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon T was
performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the boundary and
significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of Google Classroom
to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on the Community Involvement and Usage
skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
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78
Table 13
TPI-2 Community Involvement and Usage
Community Involvement and Usage
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference
abs difference
rank abs difference
signed rank
1
19
17
-2
-2
1
-1
2
11.3
22
10.7
10.7
8
8
3
21
29.3
8.3
8.3
7
7
4
9.7
16.3
6.7
6.7
6
6
5
10.7
14
3.3
3.3
2
2
6
15.3
20.7
5.3
5.3
4.5
4.5
7
10.3
22.7
12.3
12.3
9
9
8
19.3
24.7
5.3
5.3
4.5
4.5
9
20.7
24.3
3.7
3.7
3
3
Leisure Activities. Seven out of the nine students had a positive difference between their
pretest and posttest average scores. One out of the nine students had no difference between their
scores (See table 14). When calculating the Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive sum was 28 and
the negative sum was 8 resulting in a T value of 8. The scores of the student with no difference
were eliminated resulting in a sample size of 8. Given the sample size of 8 the T critical value
was 3 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When the sample data produces a T that is greater than the table
value, the null hypothesis is accepted. Given that the critical value is 3 and the T value is 8, the
null hypothesis is accepted and the conclusion that there is no significant difference between the
pretest and posttest can be drawn. A z-score of −1.51 was obtained when the normal
approximation for the Wilcoxon T was performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained
z-score is inside of the boundary and not significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be
drawn that the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has no effect on the
Leisure Activities skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
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79
Table 14
TPI-2 Leisure Activities
Leisure Activities
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference abs difference rank abs difference
signed rank
1
14
15
1
1
3
3
2
14.7
15.7
1
1
3
3
3
17.7
19.7
2
2
5
5
4
16.3
16.3
0
0
5
14.3
10
-4.3
4.3
8
-8
6
15.7
16.7
1
1
3
3
7
17.7
20
2.3
2.3
6
6
8
16
19.7
3.7
3.7
7
7
9
16.3
16.7
0.3
0.3
1
1
Health. Seven out of the nine students had a positive difference between their pretest and
posttest average scores (See table 15). When calculating the Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive
sum was 40.5 and the negative sum was 4.5 resulting in a T value of 4.5. Given the sample size
of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When the sample data produces a T that
is less than or equal to the table value, the null hypothesis is rejected. Given that the critical value
is 5 and the T value is 4.5, the null hypothesis is rejected and the conclusion that there is a
significant difference between the pretest and posttest can be drawn. A z-score of -2.16 was
obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon T was performed. With the critical
values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the boundary and significant at the 0.05 level.
Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of Google Classroom to provide transition
curriculum has a positive effect on the Health skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
80
Table 15
TPI-2 Health
Health
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference abs difference
rank abs difference
signed rank
1
17
16
-1
1
1.5
-1.5
2
19.3
22.3
3
3
5
5
3
21
25
4
4
7
7
4
12
13
1
1
1.5
1.5
5
13.7
12.3
-1.3
1.3
3
-3
6
13.3
19.7
6.3
6.3
9
9
7
14.3
19.7
5.3
5.3
8
8
8
18.7
21
2.3
2.3
4
4
9
17
20
3
3.3
6
6
Interpersonal Relationships. Eight out of the nine students had a positive difference
between their pretest and posttest average scores (See table 16). When calculating the Wilcoxon
Signed Rank the positive sum was 40 and the negative sum was 5 resulting in a T value of 5.
Given the sample size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When the sample
data produces a T that is less than or equal to the table value, the null hypothesis is rejected.
Given that the critical value is 5 and the T value is 5, the null hypothesis is rejected and the
conclusion that there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest can be drawn. A
z-score of -2.43 was obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon T was
performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the boundary and
significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of Google Classroom
to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on the Interpersonal Relationship skills of
students with high incidence disabilities.
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81
Table 16
TPI-2 Interpersonal Relationships
Interpersonal Relationships
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference
abs difference rank abs difference signed rank
1
24.3
21.3
-3
3
5
-5
2
29
29.7
0.7
0.7
1
1
3
28.7
33.7
5
5
8
8
4
18
19
1
1
2.5
2.5
5
16
18.3
2.3
2.3
4
4
6
24.3
28.7
4.3
4.3
6.5
6.5
7
16.3
23.3
7
7
9
9
8
29.3
30.3
1
1
2.5
2.5
9
24.7
29
4.3
4.3
6.5
6.5
Transition Planning Inventory Second Edition Total. Nine out of the nine students
had a positive difference between their pretest and posttest average scores (See table 17).When
calculating the Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive sum was 46 and the negative sum was 0
resulting in a T value of 0. Given the sample size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon
T Table. When the sample data produces a T that is less than or equal to the table value, the null
hypothesis is rejected. Given that the critical value is 5 and the T value is 0, the null hypothesis is
rejected and the conclusion that there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest
can be drawn. A z-score of -2.67 was obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon
T was performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the
boundary and significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of
Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on the Career and PostSecondary Readiness Skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
82
Table 17
TPI-2 Total Scores
Transition Planning Inventory II Total
Student Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference abs difference rank abs difference signed rank
1
174.7
180
5.3
5.3
1
1
2
154
215.7
61.7
61.7
7
7
3
205.7
271.3
65.7
65.7
8
8
4
118
160.7
42.7
42.7
5
5
5
108
133.7
25.7
25.7
2
2
6
155.3
215
59.7
59.7
6
6
7
142
210.7
68.7
68.7
9
9
8
197.3
238
40.7
40.7
4
4
9
185.3
220
34.7
34.7
4
4
Findings
The data from both the AIR and TPI-2 showed that Google Classroom had a statistically
significant effect on students with high incidence disabilities acquisition of career and postsecondary readiness skills and on the self-determination skills in all areas except leisure
activities. A further break down on the findings and skill sets assessed by the two rating scales
will be included and explained below.
Conclusion
The data from both rating scales revealed that utilizing Google Classroom had an overall
positive effect on the career and post-secondary readiness and self-determination skills of
students with high incidence disabilities. This positive effect has many implications on future
transition educational practices for students with disabilities. The results also have many
implications for high school special education teachers and administrators. Chapter 5 will discuss
these implications. It will also discuss limitations of the study and recommendations for future
areas of research.
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
83
CHAPTER 5
Discussion
Introduction
Chapter 5 will serve three major purposes. First, it will summarize the results and discuss
their implications for future transition curriculum implementation and their impact on special
education teachers, students with high incidence disabilities and their families, and
administrators. Next, it will discuss the limitations of the study and their possible implications.
Lastly, recommendation for future research will be discussed.
Implications
The purpose of this quantitative study was to determine the effectiveness of using Google
Classroom to implement a transition curriculum on the post-secondary readiness, career
readiness, and self-determination skills of students with high incidence disabilities. A transition
curriculum was developed and implemented incorporating researcher emphasized essential
components of a transition curriculum including: age appropriate assessments, individualized
and student-centered planning and goal setting, career exploration, post-secondary training
exploration, employment preparations, and self-determination (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton &
Duquette, 2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et
al., 2020; Morningstar, 1997; Trainor et al., 2016). Pretest and Posttest rating scales were used to
determine if the utilization of Google Classroom had any effect on the skill acquisition of the
student participants. The data from both the TPI-2 and the AIR revealed that Google Classroom
has a positive effect on the post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination
skills of students with high incidence disabilities. This means that it helped to strengthen and
improve the students’ acquisition of skills. This statistically significant improvement has several
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implications for how transition curriculums are planned and implemented in the future. It also
has implications for students with high incidence disabilities and their families, special education
teachers, and administrators.
Impact of Transition Curriculums
The statistically significant gains made by the students with high incidence disabilities in
this study on their posttests indicate that the implementation of the seven components: age
appropriate assessments, individualized and student-centered planning and goal setting, career
exploration, post-secondary training exploration, employment preparations, family engagement,
and self-determination improved their acquisition of career readiness, post-secondary readiness,
and self-determination skills. These results could be a step in the direction of identifying what
should be included in an effective transition curriculum. There are many theories regarding
effective transition curriculum and often leave educators and administrators unsure which
curriculum to purchase or what components to implement. However, the results from this study
indicate that these seven components contribute to student growth in the area of career readiness,
post-secondary readiness, and self-determination skills. Thus, these seven components should be
considered when planning and choosing future transition curriculums for students with high
incidence disabilities to continue to promote student growth and success. However, given that
students did not make a statistically significant gain in the area of leisure activities, additional
activities focusing on this skill set need to be considered when making changes to the
curriculum. It could also mean that a bigger sample size was needed in order to see a gain in the
data.
The statistically significant student improvements indicate that Google Classroom might
be the tool to help school districts improve the delivery and instructional methods of providing
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transition curriculum to students with disabilities. The data also helped the researcher determine
that Google Classroom can bridge the current gaps schools face when implementing a transition
curriculum. Google Classroom allowed the special education teachers to assign activities for the
students to complete when they had free time during their Academic Support class or study halls.
The teachers were able to provide students with feedback online as well as work with the
students on days of in-person instruction. Teachers did not have to try to assist students in their
Academic Support Class or resource room with assignments and quizzes while also trying to
provide students with transition instruction. Teachers did not have to pull students from electives
or core classes to provide transition instruction. Instead the special education teachers were able
to plan and design the activities ahead of time and then assign them according to student
progress. This allowed teachers the ability to implement quality transition lessons instead of
haphazardly implementing a lesson while also providing other students with services and
support.
Additionally, due to COVID-19, part of the school year was a hybrid learning model.
This means the students would come to school for two days of in-person instruction and the other
three days the students engaged in online learning. Without the Google Classroom transition
curriculum, the students would not have received the amount of transition instruction due to the
hybrid learning model. The special education teachers were able to post lessons for students to
complete at home that were already planned and designed. They could then set up times to do a
Google Meet to conduct mini lessons or conference with the student or wait and conference
during an in-person school day.
The implications of implementing a quality transition curriculum with fidelity for
students with disabilities is paramount for improving student success after high school. Too
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many students with high incidence disabilities are graduating unprepared and thus find
themselves relying on others to have their needs met (Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020;
Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al., 2018). With the use of Google Classroom, teachers are able to
implement a quality transition curriculum that students can access when they have time in their
schedule. It also allows teachers to individualize the content and assigned lessons to each
students individualized needs and interests. The flexibility that Google Classroom provides to
both teachers and students is a stepping stone in the right direction of improving the skill
acquisition of students with high incidence disabilities and thus their post-high school outcomes.
Impact on Students
Post-secondary and career readiness skills create the foundation that ensures students
with high incidence disabilities achieve post-secondary and employment success. This is needed
to help students secure financial stability and successfully live independently after high school
(Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al., 2018). The data
showed that the implementation of a transition curriculum using Google Classroom improved the
acquisition of this skill set which can lead to students with high incidence disabilities achieving
success in post-secondary placements and successfully obtaining and maintaining employment.
Achieving this success can result in the students not needing to rely on families or agencies for
support and therefore improving their quality of life.
Google Classroom allowed the students the flexibility to complete lessons and
assignments during their free time. They did not have to lose an elective class or be pulled from a
core class in order to participate in a transition lesson. Instead they were able to view and
complete the lessons when they had time in their school day. Google Classroom also allowed
students to receive a more individualized instruction. When provided with transition curriculum
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as a small group, the special education teachers differentiate but they are unable to fully
individualize instruction to each student individualized needs, interests, or progress. However,
Google Classroom provided teachers with this ability. If a senior was still unsure what they
wanted to do, the teacher was able to assign career interest surveys and career research
assignments to help the student begin thinking or narrowing their career choices. This flexibility
enable students to receive more transition instruction than in previous years and instruction that
was implemented in an organized and individualized manner thus resulting in the students
gaining a stronger skills set.
Google Classroom also allowed the students to share their activities and results with the
members of their family. Any assignment could be shared with a parent or guardian who has a
working email address. This allows the family members to provide feedback and stay up to date
on what the student is learning. Family members can greatly impact a student’s decision making
and thus it is important that they are involved in their transition learning (Carter et al., 2009;
Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Landmark et al., 2013; Morningstar, 1997; Piers & Duquette, 2016;
Rodriguez et al, 2017; Test and Fowler, 2018; Trainor et al., 2016; Young, 2007).
The results from the study revealed that students’ self-determination skills statistically
improved when a transition curriculum was implemented using Google Classroom. This
improved knowledge of and ability to use self-determination skills can help students with high
incidence disabilities successfully enroll in post-secondary training, possess and maintain a job,
live independently, and contribute to their communities. It can also enable the students to live
independent and not rely heavily on their families and agencies for support. This can lead to
students having a higher quality of life. Thus, it is important to continue to research and study
ways to continue to improve their outcomes.
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Impact on Special Education Teachers
The statistically significant positive results from this study reveal that Google Classroom
can assist special education teachers in future implementations of a transition curriculum for
students with high incidence disabilities. The results of this study indicate that Google Classroom
can eliminate or at the least help offset the struggle special education teachers, especially those in
rural school districts, face when implementing a transition curriculum for students with
disabilities. This is important to ensure that transition curriculums are being implemented with
fidelity to encourage and ensure student success. With Google Classroom, special education
teachers do not need a common time to implement a curriculum. Instead they can assign modules
and lessons for students to complete during their free periods. Teachers do not have to worry
about accidently skipping lessons on important skills. They all do not have to worry about not
fully covering a lesson because they are trying to not only teach the transition lesson but also
provide other students with support or help on an assignment or test. Instead the curriculum will
be present on Google Classroom to implement throughout the school year or school years
depending on how long they provide the student with transition instruction. Teachers are also
provided with the flexibility of implementing a more individualize transition curriculum to
students. Teachers can implement modules and lessons based on student need, interest, and
progress. Teachers are still able to mentor and guide students throughout the process both in
person and online through video meetings which is important during these uncertain times with
the COVID-19 pandemic.
Impact on Families
The results did determine that Google classroom did have a positive effect on the career
readiness, post-secondary readiness, and self-determination skills of students with high incidence
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disabilities. This skill set can enable students with high incidence disabilities to achieve success
after high school and therefore improve their outcomes and quality of life. Students who have
successful outcomes do not have to financially rely on others such as their families for support.
They are able to successfully live on their own and possess and maintain employment. Thus,
families are not required or obligated to financially support their children after high school.
Google Classroom also provided families the opportunity of being more involved in their
child’s learning. Studies have shown several barriers prevent families from become engaged
including time and other children (Cavendish & Conner, 2018; Landmark et al., 2013; Rodriguez
et al, 2017). Family members have work commitments or other children at home that do not
allow them to frequently attend meetings. However, Google Classroom allowed teachers and
students to include their family members in assignments, projects, and meetings. Any family
member, who had a working email, could receive a copy of student work with the sharing
feature. This allowed parents to provide feedback and stay informed on what their child was
learning. Google Meet, a feature of Google Classroom, also enabled teachers to include parents
in IEP meetings that normally would not be able to attend because of other commitments.
Google Classroom and it’s many features may be one way to improve the involvement of a
student’s family in their learning and transition process.
Impact on Administrators
Administrators are tasked with deciding which curriculum is the best curriculum to
implement in the classroom for all academics, electives, and requirements. One of these state
requirements is a transition curriculum for students with high incidence disabilities. The variety
of transition curriculum models available for schools to implement makes it a difficult decision
to make. However, the results of this study revealed that when a curriculum was implemented
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using Google Classroom that focused on the seven components: age appropriate assessments,
individualized and student-centered planning and goal setting, career exploration, post-secondary
training exploration, employment preparations, and self-determination, students made
statistically significant progress. Thus, administrators should seek to purchase or develop a
curriculum containing these components or encourage and aid their special education staff to
create or build a curriculum that contains these components.
The positive results of the study indicate that the flexibility that Google Classroom
provides to both teachers and students may be an essential part of a transition curriculum for
teachers whose job description requires them to provide additional services to students other than
just transition services. Google Classroom can help teachers balance their instructional time to
ensure all students are provided with the supports they need while also implementing an
individualized transition curriculum with fidelity. It can allow students to access the lessons
when they have time in their schedules instead of losing an elective class or being pulled form a
core class because it is the only time their special education teacher has room in their schedule to
teach transition. Thus, administrators should seek to maintain their schools contract with Google
to ensure teacher and student access to Google Classroom or seek to find a similar format that
also provides students and teachers with the same flexibility.
The positive results of this study have many implications for transition curriculums,
special education teachers, administrators, families, and special education students. The
knowledge from this study has the potential to change transition curriculums to improve and
drastically change the post-high school outcomes of students with high incidence disabilities.
However, there are limitations to the current study. As a result, future research needs conducted
to determine if the same positive results are obtained from replicated studies.
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Recommendations for further research
The current literature surrounding transition curriculums and a description of this study
were presented in chapters one and two. When constructing the literature review, a clear gap in
the literature surrounding transition curriculums was defined. At the time of its construction,
there were no studies the explored utilizing Google Classroom to implement a transition
curriculum. This present study provides the ground work for filling this gap in literature. It also
sets the framework for replication for future studies within other school districts in Pennsylvania
and nationwide.
Only nine student participants completed this study. As a result of this small size, the
sample may not be fully representative of the student population of students with disabilities.
Given this limitation, it is recommended that the study be replicated in larger school districts or
multiple school districts at one time to determine if the same or similar results are obtained with
a large participant group.
The current study utilized participants in a rural setting. Additionally, the current study
utilized participants in the state of Pennsylvania. Given these limitations, it is recommended that
the study be replicated in urban and city schools in the state of Pennsylvania as well as a variety
of school settings nationwide.
The COVID-19 Pandemic was occurring during the time of this study. As a result, the
school district in which the study took place had implemented a hybrid learning model during a
portion of the study. A hybrid learning model means that the students were in school for face-toface instruction two days a week and at home for online instruction three days a week. It is
unknown if the distractions of accessing online learning in the home had an effect on the results
of this study. Given this limitation, it is recommended that the study be replicated during a time
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when the hybrid learning model is not being utilized and all student participants are receiving
instruction in person. Additionally, this study should be replicated within a cyber-school
program.
As discussed in the literature review in chapter two, family involvement is an important
component of transition curriculums and programs. There are several features of Google
Classroom that promote family involvement. However, the focus of this study was on the
student’s skill set and not tracking family involvement. As a result, it would be beneficial to
replicate a similar study that focuses on studying family involvement to determine if utilizing
Google Classroom to implement a transition curriculum improves and encourages student’s
families to become more involved.
Conclusion
There are a variety of directions future transition curriculum research can go. The goal of
this study was to determine if using Google Classroom to implement a transition curriculum had
an effect on the post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills of
students with high incidence disabilities. The positive results of this study set a framework for
special education teachers and administrators to use in their classrooms to assist with student
growth in hopes of improving their futures and quality of life after high school. This study also
sets the framework for future research studies to determine if the same results can be obtained in
different school settings.
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APPENDIX A: SITE PERMISSION
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APPENDIX B: PARENTAL CONSENT
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APPENDIX C: STUDENT ASSENT
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APPENDIX C: TEACHER CONSENT
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APPENDIX D: TEACHER CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE
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APPENDIX D: AIR TOTAL RESULTS
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APPENDIX E: AIR TOTAL SCORES
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APPENDIX F: TPI2-TOTAL SCORES
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Effects of implementing a transition curriculum using Google Classroom on the selfdetermination, post-secondary readiness, and career readiness skills of high school
students with high incidence disabilities
_______________________
A Dissertation
Presented to
The College of Graduate and Professional Studies
Department of Special Education
Slippery Rock University
Slippery Rock, Pennsylvania
______________________
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctorate of Special Education
_______________________
by
Katie R. Williams
Proposed Graduation December 2021
Katie R. Williams, 2021
Keywords: transition, Google Classroom, self-determination, career readiness,
post-secondary readiness, high incidence disabilities
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COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Committee Chair: Jeremy Lynch, Ed. D.
Associate Professor of Special Education
Slippery Rock University
Committee Member: Toni Mild, Ed. D.
Assistant Professor of Special Education
Slippery Rock University
Committee Member: Jeffrey Keeling, Ed. D.
High School Principal
Greenville Area School District
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ABSTRACT
Students with high incidence disabilities continue to fall behind when compared to their
nondisabled peers who experience much greater post-secondary and employment success after
high school. The purpose of the study was to determine if using Google Classroom to implement
a transition curriculum would affect the career readiness, post-secondary readiness, and selfdetermination skills of students with high incidence disabilities. The literature review revealed
that there are several definitions and theories defining the components that comprise an effective
transition curriculum. Using Google Classroom transition modules were created and
implemented that focused on the components: age-appropriate assessments, individualized and
student-centered planning and goal setting, career exploration, post-secondary training
exploration, employment preparations, and self-determination. A quantitative study was designed
to determine whether utilizing Google Classroom had an effect on the self-determination, career
readiness, and post-secondary readiness skills of the student participants. Two rating scales were
utilized, and a Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to analyze the data. Utilizing Google
Classroom had an overall positive effect on the self-determination, career readiness, and postsecondary readiness skills. The transition curriculum also had a positive effect on all areas except
leisure activities. This positive effect has many implications on future transition educational
practices and post-high school outcomes for students with disabilities. This positive effect could
help students secure financial stability and successfully live independently after high school.
Keywords: transition, Google Classroom, self-determination, career readiness,
post-secondary readiness, high incidence disabilities
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DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my family. First to my loving husband who supported my
decision to pursue earning my doctorate degree and my children, Lydia and David, who were
patient while I wrote. Next I dedicate this to my mom Susie, mother-in-law Peg, and father-inlaw Bruce. Thank you for watching David and Lydia and for encouraging me along the way.
Lastly, I dedicate this to my late father, Ernie, who always asked me how my paper was going
and when I would be done.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to begin by thanking my dissertation chair, Dr. Jeremy Lynch. Every step of
the way he was there to answer my many questions and offer encouragement. I would like to
thank my committee members, Dr. Toni Mild and Dr. Jeff Keeling. I am thankful for all of the
support and time my team dedicated to helping me achieve success.
I would like to thank Slippery Rock University special education doctoral faculty. Every
one of my professors helped me to grow as an educator. I would also like to thank my fellow
students but especially Katie, Wendy, Lydia, and Kristyn for all of your support and assistance
throughout this process. I would not have completed this journey if it was not for your continued
encouragement.
Next, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to my coworkers, administrators,
students, and families at Greenville Area School District. Thank you to my coworkers for their
willingness to complete rating scales and encourage me throughout this journey. Thank you
especially to Megan, Renee, Liz, Maddie, and Tyler for all of your help and support. Thank you
also to the family members of my students who were also willing to complete rating scales and
assist with my study.
Finally a special thank you to my husband, Aaron, and entire family. Thank you for
allowing me to embark on this journey and for watching the kids so that I could do school work
or work on this study. Thank you for your continued support and encouragement. I could not
have completed this journey without it.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. iii
DEDICATION.................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................................................v
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................... vii
CHAPTER 1: Introduction ...........................................................................................................1
Background of the Study ................................................................................................................ 2
Educational Implications ...............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................................ 8
Definitions of Critical Terms ........................................................................................................ 10
Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................. 13
Career Development Therories ..................................................................................................... 15
The Importance and Benefits of Self-Determination .................................................................... 19
Transition Curriculum Components ............................................................................................. 26
Using Technology for Implementation ......................................................................................... 35
Conclusion ...................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.0
Purpose.........................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.1
Research Questions ......................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.2
Need for Study .............................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.2
CHAPTER 3: Methodology .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.5
Population ....................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.7
Sampling ......................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.9
Plan for Implementation ............................................................................................................... 51
Rating Scales ................................................................................................................................. 56
Data Anaylsis ................................................................................................................................ 62
Site Permission.............................................................................................................................. 63
Presentation of Results .................................................................................................................. 63
Limitation of Study ....................................................................................................................... 63
Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 64
CHAPTER 4: Results ..................................................................................................................65
Results ........................................................................................................................................... 66
Findings......................................................................................................................................... 82
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 82
CHAPTER 5: Discussion.............................................................................................................83
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 83
Implications................................................................................................................................... 83
Recommentations for Further Research........................................................................................ 91
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 92
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................93
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: SITE PERMISSION .......................................................................................100
APPENDIX B: PARENTAL CONSENT.................................................................................101
APPENDIX C: STUDENT ASSENT .......................................................................................104
APPENDIX D: TEACHER CONCENT ..................................................................................106
APPENDIX E: AIR TOTAL SCORES ...................................................................................109
APPENDIX F: TPI-2 TOTAL SCORES .................................................................................110
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of Population .................................................................... 49
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of Sampling ...................................................................... 51
Table 3. AIR Self-Determination Knowledge Results ..................................................... 68
Table 4. AIR Self-Determination Ability Results............................................................. 69
Table 5. AIR Self-Determination Rating Scale Total Results .......................................... 70
Table 6. TPI-2 Career Choice and Planning Results. ....................................................... 71
Table 7. TPI-2 Employment Knowledge and Skills Results ............................................ 72
Table 8. TPI-2 Further Education and Training Results. .................................................. 73
Table 9. TPI-2 Functional Communication Results ......................................................... 74
Table 10. TPI-2 Self-Determination Results. ................................................................... 75
Table 11. TPI-2 Independent Living Results. ................................................................... 76
Table 12. TPI-2 Personal Money Management Results. .................................................. 77
Table 13. TPI-2Commnity Involvement and Usage Results ............................................ 78
Table 14. TPI-2 Leisure Activities Results. ...................................................................... 79
Table 15. TPI-2 Health Results. ........................................................................................ 80
Table 16. TPI-2 Interpersonal Relationships Results. ...................................................... 81
Table 17. TPI-2 Total Scores. ........................................................................................... 82
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Post-secondary and employment outcomes for students with disabilities are lacking (Benz
et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2009; Izzo et al., 2010; Kreider et al., 2015). The overall employment
rates for individuals with disabilities continue to fall behind those without disabilities (Benz et
al., 2000; Carter et al., 2009; Izzo et al., 2010; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011;
Luecking & Luecking, 2015; Morningstar, 1997; 2014; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rabren et al.,
Test et al., 2009; Trainor et al., 2016). Additionally, students with disabilities continue to have
low success rates in post-secondary schools and training programs. Students with disabilities
continue to drop-out or fail out at high rates from secondary programs (Fullarton & Duquette,
2015; Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; Young, 2007). Thus, improvements must be made to
the delivery of transition curriculum for students with disabilities. It must be implemented
consistently and with fidelity. The curriculum needs to be engaging, student centered, and
encourage family involvement. It should be comprised of age appropriate assessments and
content as well as contain a coordinated set of activities that focuses on career exploration, postsecondary training exploration, individualized and student-centered planning and goal setting,
employment preparations, study skills lessons, self-determination, and technological skills (Benz
et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Lindstrom
et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar, 1997; Trainor et al., 2016).
This chapter will discuss the history and background of transition curriculum for students
with disabilities and the legal requirements of school districts outlined by special education laws.
The education implications of post-secondary and career readiness skills, self-determination
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skills, and family involvement for students with disabilities will also be discussed. The statement
of the problem and purpose of the study will be explained and all critical terms will be defined.
Background of the Study
Transition curriculum for students with disabilities is not a new concept. The first
transition curriculum was implemented in the 1930’s (Morningstar, 1997). However, public
schools were not mandated to provide transition curriculum for individuals with disabilities until
1990 with the reauthorization and renaming of the Education for all Handicapped Children Act
to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (Benz et al., 2000; Trainor et al., 2016;
Van Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016; Young, 2007). This mandate was instrumental in creating a
link between transition curriculum and successful post-secondary outcomes for students with
disabilities. Amendments were made to IDEA in 1997 to clearly define the role of students,
school personnel, families, and community agencies in the transition process for students with
disabilities (Benz et al., 2000; Young, 2007). IDEA 1990 and 1997 mandates also introduced the
concept of student involvement in their Individualized Education Plan (IEP) meeting whenever
transition services or plans were being discussed. This mandate was the start of students’
preferences and interests being incorporated into the transition process (Benz et al., 2000; Traitor
et al., 2016; Young, 2007).
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA 2004)
mandated changes be made to the transition curriculum for students with disabilities. High
school transition curriculums were required to address student preparation for post-secondary
schooling, employment, community participation, and independent living (Carter et al., 2008;
Lombardi et al., 2020; Trainor et al., 2016; Young, 2007). IDEA 2004 also brought about a
requirement that the IEPs of transition aged students include individualized, measurable, and
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appropriate post-secondary goals based on a student’s needs, interests, strengths, preferences,
and the results of transition assessments. It mandated the goals be related to post-secondary
training or schooling, employment, and independent living skills. The goals are required to be
implemented for the student no later than the age of 16 (Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al. 2009;
Lombardi et al., 2020; Trainor et al., 2016; Van Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016).
Then in 2015, the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) was passed in effort to improve
transition curriculum and services (Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020). This act shifted the focus of
transition curriculum and the post-secondary and employment readiness skills students were
acquiring. Prior to ESSA, students were only required to be provided curriculum that would
allow them to access post-secondary training and employment. ESSA now required students be
prepared to be successful in those settings. (Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020). In other words the
focus shifted from teaching students how to get accepted in a post-secondary program or hired at
a place of employment to also teaching them the skills necessary to succeed such as time
management and self-advocacy skills. ESSA also outlined the use of digital or blended learning
to strengthen the skills students acquired. Blended learning is practice where teachers utilize a
combination of technology based and teacher lead instruction. An even greater priority was
placed on including digital or blended learning in the special education settings. The emphasis
was to provide students with the opportunity to acquire technological skills necessary to have
post-secondary training and employment success and give all students with disabilities an equal
opportunity to acquire these skills (Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020).
These legislative decisions were stepping-stones to preparing students with disabilities to
acquire post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills necessary for
successful futures and active participation in their communities. They also brought about some
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improvements in the outcomes of students with disabilities. The first and second National
Longitudinal Transition Studies showed an improvement in the dropout rates of students with
disabilities with 17% fewer students dropping out from 1987 to 2003 (Carter et al., 2009; Izzo et
al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Trainor et al., 2016). Post-secondary education enrollment also
improved and doubled during the time between the two studies (Trainor et al., 2016). However,
despite legislative efforts, the second National Longitudinal Transition Study data showed that
the transition efforts still require attention. The study showed that two years after graduating
from high school only 44.6% of individuals with specific learning disabilities were employed
and 34.7% were enrolled in a form of post-secondary training (Carter et al., 2009; Izzo et al.,
2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Trainor et al., 2016). Even today, the most current employment
statistics show that students with disabilities struggle to find employment compared to their
nondisabled peers with only 30.9% of individuals with disabilities between the ages of 16-64
being employed compared to 74.6% of individuals without disabilities in the same age range
(U.S. Department of Labor, 2020). These statistics demonstrate the need for continued efforts to
prepare students with disabilities for life after high school.
Educational Implications
A transition curriculum is an integral part of education programming for students with
disabilities (Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al, 2009). Transition curriculums are designed to
ensure students with disabilities acquire the necessary skills and experiences needed to attain
important life outcomes after graduating from high school. Transition curriculums are designed
to provide students with disabilities the opportunity to learn a skill set focused on independent
post-secondary, employment, and living goals. The purpose of a transition curriculum is to help
students with disabilities acquire the skills they need to successfully contribute to society and
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engage in their communities after graduating from high school (Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al.,
2020; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al., 2018). There are many different definitions and theories
surrounding transition curriculums for students with disabilities, but the majority focus on the
concept of students acquiring post-secondary or career readiness skills and self-determination
skills. There is a positive correlation between the implementation of a quality transition
curriculum that includes family involvement and students acquiring post-secondary, career
readiness, and self-determination skills (Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Rodriguez et al.,
2017; Test et al., 2018). Studies have shown acquisition of this skill set as a prediction for a
positive post-secondary and employment outcome for students with disabilities (Fullarton &
Duquette, 2015; Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al.,
2017; Test et al., 2009; Test & Fowler, 2018).
Post-Secondary and Career Readiness Skills
Post-secondary and career readiness skills include the ability of a student to determine
the correct post-secondary program and career that fits their individual interest, abilities, and
needs. It requires that students possess a knowledge base of the variety of post-secondary
training and career options (Benz et al., 2000; Herbert et al., 2010; Izzo et al., 2010; Lindstrom et
al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020; Rodriguez et al, 2017). Additionally, students need to possess
study skills or the ability to take notes, work collaboratively in groups, organize information and
materials, utilize a variety of methods to prepare for exams and quizzes, and manage their time
(Kreider et al., 2015; Morningstar et al., 2017; Rodriguez et al., 2017). Employment preparation
skills including the ability to apply for a job, create a resume, dress for an interview, and
participate in an interview are essential for individuals to possess in order to obtain and secure
employment (Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020; Luecking & Luecking, 2015;
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Morningstar et al., 2017). According the Pennsylvania Department of Education (Career
Readiness Guidance, 2019, p. 3), post-secondary and career readiness skills can be defined as:
Preparations for meaningful engagement in postsecondary education, in workforce
training, in career pathways, and to be responsible, involved citizen. This involves
understanding career options in relationship to individual interests, aptitudes and skills
including the relationship between changes in society, technology, government and
economy and their effect on individuals and careers.
Post-secondary and career readiness skills create the foundation that ensure students with
high incidence disabilities achieve post-secondary and employment success and thus secure
long-term financial stability (Lindstrom et al., 2011). A high incidence disability is a disability
that is encountered most frequently within the classroom. However, the acquisition of postsecondary and career readiness skills requires students to have the ability to identify their
individual disability, strengths, and weaknesses and possess self-determination skills.
Self-Determination Skills
A considerable amount of attention has been devoted to the importance of teaching
students with high incidence disabilities self-determination skills while in high school, since the
1990s (Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016; Shogren et al., 2008; Young, 2007). Self-determination
skills encompass a variety of skills that allow students with disabilities to make decisions and
choices without the aid of family or agency support. Self-determination instruction involves
equipping students with high incidence disabilities with the knowledge and skills necessary to
make personal life decisions and the ability to exert more control over their lives (LaarhovenMyers et al., 2016; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Shogren et al., 2008; Young, 2007). The sub-skills of
self-determination include disability awareness, self-advocacy, and goal setting and decision
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making skills. Students who possess self-determination skills have the ability to make conscious
decisions and cope with the constant changes and demands of school and work environments.
They possess the ability to take ownership over their learning and to advocate for their
individualized needs and preferences. They respond appropriately to difficult situations they face
and continually set and make adjustments to personal goals (Carter et al., 2008; Hadley, 2006;
Kreider et al., 2015; Van Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016; Wehmeyer et al., 2019).
Research has shown that enabling students to acquire and exercise self-determination
skills in high school is linked to more positive education, employment, and independent living
outcomes (Lee et al., 2011). Families can significantly impact a student’s acquisition of selfdetermination, career readiness, and post-secondary readiness skills.
Family Involvement
Families play a critical role in a child’s development and often serve as role models.
Thus, family involvement is a critical component of a transition curriculum. Although the
involvement of families in the transition planning process for students with disabilities is
mandated by state legislation, family involvement is much more than attending meetings. Family
involvement includes acceptance of their child’s disability, participating in meetings, advocating
for their child, setting goals, participating in activities and assignments, and guiding their child as
they make decisions (Carter et al., 2009; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Landmark et al., 2013;
Morningstar, 1997; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Test and Fowler, 2018;
Trainor et al., 2016; Young, 2007).
Family involvement in the transition process has been linked to successful postsecondary outcomes for students with disabilities (Carter et al., 2009; Cavendish & Conner,
2018; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Landmark et al., 2013; Morningstar, 1997;
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Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Test and Fowler, 2018; Trainor et al., 2016;
Young, 2007). However, studies have also shown there needs to be a balance in how involved a
family is in the student’s transition process (Brown et al., 2016; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015;
Rodriguez et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et al., 2019; Young, 2007). Although it is important that
families advocate and set goals for their child, it is essential that, as their child gets older, these
responsibilities gradually become their child’s so they learn to successfully advocate for their
needs.
Post-secondary readiness skills, career readiness skills, self-determination skills, and
family involvement in the transition process are linked to improved quality of life for students
with disabilities after they graduate from high school (Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton & Duquette,
2015; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011 Rodriguez et al., 2017; Young, 2007). Despite
this fact, many schools struggle to implement a quality transition curriculum that focuses on this
skill set and family involvement. As a result of this, students with disabilities continue to have
poor post-secondary training, employment, and independent living outcomes.
Statement of the Problem
The overall employment rates for students with disabilities continues to lag behind those
of their peers without disabilities. This contributes to the persistently high poverty rates of
students with disabilities (Lindstrom et al., 2011). Studies have shown that students are not being
provided with adequate transition curriculum due to a variety of time constraints (Baer et al.,
2003; Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2008; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Test & Fowler, 2018).
Students are educated in their least restrictive environment. This results in students being
included in the general education classroom for the majority of their classes and lacking room in
their schedules for a daily transition class. Special education teachers, especially those in rural
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districts, are teaching and co-teaching in content areas while also providing students with
supports to be successful in the general education classroom (Baer et al., 2003; Test & Fowler,
2018). As a result, student schedules and teacher obligations make it difficult to find a common
period for implementation. This results in transition curriculum being implemented haphazardly
in fragments when time allows. Thus, students with disabilities continue to graduate without the
skills necessary to navigate employment and post-secondary schooling. This results in students
often dropping out and struggling to obtain or keep a job their entire lives (Benz et al., 2000;
Carter et al., 2009; Izzo et al., 2010; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Luecking &
Luecking, 2015; Morningstar, 1997; 2014; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rabren et al., Test et al.,
2009; Trainor et al., 2016). This can result in students being unable to financially and selfsufficiently support themselves and result in their dependence on family or public assistance
(Lindstrom et al., 2011).
The purpose of this quantitative study is to determine the effectiveness of using Google
Classroom to implement a transition curriculum on the post-secondary readiness, career
readiness, and self-determination skills of students with high incidence disabilities. A transition
curriculum will be developed incorporating research emphasized essential components of a
transition curriculum including: age appropriate assessments, individualized and studentcentered planning and goal setting, career exploration, post-secondary training exploration,
employment preparations, and self-determination (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015;
Herbert et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020;
Morningstar, 1997; Trainor et al., 2016). The curriculum will be student centered and emphasize
family involvement.
More specifically this research is designed to answer the following research questions:
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1. How does the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum affect the selfdetermination skills of students with high incidence disabilities?
2. How does the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum affect the postsecondary and career readiness skills of students with high incidence disabilities?
Google Classroom might be the tool to help school districts improve the delivery and
instructional methods of providing transition curriculum to students with disabilities. By
collecting and analyzing quantitative data using a pre/posttest method, the researcher hopes to
determine if Google Classroom can bridge the current gaps schools face when implementing a
transition curriculum. The implications of implementing a quality transition curriculum with
fidelity for students with disabilities is paramount for improving student success after high
school (Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al., 2018).
Acquisition of post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills is
essential so that after high school graduation students with disabilities can effectively interact
and contribute to their communities independently.
Definitions of Critical Terms
Blended Learning. Blending learning is a style of teaching in which students receive
instruction through a combination of technology based and teacher lead instruction.
Disability awareness. Disability awareness is the ability to identify and describe their
identified disability and knowledge of their personal strengths and weaknesses.
High Incidence Disabilities. A high incidence disability is a disability that is
encountered most frequently within the classroom and include autism spectrum disorders,
communication disorders, intellectual disabilities, specific learning disabilities, emotional or
behavioral disorders, and other health impairments such as attention deficit disorder.
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Google Classroom. Google classroom is an online platform utilized for digital learning.
It allows teachers to create and distribute curricular content such as notes, taped instruction,
activities, assignments, and assessments. The platform can also be utilized to initiate discussions
among peers and video conference.
Post-secondary and Career readiness. Post-secondary and career readiness can be
defined as the ability of a student to determine the correct post-secondary program and career
that fits their individual interest, abilities, and needs.
Self-advocacy. Self-advocacy is the ability to speak on one’s behalf to obtain personal
needs and express personal interests.
Self-determination. Self-determination is a person’s ability to make decisions and
choices relating to their quality of life that are free of influence of others and includes the subskills disability awareness, self-advocacy, and goal setting and decision making skills.
Transition Curriculum. A transition curriculum is a curriculum containing student
centered activities and lessons that align with student’s individualized needs, interests, and
abilities and focus on career exploration, post-secondary exploration, career preparations,
personal goal setting, and self-determination.
Summary
Due to the continued number of students with disabilities struggling to achieve success at
post-secondary settings and obtain and maintain employment, there is relevance for research into
a way to provide children with disabilities a quality transition curriculum that accounts for the
time constraints special education teachers’ face. Lack of success after high school can result in
students with disabilities facing years of poverty and struggling to support themselves. It is
imperative that school districts implement a quality transition curriculum with fidelity that allows
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students the ability to acquire the necessary skills to successfully complete post-secondary
schooling or training, acquire and maintain a full-time job, live independently, and successfully
contribute to society. Adults with disabilities who complete post-secondary training significantly
improve their chances of securing employment and achieving greater levels of financial
independence (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011).Utilizing Google Classroom
to provide transition curriculum in a blended format may be the solution to this very problem.
Without the research into the effect of Google Classroom on the post-secondary
readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills of students with high incidence
disabilities, the problem will still exist. Teachers will continue to struggle with implementing a
transition curriculum with fidelity and students with disabilities will continue to have poor postsecondary outcomes and face a lifetime of struggles. It is imperative that research is conducted to
see if utilizing Google Classroom to implement a transition curriculum for students with
disabilities can improve their skill acquisition.
Throughout history, the structure of an effective transition curriculum has been debated.
The debate surrounds several theories relating to career development for children and adults.
Chapter two will examine these various career development theories and the history of transition
curriculums for students with disabilities. Additionally, throughout the literature review, focus
will be on research supported components and qualities of an effective transition curriculum and
the proposed benefits of utilizing Google Classroom to implement a transition curriculum in a
blended format.
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Chapter 2
Literature Review
Transition is a critical part of a person’s lifetime. One of the most significant transitions
in a person’s life is from high school to a post-secondary school or place of employment. Thus,
transition services is an integral part of education programing for students with disabilities
(Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al, 2009). Transition services involve implementing a curriculum
designed to ensure students with disabilities acquire the necessary skills and experiences needed
to attain important life outcomes after graduating from high school. A transition curriculum is
designed to help students acquire the necessary self-determination, post-secondary readiness, and
career readiness skills for successful enrollment in post-secondary schooling or training,
employment, community participation, and independent living (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton &
Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Lee et al., 2011; McConnell et al., 2012; Morningstar, 1997;
Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al., 2009; Trainor et al., 2016; Wehmeyer et al., 2011, 2019;
Young, 2007). Transition curriculums focus on implementing student centered activities and
lessons that align with student’s individualized needs, interests, and abilities (Benz et al., 2000;
Carter et al., 2009; Cavendish & Conner, 2018; Landmark et al., 2013; McConnell et al., 2012;
Rodriguez et al, 2017; Test & Fowler, 2018; Trainor et al., 2016; Young, 2007). However, the
quantity and quality of transition curriculum students receive continues to depend on the
individual student’s state and school district (Carter et al., 2008; Lindstrom et al., 2011;
Morningstar, 1997).
This chapter will discuss the literature surrounding career development theories and how
they have evolved over the years. It will also explore the importance of self-determination skills
including the subskills disability awareness, self-advocacy, and goal setting and decision making
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14
skills. Components of effective transition curriculums will be discussed including age
appropriate assessments, individualized student centered planning and goal setting, career
exploration, and post-secondary exploration. The final component of this literature review will
discuss utilizing technology for implementation and the blended learning strategy.
There is a positive correlation between the implementation of a quality transition
curriculum and students acquiring self-determination, post-secondary readiness, and career
readiness skills (Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al.,
2018). Studies have shown acquisition of this skill set as prediction for a positive post-secondary
and employment outcome for students with disabilities (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Izzo et al.,
2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al., 2009; Test &
Fowler, 2018). Studies have also shown a positive correlation between student acquisition of
skills and family involvement.
Although family involvement at IEP meetings and transition planning meetings is
mandated by federal legislature (IDEA, 2014), family involvement is much more than attending
meetings. Family involvement includes acceptance of their child’s disability, actively
participating in meetings, advocating for their child, setting goals, participating in activities and
assignments, and providing their child with support and guidance during the decision making
process (Carter et al., 2009; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Landmark et al., 2013; Morningstar,
1997; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Test and Fowler, 2018; Trainor et al.,
2016; Young, 2007). However, studies have shown there needs to be a balance in how involved a
family is in the student’s transition process (Brown et al., 2016; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015;
Rodriguez et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et al., 2019; Young, 2007). When a family is too involved and
does not transfer any responsibility to their child, their child is at risk for developing learned
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helplessness and struggling to acquire self-determination (Brown et al., 2016; Fullarton &
Duquette, 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011). Thus it is important that schools encourage the balance
and implement a quality transition that focuses on the development of self-determination and its
subskills.
Transition services for students with disabilities is not a new concept. The first transition
curriculum was implemented in the 1930’s for students with deafness and students with hearing
impairments (Morningstar, 1997). However, the first transition curriculum for students with
disabilities that addressed employment and career education issues was not implemented until
the 1960’s (Morningstar, 1997). Even then the structure of an effective transition curriculum was
debated. The debate surrounded several theories relating to career development for children and
adults (Ginzberg, 1972; Morningstar, 1997; Savickas, 2005; Super, 1953; Wehmeyer et al.,
2019).
Career Development Theories
The development of post-secondary and employment readiness for students with
disabilities dates back to the introduction of career development theories for children and adults
without disabilities (Morningstar, 1997; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Many of the early theories
focused on ideas relating to occupational choice, vocational development, vocational adjustment,
and career development. These theories also focused on several factors affecting a child’s career
readiness development including the role of environment, education, relationships, personal
values, and psychological constructs (Super, 1953; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). These factors are
still emphasized as core elements that are considered when planning transition curriculums today
(Test et al., 2009; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Some of the early theories stated that career
aspirations are developmental in nature while others stated that career development only
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occurred during adolescence (Ginzberg, 1972; Morningstar, 1997; Super, 1953; Wehmeyer et al.,
2019). Yet other theories emphasize stages of career readiness development. One of these
theories was Super’s (1953) life span theory of career development (Morningstar, 1997; Super,
1953; Wehmeyer et al., 2019).
Super’s life span theory was one of the most significant career readiness development
theories that still impacts the field of transition today. Super (1953) proposed that career
readiness development was comprised of five predictable major life stages that began at birth and
did not end until retirement (Morningstar, 1997; Super, 1953; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Super’s
theory supports the current argument that transition curriculums should be implemented for
students with disabilities beginning in elementary school and continuing into early adulthood
(Hadley, 2006; Morningstar, 1997; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et
al., 2019). Super (1953) also theorized that career readiness development can be guided and is
affected by student interactions. These interactions deal not only with other individuals but also
with the environment and experiences (Super, 1953). This theory is still relevant today and
supports the important role both teachers and family play in a child’s career readiness
development (Baer et al., 2003; Benz et al., 2000; Cavendish & Conner, 2018; Fullarton &
Duquette, 2015; Landmark et al., 2013; Lindstrom et al., 2011). It also supports the current
argument that all students with disabilities need immersed in transition curriculum comprised of
a variety of career exploration activities (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Herbert
et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar, 1997; Trainor et al.,
2016).
Another career readiness development theory that emphasized stages was Tiedeman’s
(1961) career decision-making theory. Tiedeman’s (1961) proposed career development occurred
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in seven sequential stages that could not be skipped and were aligned to Eric Erikson’s stage
based identity development theory (Wehmeyer et al., 2019). He identified several factors that are
still emphasized in transition curriculums today including teaching students decision-making
processes. Today we refer to the decision making processes as self-determination skills. Student
acquisition of self-determination skills is necessary to guide and support career readiness
development (Tiedeman, 1961; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Just like several factors or Tiedeman’s
career readiness developmental theory are relevant today so is Ginzberg’s theory of occupational
choice.
A focus on occupational choice was the basis of the Ginzberg theory. It is often referred
to as the theory of occupational choice. It consists of four stages of development. Ginzberg
(1972) theorized that a person experienced a period of career development for about ten years.
He theorized that experience during career readiness development is important and produces
change (Ginzberg, 1972; Morningstar, 1997; Super, 1953). This theory is still present today as
several transition curriculums emphasize participation of students with disabilities in a variety of
career exploration activities. These experiences vary from: enrolling in a vocational program
during high school, participating in job shadowing experience, attending a job fair, and viewing
post-secondary programs (Baer et al., 2003; Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015;
Herbert et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez
et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et al., 2011).
Another component of the theory of occupational choice is compromise (Ginzberg, 1972;
Super, 1953). All students must make several decisions about their future by compromising
between their interests, capabilities, and opportunities (Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton & Duquette,
2015; Lee et al., 2011; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Morningstar et al., 1997; Rodriguez et al., 2017;
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Wehmeyer et al., 2019; Young, 2007). A transition curriculum should address this concept and
provide curriculum to help students develop self-determination skills necessary to navigate
(Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Morningstar, 1997;
Rodriguez et al., 2017; Young, 2007).
The existence of three periods of occupational choice is the fourth and final component
of the theory (Ginzberg, 1972; Super, 1953). It was theorized that career readiness development
begins early in an individual’s life as they fantasize about different career options. This fantasy
evolves to realistic job choice as the individual participates in a variety of career related
experiences (Morningstar, 1997; Super 1953). This also supports the present argument of
professionals in the transition field that schools need to begin providing children with transition
services in elementary school (Hadley, 2006; Morningstar, 1997; Piers & Duquette, 2016;
Rodriguez et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et al., 2019).
Career Construction theory is a more current theory that ties together Ginzberg’s theory
of occupational choice and Tiedeman’s career decision making theory (Savickas, 2005;
Wehmeyer et al., 2019). The premise of the career construction theory is that careers are built
through student interactions and experiences. It is thought that life experience affect and guide
occupational choice. The theory emphasizes that individuals make choices that relate to their
goals and their role in the work force (Savickas, 2005; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Another
component of career construction theory is career adaptability. Students should set goals, selfmonitor and self-evaluate their process, and make necessary adjustments to their goal or plan
(Izzo et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Savickas,
2005; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). This theory emphasizes the current argument that students with
disabilities need provided an opportunity to develop self-determination skills to assist with goal
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setting. It also emphasizes the need for students to be provided with a transition curriculum
containing a variety of activities focused on career and post-secondary exploration that occurs
outside of the classroom.
Super’s Life Span Theory, Tiedman’s career decision-making theory, Ginzberg theory of
occupational choice, and Savickas theory of career construction recognize and emphasize that
career readiness is a developmental process (Savickas, 2005; Super, 1953; Morningstar, 1997;
Wehmeyer et al., 2019). They also emphasize the need for student immersion in activities that
focus on student exploration of careers and post-secondary training (Savickas, 2005; Super,
1953; Morningstar, 1997; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). These theories call for a life planning and
construction perspective. Through transition lessons and guidance of family and school
personnel, students should begin planning their lives and constructing goals for after graduating
from high school. These theories of career development remain a reference for conceptualizing
the efforts of a transition curriculum to promote the move of students with disabilities to postsecondary education, employment, and independent living. One concept these theories promote
to help students achieve success with this move is the inclusion of self-determination in a
transition curriculum.
The Importance and Benefits of Self-Determination Skills
Active participation in personal IEP meetings improves the outcomes of individuals with
disabilities in post-secondary schooling, employment, and independent living (Lee et al., 2011;
Van Laarhoven-Myers, 2016; Young, 2007). However, active participation requires the student
possesses self-determination skills (Lee et al., 2011). IDEA requires that individuals with
disabilities be invited to attend their IEP meetings beginning at the age of 16 (Lee et al., 2011).
However, studies have shown that an invite and attendance does not mean that individuals are
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active participants and that the majority report lacking knowledge related to how to participate in
their IEP meetings (Lee et al., 2011; Young, 2007). Studies have even shown that some
individuals lack knowledge relating to what an IEP is and how it relates to their lives (Hadley,
2006; Young, 2007). Therefore it is imperative that students be provided direct instruction to
improve their self-determination skills.
The development of self-determination skills is critical for students with disabilities. The
skill set allows students to fully participate in their post-secondary training, places of
employment, and community. Individuals who are self-determined take charge and make things
happen in their own lives. Self-determined individuals take ownership of their learning and
engage, initiate, and make adjustments when faced with trials (Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton &
Duquette, 2015; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al.,
2017; Young, 2007; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Research has shown a positive correlation between
students possessing self-determination skills and positive post-secondary, employment, and
independent living outcomes (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Lee
et al., 2011; McConnell et al., 2012; Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al., 2009;
Trainor et al., 2016; Van Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016; Wehmeyer et al., 2011, 2019; Young,
2007). However despite these positive correlations, many school districts do not provide students
with support, instruction, or IEP goals that promote self-determination skills (Carter et al., 2009;
Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; Lee et al., 2011; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Young, 2007). Selfdetermination skills encompass a variety of skills that allow students with disabilities to make
decisions and choices without the aid of family or agency support. Subskills of selfdetermination include: disability awareness, self-advocacy, choice making and goal setting skills
(Carter et al., 2008; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Young, 2007).
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Disability Awareness Skills
Disability awareness can be defined as individuals having the ability to identify and
describe their identified disability (Kreider et al., 2015; Piers & Duquette, 2016). Understanding
one’s disability provides the foundation for all transition skills (Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton &
Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; McConnell et al., 2012; Piers & Duquette,
2016; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Students possessing disability awareness skills are aware of their
disability but they do not let it define who they are. They possess knowledge of their strengths
and weaknesses. They know how it affects the way they learn and what accommodations they
need to be successful. They should be able to explain their disability to others and ways different
accommodations help them achieve success in the classroom, work environment, and
community. Students should be provided with guided practice starting at an early age to gain
critical self-advocacy and self-awareness skills (Kreider et al., 2015; Morningstar, 1997; Piers &
Duquette, 2016). However, studies have shown that the majority of graduating seniors with
disabilities do not have disability awareness skills (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Kreider et al,
2015; Young, 2007).
Disability awareness should also include instruction relating to their IEP. In order to be
active members in their IEP meetings, students must first understand the importance and purpose
of the document and meeting. Students must also understand their rights and role associated with
the IEP document and meeting (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Kreider et al., 2015; Young, 2007).
Possessing this knowledge allows students to be active participants and allows students to take
ownership over their learning.
A student’s family plays a critical role in the development of a student’s disability
awareness skills. Research has shown when families speak openly with their student about their
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disability soon after identification, students develop a better understanding and knowledge base
of their disability (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Kreider et al., 2015; McConnell et al., 2012;
Piers & Duquette, 2016). Students develop an authentic understanding of their abilities as a
learner and employee. They are able to accept their disability with the support of their family
(Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Piers & Duquette, 2016). However, when families do not accept
their child’s identification, it can leave the child uneducated and unaware. These children lack an
important knowledge base they need in order to request later services and accommodations to be
successful. It can often leave students confused and in denial of possessing a need for assistance
(Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Piers & Duquette, 2016). Students must possess an understanding
of their disability symptoms and have a positive self-perception in order to set attainable goals
and courses of action for their lives (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Kreider et
al., 2015; Piers & Duquette, 2016). Lacking these qualities can result in a student’s decision to
set unrealistic goals or not to pursue required supports for success.
Self-Advocacy Skills
Self-Advocacy skills can be defined as the ability of an individual to request services and
accommodations to meet their individual needs (Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015;
Hadley, 2006). Self-advocacy builds upon the individuals’ disability awareness skills. It is
essential that individuals with disabilities are able to identify their disability and prescribed
accommodations in order to properly advocate for themselves (Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton &
Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011; McConnell et al.,
2012; Morningstar et al., 2017; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Young, 2007).
Studies show that individuals with disabilities should begin advocating for their accommodations
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in high school while special education teachers still have the ability to provide them with support
(Carter et al., 2008; Kreider et al., 2015).
Under the Americans with Disabilities Act and Section 504, individuals with disabilities
are entitled to be provided with reasonable accommodations at their post-secondary school
(Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015). However the students are responsible for establishing a
relationship with the disability services office and requesting accommodations from professors
or instructors (Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; Piers & Duquette, 2016). Family members and
disability service staff members do not have the ability to make accommodation requests
(Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; Piers & Duquette, 2016). Students lacking self-advocacy
skills often leads to poor post-high outcomes for students with disabilities (Kreider et al., 2015;
Morningstar, 1997; Young, 2007). Students must possess the ability to self-advocate for
accommodations in the work place, school, and the community in order to achieve success
(Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom
et al., 2011; McConnell et al., 2012; Morningstar et al., 2017; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez
et al., 2017; Young, 2007). As a result, it is imperative that individuals have the ability to selfadvocate when they graduate from high school
Families of students with disabilities and teachers play an important role in the
development of self-advocacy skills. Students who are encouraged by their families and teachers
to begin advocating for accommodations, modifications, and services in high school, are more
inclined to be successful in post-secondary placements and employment. This presents an
opportunity for special education teachers to mentor and support students in the development of
self-advocacy skills (Carter et al., 2008; Kreider et al., 2015). However, there needs to be a
balance between how involved a family is in the student’s transition process (Brown et al., 2016;
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24
Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et al., 2019; Young, 2007).
Students, whose parents and teachers do not work to shift responsibilities to the student and
instead continue to advocate for their services and accommodations, are not provided with
opportunities to self-advocate for themselves before post-secondary training. These students
often report feeling uncomfortable or unable to make such requests and often are unsuccessful at
post-secondary schools as a result. This is partly due to the fact that some students acquire
learned helplessness (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; Young,
2007). Learned helplessness is the belief that one is incapable of completing the task or tasks at
hand (Brown et al., 2016). Thus, students possessing learned helplessness do not believe they are
capable of advocating for accommodations they require to achieve success. They may also
believe they are incapable of making any decisions about their future or setting appropriate
goals. (Brown et al., 2016; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011). Therefore it is
important that teachers encourage the shift of responsibilities to students to help them acquire
self-advocacy skills. It is also important that they provide students with disabilities with
instruction focusing on goal setting and decision making skills.
Goals Setting and Decision Making
Goal setting and decision making skills builds upon a student’s disability awareness.
Students must possess knowledge relating to their strengths and weaknesses in order to set
appropriate goals and make important decisions. Researchers emphasize the best way to improve
a student’s goal setting and decision making skills is for students to actively participate and take
ownership of their transition planning and learning (Rodriguez et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et al.,
2019; Young, 2007). However, a student’s goals should start broad and become more specific as
students complete transition activities such as career and post-secondary training exploration
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(Izzo et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al., 2017). Goal
setting in high school allows students to set goals and benchmarks under the guidance of their
teachers and family.
Families and teachers can impact a student’s goal setting and decision making skills.
When families have high expectations for students and participate in their IEP meetings, students
with disabilities are more inclined to set high standards for themselves. Students are more
inclined to set goals that will require diligence to achieve but are not unattainable (Fullarton &
Duquette, 2015; Rabren et al., 2014). However, when families are absent and make no effort to
participate in the IEP meeting or transition process, it is imperative that teachers fill that void.
Teachers must serve as mentors for their students. It is their job to set high standards for all
students and serve as a guide throughout the exploration and planning process (Baer et al., 2003;
Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Rabren et al., 2014).
Researchers have shown a positive correlation between students being provided
opportunities to make personal decisions in high school and positive post-high school outcomes
(Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015). Students need to be provided with
opportunities to make decisions that result in success and failure while they are still in high
school. However, all too often family members and teachers take this ability and responsibility
away from students. One way teachers and schools can help students develop and strengthen
their decision making skills is providing students an opportunity to plan their high school course
schedules (Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015). High schools offer a plethora of
course options for students to choose from. Therefore, students are provided an opportunity to
use their disability awareness, goal setting, and decision making skills to plan their schedule
while being guided by school personnel and family (Carter et al., 2008; Fullarton & Duquette,
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2015). Students enrolling in post-secondary training will be required to make similar decisions
but independently.
Students must arrive at their place of employment, post-secondary school, or training
facility determined; aware of their disabilities, strengths, and weaknesses; and able to advocate
effectively for the supports and services they need to be successful. Students must be able to set,
adjust, and complete appropriate goals. They must also have the ability to make decisions and
possess problem solving skills. Research confirms that students possessing these selfdetermination skills have positive life outcomes (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015;
Hadley, 2006; Lee et al., 2011; McConnell et al., 2012; Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al.,
2017; Test et al., 2009; Trainor et al., 2016; Van Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016; Wehmeyer et al.,
2011, 2019; Young, 2007). They are able to be successfully enrolled in post-secondary training,
possess and maintain a job, live independently, and contribute to their communities. They
possess the skills to be independent and not rely heavily on their families and agencies for
support. However, researchers argue that a transition curriculum should be designed to help
students acquire post-secondary and career readiness skills in addition to self-determination
skills (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020;
Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar, 1997; Trainor et al., 2016).
Transition Curriculum Components
Post-secondary and career readiness skills are a common theme for transition curriculums
for students with disabilities. However, this term continues to be vaguely defined. Many efforts
to adapt and change transition curriculums do not converge. Instead they occur separately and in
isolation resulting in contradictory results (Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar et al., 2017). For
example, schools often develop transition programs, social-emotional support services, and
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behavior interventions for students separately instead of converging them to create a program
that would prepare students with disabilities for a successful post-high school outcome
(Lombardi et al., 2020; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Changes and adaptations to career readiness
development theories that exist appear to still need attention as technological advancements
continue to radically change work environments and the skill set required to achieve success
(Morningstar et al., 2017; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). The vague definition of an effective transition
curriculum and the variety of career readiness development theories in existence has resulted in a
variety of transition curriculum models that schools all over the United States are implementing.
It has also left many in the transition field continuing to strive to determine what components
encompass an effective transition curriculum (Benz et al., 2000; Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020;
Morningstar, 1997; Super, 1953; Test et al., 2009; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Despite this,
researchers have emphasized several components a quality transition curriculum should contain
to assist students to acquire essential post-secondary and career readiness skills. The components
emphasized by the researchers include: (a) age appropriate assessments, (b) individualized and
student-centered planning and goal setting, (c) career exploration, (d) post-secondary training
exploration, and (e) employment preparations (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015;
Herbert et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020;
Morningstar, 1997; Trainor et al., 2016).
Age Appropriate Assessments
Age appropriate assessments are central to the transition of students with disabilities. Not
only are they required under IDEA 2004, but they provide teachers, family members, and the
student (team members) with pertinent information related to student abilities and interests (Benz
et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2009; Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Herbert et al., 2010;
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Rodriguez et al., 2017; Trainor et al., 2016; Van Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016). There are many
different styles of transition assessments that can be implemented. However, all students with
disabilities should be assessed with a comprehensive assessment to provide the team members
with information relating to the student’s academic grade levels such as reading comprehension,
fluency, math computation, etc. (Carter et al., 2009; Herbert et al., 2010). This enables the team
to determine areas of strength and need for the student. Researchers have found students with
disabilities, who are aware of their personal strengths and needs, are more likely to successfully
participate in post-secondary training and employment (Izzo et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011;
Kreider et al., 2015; McConnell et al., 2012). Knowing a student’s strengths and needs allows
the team to determine extra supports and services the student should receive during and after
high school (Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2009; Herbert et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011;
McConnell et al., 2012; Rodriguez et al., 2017).
All undecided students should be administered an age appropriate career interest
inventory (Morningstar, 1997; Herbert et al., 2010; Izzo et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011;
Lombardi et al., 2020). Career interest inventories align student personalities and interests to
different careers and majors (Herbert et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020). The results of this
assessment can help students focus their career exploration activities. They can also serve as a
guide for helping the teacher and team members assign appropriate transition activities for the
student (Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2009; Herbert et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011;
Lombardi et al., 2020).
Individualized and Student-Centered Planning and Goal Setting
All transition plans for students with disabilities should be individualized and studentcentered. Individualized plans can be defined as plans that align to the individual student’s
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interests, post-secondary goals, career goals, strengths, and needs (Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al.,
2009; Cavendish & Conner, 2018; Landmark et al., 2013; McConnell et al., 2012; Rodriguez et
al, 2017; Test & Fowler, 2018; Trainor et al., 2016; Young, 2007). The team should utilize the
information gathered through the assessments to create a student’s transition plan or map. IDEA
2004 mandates that the IEPs of transition aged students include individualized, measurable and
appropriate post-secondary goals. All students need an IEP related to post-secondary
training/schooling, employment, and independent living. They are mandated to be included in
the IEP no later than the age of 16 (Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al. 2009; Lee et al., 2011;
Lombardi et al., 2020; Trainor et al., 2016; Van Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016). Researchers
argue that this is not soon enough for students with disabilities to have a transition plan in place.
With some students graduating at age 17, researchers feel that transition goals and services
should begin before high school (Hadley, 2006; Lee et al., 2011; Morningstar, 1997; Piers &
Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). In the state of Pennsylvania, the
goals must be included in the students’ IEPs no later than age 14 (Herbert et al., 2010).
Emphasis should be placed on the student being an active member and participant of the
team. Student participation in the planning and goal setting process improves the post-high
school outcomes of students with disabilities (Benz et al., 2000; Izzo et al., 2010; Lee et al.,
2011; Lombardi et al., 2017; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Trainor et al., 2016; Van Laarhoven-Myers
et al., 2016). However, studies have shown that schools frequently fail to include the students in
the planning process (Lee et al., 2011; Rodriguez et al., 2007; Van Laarhoven-Myers et al.,
2016). Despite legislature mandates, students frequently do no attend their IEP meetings (Lee et
al., 2011; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Van Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016). This often leads to generic
and sometimes inappropriate transition goals being set for students (Lee et al., 2011; Rodriguez
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et al., 2017; Van Laarhoven-Myers et al., 2016; Young, 2007). This is alarming given there
continues to be disappointing post-secondary and employment outcomes for students with
disabilities.
Career Exploration
Career exploration activities allow students to begin developing and strengthening their
career readiness skills. Students with disabilities should be encouraged to research and explore
careers of interest or careers determined by interest surveys (Baer et al., 2003; Benz et al., 2000;
Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020;
Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et al., 2011, 2019). However, teachers
should guide the exploration process or career guidance systems should be used to help students
focus their research (Herbert et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020;
Morningstar, 1997). Students should be encouraged to not only research but also compare and
contrast different careers of interest. Career exploration activities are important because studies
have shown that individuals lacking career choice have a more difficult time acquiring and
maintaining a job after graduation (Carter et al., 2008; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Morningstar,
1997). However, families should be involved and included in the career exploration process.
Families play a critical role in career exploration (Landmark et al., 2003; Morningstar,
1997). Family members serve as role models for students and students often aspire to pursue the
careers of family members they are close with. Students are more inclined to be interested in a
career of a parent or grandparent because it is familiar. Researchers have shown that family
involvement and emphasis placed on the careers of family members, improves the development
of student career goals (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Landmark et al., 2013; Morningstar, 1997).
However, transition programs lacking family involvement outside of participation in IEP
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31
meetings have a negative effect on the career readiness development of students (Landmark et
al., 2013; Morningstar, 1997). Family involvement does not require face-to-face interactions
(Cavendish & Conner, 2018; Landmark et al., 2013). Simple ways to increase family members’
involvement in the transition curriculum is the inclusion of assignments involving family
interviews or sharing student exploration activities with family members (Cavendish & Conner,
2018; Landmark et al., 2013). Topics of the family interviews can include family careers, family
reactions to career interest survey results, and family input in regards to career exploration
activities. Career exploration does not only include activities in the classroom but should also
include activities in the student’s community.
Career exploration must go beyond research and beyond the classroom walls (Baer et al.,
2003; Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011;
Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Trainor et al., 2016). Career research should also
include activities that allow the students to build connections within the field. Such activities can
include job shadowing, work based learning, career fairs, paid work experience in field of
interest, and participation in a high school vocational learning program (Benz et al., 2000;
Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Luecking & Luecking,
2015; McConnell et al., 2012; Rodriguez et al., 2017). There is a correlation between students
building connections within the field through the development of career readiness skills and
improved post-secondary and employment outcomes (Lindstrom et al., 2011; Luecking &
Luecking, 2015; McConnell et al., 2012). However, individuals need to complete career
exploration activities and job shadowing experiences in fields of interest, before enrolling in a
vocational program (Lindstrom et al., 2011; Morningstar, 1997; Rabren et al., 2014). Studies
have shown that the majority of individuals graduating from high school vocational programs are
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obtaining jobs in different fields than their certifications (Lindstrom et al., 2011; Morningstar,
1997). This may have been prevented, if students were provided an opportunity to explore and
experience the work environment before enrolling in the high school vocational program.
Students should also be provided with an opportunity to complete post-secondary training
exploration before enrolling in a program.
Post-Secondary Training Exploration
Post-secondary exploration allows students to develop and strengthen their postsecondary readiness skills. Post-secondary training exploration first involves students
researching, comparing, and contrasting their post-secondary options including universities,
colleges, community colleges, trade schools, technical schools, and apprenticeship programs.
Teachers should guide student research to ensure they consider several factors including not only
their desired major but also cost of tuition, availability of disability services, availability of
housing, and feasible commuting distance (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Izzo et al., 2010;
Lombardi et al., 2020; Rodriguez et al., 2017).
By researching the post-secondary schools, students not only acquire pertinent
information about the school, but they also learn to navigate the school website. Navigating a
post-secondary schools’ website is a necessity today. The school website is utilized for
scheduling classes, accessing transcripts, contacting student services, paying tuition bills, etc.
(Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar et al., 2017).
Obtaining information about disability services offered at the post-secondary school is
also imperative for students with disabilities. Several studies have shown students dropping or
failing out of post-secondary placements due to lack of services or services they require to be
successful (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; Young, 2007). Post-
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
33
secondary exploration should also include activities focusing on filling out post-secondary and
scholarship applications, financial aid, and practice writing essays (Herbert et al., 2010; Izzo et
al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar et al., 2017). This enables teachers to help students
jump start their progress towards achieving their post-secondary goals.
Post-secondary exploration also goes beyond the school building (Fullarton & Duquette,
2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Trainor et al., 2016).
Activities allowing the students to build connections within the post-secondary campus are
critical and strengthen a student’s post-secondary readiness skills. Such activities include field
trips to tour the post-secondary campus or training facility, college fairs, trade fairs, opportunities
to attend classes, opportunities to interact with current students and school staff, attending open
houses, and opportunities to interact with coaches and players if a high school athlete (Fullarton
& Duquette, 2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Trainor et
al., 2016). Poor post-secondary outcomes occur when students are not provided with
opportunities to interact with and explore their post-secondary school before enrolling in classes
(Lindstrom et al., 2011; Rodriguez et al., 2017). The lack of opportunity leads to underdeveloped
post-secondary readiness skills leading to students dropping out. Students reported lack of
disability services and feeling overwhelmed by the class sizes and campus size as reasons for
dropping out (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Kreider et al., 2015; Young, 2007).
Employment Preparations
Employment preparations are an important part of a transition curriculum for students
with disabilities (Baer et al., 2003; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Izzo et al.,
2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020; Luecking & Luecking, 2015; Morningstar et
al., 2017; Rodriguez et al, 2017). Employment preparations assist with the development of a
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34
student’s career readiness skills and are essential for all students to learn. Employment
preparations can be defined as a skill set individuals learn to assist with the process of acquiring
employment. They are skills individuals must possess to gain employment. Employment
preparations include learning how to create a resume, writing a cover letter, learning how to load
or create a resume online, learning how to search for jobs in a newspaper and online, learning
how to fill out paper and electronic applications, and learning interview etiquette (Izzo et al.,
2010; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020; Luecking & Luecking, 2015;
Morningstar et al., 2017). Studies have shown that participation in multiple mock job interviews
that require professional dress improves employment outcomes (Lindstrom et al., 2011;
Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020; Luecking & Luecking, 2015; Morningstar et al., 2017). There is a
positive correlation between students who acquire employment in high school and increased
career readiness skills leading to successful post-secondary and employment outcomes
(Lindstrom et al., 2011; Luecking & Luecking, 2015; McConnell et al., 2012).
Employment preparations also include study skills which are important for the
development of both post-secondary and career readiness skills. Study skills include note-taking,
working collaboratively in groups, organizational skills, study habits, and time management
skills. Studies have shown that students entering the work force or post-secondary training after
high school also benefit from the ability to prioritize their time (Kreider et al., 2015; Morningstar
et al., 2017; Rodriguez et al., 2017). Students with disabilities have reported spending more time
than their non-disabled peers studying and completing work (Fullarton & Duquette, 2015;
Kreider et al., 2015). As a result, it is important that the students are able to schedule their time
accordingly. It is also important that they are organized in order to meet important deadlines.
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35
Age appropriate assessments, individualized and student-centered planning and goal
setting, career exploration, post-secondary training exploration, and employment preparations,
are all essential components of a quality transition curriculum for students with disabilities. A
quality transition curriculum assists students in acquiring the post-secondary and career readiness
skills needed for students to be successful after high school. However, given the requirement for
students with disabilities to be educated in their least restrictive environment, schools are
struggling to find time to implement a transition curriculum with fidelity resulting in students
lacking post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills. It raises the
question of when, where, and how are educators to provide students with transition services in
order to promote development of the skill set students need to be successful after high school
(Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2008; Lindstrom et al., 2011).
Utilizing Technology for Implementation
IDEA 2004 and No Child Left Behind of 2001 require that schools educate students in
their least restrictive environments (Carter et al., 2008; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). They also
require that students access the same rigorous curriculum as their nondisabled peers (Carter et
al., 2008; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). This emphasis on students accessing the general curriculum
as frequently as appropriate leaves several school districts struggling to find time to implement a
transition curriculum with fidelity. The schedules of students are full of core classes and
electives in the general education classroom making it difficult to find a common period for a
transition class (Carter et al., 2008; Test & Fowler, 2018; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Teachers in
small and rural districts often teach or co-teach core subjects in addition to serving as the districts
transition coordinator for students with disabilities (Baer et al., 2003; Test & Fowler, 2018).
Using technology for implementation can improve student acquisition of post-secondary
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36
readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills (Lee et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2019,
2020; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). So could the use of technology be the answer for finding time to
implement a transition curriculum with fidelity?
ESSA 2015 outlines the use of digital or blended learning for the implementation of a
transition curriculum (Lombardi et al., 2019, 2020). It calls for school districts to utilize
technology to strengthen student learning and acquisition of skills (Lombardi et al., 2019, 2020).
This includes using word processing programs, web-based program, computer based
assessments, and web-based search engines. The use of technology and blended learning expands
the ways teachers are able to present and provide students with transition instruction. It creates
flexibility for how students receive and respond to instruction. Blended programs allow teachers
to assign students specific modules that align to their areas of interest and need while also
providing time for teachers to mentor and collaborate with the students (Lee et al., 2011;
Lombardi et al., 2020). This flexibility can account for the issue of time that many special
education teachers face when trying to implement a transition curriculum with fidelity. Teachers
can assign work for students to complete during a convenient time for the individual students.
Teachers can then meet with students at mutually convenient times to discuss the completed
assignments and for students to receive guidance and input. However, flexibility is not the only
benefit of a blended program.
Blended programs allow teachers to include families in the transition process. Several
online platforms, including Google Classroom, allow teachers to add family members as
collaborators (Iftakhar, 2016; Rosita et al., 2020). This enables families to provide input and
guidance and stay connected with their child’s transition process. Studies have shown that family
involvement improves the career readiness skills of students with disabilities (Carter et al., 2009;
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
37
Cavendish & Conner, 2018; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Hadley, 2006; Landmark et al., 2013;
Morningstar, 1997; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Test and Fowler, 2018;
Trainor et al., 2016; Young, 2007). The use of technology has also been shown to improve
student engagement with and accessibility of a transition curriculum (Lee et al., 2011; Lombardi
et al., 2019, 2020; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Students acquire more skills when they are engaged
and interact with the curriculum.
Technological advancements continue to radically change work environments and the
skill set required to achieve success (Iftakhar, 2016; Izzo et al., 2010; Lee et al., 2011; Lombardi
et al., 2017, 2020; Morningstar et al., 2017; Rosita et al., 2020; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Students
with disabilities enrolling in post-secondary training or schools must now be able to navigate a
computer and websites to complete classwork, access class materials, schedule courses, and in
some instances complete assessments and turn in assignments. Students also must be able to
extract information from online sources (Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020). Many places of
employment now require that students are able to navigate a computer and the internet. In several
instances, to apply for a job or post-secondary training or schooling, students must have the
ability to access and complete applications on online (Izzo et al., 2010; Lee et al., 2011;
Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020). However, the utilization of technology for transition instruction,
improves a student’s technological skills (Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020; Lee et
al., 2011). Lacking technological skills can negatively impact students. It can result, in low wage
jobs, post-secondary school failure, and limited opportunities for career advancements
(Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020).
The utilization of technology for the implementation of a transition curriculum has shown
to not only improve a student’s technological skills but also their self-determination, career
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
38
readiness, and reading comprehension skills (Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2017, 2020; Lee
et al., 2011; Wehmeyer et al., 2011). Several researchers utilized a technology-based transition
curriculum, Envision IT, which was created by Ohio State University. This program requires
students to complete assignments on the computer using an online platform entitled Schoology,
Microsoft Office, and web-based search engines. Envision IT covers several transition
components including career exploration, career preparation, goal setting, and self-determination
skills (Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020). Researchers found a significant gain in students
with disabilities self-reported career readiness scores (Lombardi et al., 2020). Researchers also
reported increased transition knowledge in the areas of goal setting, finding jobs, and finding
information about colleges (Lombardi et al., 2017). Other researchers found improved student
self-determination scores (Lee et al., 2011). This shows that the use of an online platform, word
processing and presentation software, and web-based search engines to implement a transition
curriculum can improve students’ post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and selfdetermination skills. So, would other online platforms result in the same success for students?
Utilizing Google Classroom
Google Classroom is an online platform that is free for schools and nonprofit institutions
to use (Iftakhar, 2016; Rosita et al., 2020). However, it is a part of an even larger collection of
Google applications entitled G suite that does cost the district money (Johns et al., 2017; Rosita
et al., 2020). Google Classroom allows teachers to post assignments, videos, tests, quizzes,
surveys, notes, and discussion posts. It allows students and teachers to interact through
comments, discussion boards, and video chat through the utilization of the Google Meet video
chat feature. The variety of features allow teachers to utilize the platform to maximum student
learning and improve student technological stills (Iftakhar, 2016; Johns et al., 2017; Rosita et al.,
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39
2020). The Google Classroom platform can be utilized for a blended learning platform or a fully
online environment. This is essential given the recent COVID-19 pandemic that left many school
districts scrambling to provide students with services such as transition services (Hooker, 2020;
Iftakhar, 2016; Rosita et al., 2020). Google Classroom and G suite contain a plethora of tools and
resources for teachers and students.
Google classroom and G suite allow students and teachers to share work with others and
attach a family member’s email to a student account (Iftakhar, 2016; Johns et al., 2017; Rosita et
al., 2020). This allows teachers to share assignments and work with families. This also allows
students to receive feedback from their family members. This is a critical feature considering
several studies have shown that family engagement with the transition process improves student
outcomes (Carter et al., 2009; Cavendish & Conner, 2018; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Hadley,
2006; Landmark et al., 2013; Morningstar, 1997; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez et al, 2017;
Test and Fowler, 2018; Trainor et al., 2016; Young, 2007). However, studies have shown several
barriers prevent families from becoming engaged including time and other children (Cavendish
& Conner, 2018; Landmark et al., 2013; Rodriguez et al, 2017). Family members have work
commitments or other children at home that do not allow them to frequently attend meetings.
However, by sharing student work with families, they can stay involved in the transition process.
Documents could be easily printed for families without access to technology at home.
Google classroom allows teachers to implement a curriculum that is individualized,
interactive, and engaging. The flexibility of the program allows teachers to implement
curriculum when students have availability. It also allows for implementation in a blended
format or completely online platform ensuring that student transition services could be continued
even if schools must close again. However, would the utilization of Google Classroom have an
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40
effect on the acquisition of post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination
skills if utilized to implement a transition curriculum?
Conclusion
Implementing a transition curriculum for students with disabilities is not a new concept.
However, there is a gap in what researchers emphasize as essential components of a transition
curriculum and what school districts are providing. This gap is the result of several factors and a
call for concern. Students with disabilities need to be provided with an effective transition
curriculum in order to acquire the necessary skill set to be successful after graduating from high
school.
The gap in transition curriculum implementation is partly the product of technological
advancements. Technology continues to radically change work environments and the skill set
required to achieve success in post-secondary schooling and training. To be successful after high
school, students must be able to use a computer and navigate the internet. Utilizing technology
for implementation of the transition curriculum, though, can help students acquire these ever
changing and essential skills.
The gap is also the product of lack of time. Students are educated in their least restrictive
environment resulting in students being included in the general education classroom for the
majority of their classes. This also results in lack of room in student schedules for a transition
class that meets every day. Special education teachers, especially those in rural districts, are
teaching and co-teaching in content areas while also providing students with supports to be
successfully in the general education classroom. Student schedules and teacher obligations make
it difficult to find a common period for implementation. This results in transition curriculum
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
41
being implemented haphazardly and without fidelity. However, the utilization of an online
platform such as Google Classroom, may be the answer to this problem.
Google Classroom is an online platform that is easily accessible by students when they
have availability in their schedules. Teachers can individualize student assignments based on
student interests, needs, and learning preferences. It can be utilized in a blended format to
provide flexibility to instruction and continued teacher mentoring and guidance throughout the
transition process. Google classroom also allows for the inclusion of family members so they can
stay involved in the transition process.
It is imperative that school districts strive to implement a quality transition curriculum for
students with disabilities. Too many students are graduating from high school lacking postsecondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills that are imperative for
student success because schools are not implementing quality curriculums with fidelity. There is
a gap in research to determine if utilizing Google Classroom to implement a quality transition
curriculum will improve student acquisition of post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and
self-determination skills. Given the tools and flexibility of Google Classroom, it may be the tool
that school districts need to improve the accessibility and implementation of transition
curriculums.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to improve the post-high school outcomes of students with
disabilities. Students are graduating from high school lacking skills that are imperative for their
success (Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2009; Izzo et al., 2010; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom
et al., 2011). Studies show that students with disabilities continue to have poor post-secondary
and employment outcomes (Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2009; Izzo et al., 2010; Kreider et al.,
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42
2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Luecking & Luecking, 2015; Morningstar, 1997; 2014; Piers &
Duquette, 2016; Rabren et al., Test et al., 2009; Trainor et al., 2016). This results in students
relying on family members and services in order to have their basic needs met. As a result, high
schools must make it a priority to provide students with a quality transition curriculum.
Google Classroom might be the tool to help school districts improve the delivery and
instructional methods of providing transition curriculum to students with disabilities. By
collecting and analyzing quantitative data using a pre/posttest method, researchers hope to
determine if Google Classroom can bridge the current gaps schools face when implementing a
transition curriculum. The implications of implementing a quality transition curriculum with
fidelity for students with disabilities is paramount for improving student success after high
school. Acquisition of post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills is
essential so that after high school graduation students with disabilities can effectively interact
and contribute to their communities independently.
Research Questions
1. How does the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum affect the selfdetermination skills of students with high incidence disabilities?
2. How does the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum affect the postsecondary and career readiness skills of students with high incidence disabilities?
Need for Study
As studies have shown, students are not being provided with adequate transition
curriculum due to time constraints (Baer et al., 2003; Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2008;
Lindstrom et al., 2011; Test & Fowler, 2018). As a result, students with disabilities continue to
graduate without the skills necessary to navigate employment and post-secondary schooling.
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43
This results in students often dropping out and struggling to obtain or keep a job and ultimately
poor post-secondary and employment outcomes their whole lives (Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al.,
2009; Izzo et al., 2010; Kreider et al., 2015; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Luecking & Luecking, 2015;
Morningstar, 1997; 2014; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rabren et al., Test et al., 2009; Trainor et al.,
2016). Students are educated in their least restrictive environment resulting in students being
included in the general education classroom for the majority of their classes and lack room in
their schedules for a daily transition class. Special education teachers, especially those in rural
districts, are teaching and co-teaching in content areas while also providing students with
supports to be successfully in the general education classroom. As a result, student schedules and
teacher obligations make it difficult to find a common period for implementation. This results in
transition curriculum being implemented haphazardly in fragments when times allows.
The goal of this quantitative research study is to determine if Google Classroom will
assist special education teachers with the implementation process. Having a curriculum built and
that will be accessible to all high school students with disabilities, will allow teachers to assign
students lessons based on their individualized needs, interests, goals, and abilities. While
students are working on modules, teachers can still continue to meet with individual students or
groups of students to provide guidance and feedback. If schools would be closed again due to
COVID-19 or for any other reason, school districts would have a platform to utilize to ensure
students still receive mandated transition services. It will also determine if the utilization of
Google Classroom has an effect on the post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and selfdetermination skills of students with disabilities. It is imperative that students with disabilities
are provided with a quality transition curriculum to ensure they acquire post-secondary
readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills to be successful after high school.
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44
Although several studies have been conducted surrounding effective transition services
for students with disabilities, no studies have been conducted to determine if utilizing Google
Classroom will improve student retention of skills. Chapter 3 will discuss in detail the
methodology that will be utilized to determine if using Google Classroom to implement
transition curriculum for students with disabilities improves students’ career readiness, postsecondary readiness, and self-determination skills. The chapter will also discuss the rating scales
being implemented and data analysis being used.
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45
Chapter 3
Methodology
In 2019, only 30.9% of individuals with disabilities between the ages of 16-64 were
employed compared to 74.6% of individuals without disabilities in the same age range (U.S.
Department of Labor, 2020). Failure to successfully complete post-secondary schooling or
training or successfully obtain employment can be attributed to inadequate transition curriculum
implementation at the high school level (Baer et al., 2003; Benz et al., 2000; Carter et al., 2008;
Lindstrom et al., 2011; Test & Fowler, 2018). Research has shown that student acquisition of
post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills is positively correlated
to student success in post-secondary schooling and training and obtaining employment (Fullarton
& Duquette, 2015; Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Morningstar, 1997; Rodriguez et al.,
2017; Test et al., 2009; Test & Fowler, 2018). Although, the law requires school districts to
implement and provide a transition curriculum for all students with disabilities, studies have
shown there is a gap in what researchers emphasize as essential components of a transition
curriculum and what school districts are implementing (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette,
2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020;
Morningstar, 1997; Trainor et al., 2016). The gap is the product of continual technological
advancements and a lack of time for curriculum implementation (Baer et al., 2003; Benz et al.,
2000; Carter et al., 2008; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Test & Fowler, 2018). However, research has
shown the utilization of technology can bridge the technological and time gaps and improve
student acquisition of secondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills to
improve student post-high school outcomes (Lee et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2019, 2020;
Wehmeyer et al., 2019).
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46
This chapter will discuss the population and sampling that was utilized for this study. The
plan of implementation is explained and includes a breakdown of lessons and activities that
comprised each module of the curriculum. The chapter also describes in detail the two rating
scales that were used and who completed them. The data analysis process is explained as well as
how site permission was obtained, how the results were presented and to whom, and the
limitations of the study.
The purpose of this quantitative study was to determine the effectiveness of using Google
Classroom to implement a transition curriculum on the post-secondary readiness, career
readiness, and self-determination skills of students with high incidence disabilities. A transition
curriculum was developed incorporating researcher emphasized essential components of a
transition curriculum including: age appropriate assessments, individualized and studentcentered planning and goal setting, career exploration, post-secondary training exploration,
employment preparations, and self-determination (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton & Duquette, 2015;
Herbert et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020;
Morningstar, 1997; Trainor et al., 2016). The curriculum is student centered and emphasizes
family involvement.
The use of Google Classroom allows school districts to implement a transition curriculum
in a blended learning format. Blended learning expands the ways teachers are able to present and
provide students with transition instruction. It also creates flexibility for how students receive
and respond to instruction. Blended programs allow teachers to assign students specific modules
that align to their areas of interest and need while also providing time for teachers to mentor and
collaborate with the students (Lee et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2020). The use of technology and
blended programs has also been shown to improve student engagement and accessibility of
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
47
transition curriculums (Lee et al., 2011; Lombardi et al., 2019, 2020; Wehmeyer et al., 2019).
Google Classroom also provides school districts with a platform to implement and provide
students with transition curriculum for distance learning to ensure transition instruction continues
to be provide even if school districts are faced with another school closure (Hooker, 2020;
Iftakhar, 2016; Rosita et al., 2020). This can be very beneficial to smaller and rural school
districts who have more limited teachers and resources (Baer et al., 2003; Test & Fowler, 2018).
Population
Research has shown that rural and small school districts struggle most to implement
transition curriculums with fidelity due to time and financial constraints (Baer et al., 2003; Test
& Fowler, 2018). As a result, a small, rural school district located in Western Pennsylvania was
chosen for this study. According to the United States Census Bureau the population of this town
was 5,272 with an average household income of $44,438 in 2019. The community was 95%
White, 1% Black, .2% American Indian, .9% Asian, 1.8% two or more races, and 1.1% Hispanic.
The poverty rate of the town was 19% (Census Quick Facts, 2019). The school district already
has a license for Google Classroom and all students in the district were issued Google email
accounts during enrollment. The study took place within the high school setting. The high school
houses student in grades seven through twelve. However, only students in grades nine through
twelve were targeted for the sampling. Grades 9-12 were chosen because they are the grade
levels when students with disabilities receive transition instruction within the school district.
Additionally, Pennsylvania law does not mandate students with disabilities have a transition plan
until age 14 which is traditionally when a student enters the ninth grade. A transition plan
outlines an individual student’s goals related to post-secondary training, employment, and
independent living. The plan also includes what activities the student will be encouraged to
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48
complete in order to help them achieve their goal such as completing job shadowing (Hadley,
2006; Morningstar, 1997; Piers & Duquette, 2016; Rodriguez et al, 2017; Wehmeyer et al.,
2019).
The sampling consisted of students in grades nine through twelve who had been
identified as having a high incidence disability. These high incidence disabilities include students
with Specific Learning Disabilities, Autism, Other Health Impairments, Emotional Disturbance,
and Intellectual Disabilities. All student participants had an active IEP and received itinerant
learning support or emotional support services. Itinerant support indicates that all students are
included in and educated in the general education classroom at least 80% of their school day with
their non-disabled peers while also receiving support from a special education teacher to assist
them with the learning and emotional needs. There are currently 51 students within the school
district that meet the study requirements. The age of the student population ranges from fourteen
to nineteen with the majority of the students being age 16. The majority of the student population
is white. See Table 1 for details.
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49
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics of Population
N
%
Female
19
37
Male
32
63
9th
13
25
10th
10
20
11th
18
35
12th
10
20
Specific Learning
31
60
Other Health Impairment
12
24
Emotionally Disturbed
2
4
Autism
3
6
Intellectual Disability
3
6
Black
2
3
White
49
97
Gender
Grade
Disability
Race
Given the age of students, the parents/guardians and participants were contacted through
email to provide information on the study and to obtain parental consent for student
participation. Parent/guardian participation was included and promoted through the use of
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50
parent/guardian rating scales. Upon receipt of parental consent for student participation, the
researcher met with the students to obtain their assent to participate in the study.
Sampling
Parental consent and student assent was received from 10 participants. However, only 9
of the participants completed the study. One student withdrew from the study at parental request.
The age range of the sample was 15-18. All five high incidence disabilities and all four grade
levels were represented by the sampling. The sampling was comprised of both female and male
students. See Table 2 for more details.
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Table 2
Descriptive Statistics of Sampling
N
%
Female
2
22
Male
7
78
9th
3
33
10th
3
33
11th
2
22
12th
1
11
Specific Learning
4
44
Other Health Impairment
2
22
Emotionally Disturbed
1
11
Autism
1
11
Intellectual Disability
1
11
Black
1
11
White
8
89
Gender
Grade
Disability
Race
Plan for implementation
The implementation plan is a three step process focusing on a pretest/posttest format.
However, before implementation began, permission was obtained from the superintendent to use
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the site (Appendix A). Additionally, parental consent (Appendix B), student assent (Appendix
C), and teacher consent to participate was also obtained.
The initial step of the implementation process is to gather pretest data on all student
participants. The Transition Planning Inventory-Second Edition was used to measure student
post-secondary and career readiness skills and the AIR Self-Determination Scale to measure
student self-determination skills before implementation of a transition curriculum using Google
Classroom (see the Rating Scales section below for a detailed description of each tool). The
scales were completed by a regular education teacher, special education teacher, and a
parent/guardian. Consent was obtained from both the parent/guardian and teachers to utilize the
data for the study. The results were averaged to determine the mean. Upon completion of the
surveys, the students were ready for step two of implementation.
Step two of the implementation process was to implement the transition curriculum using
Google Classroom. The transition curriculum contains five modules that include a variety of
materials and videos focusing on individualized and student-centered planning and goal setting,
career exploration, post-secondary training exploration, employment preparations, and selfdetermination.
Module One
Module one of the transition curriculum focused on self-determination. Students learned
about their rights as a student with an IEP and about section 504. They learned about the
purpose of an IEP, as well as how to become an active participant in their IEP meetings. The
teacher and students conferenced one-on-one to discuss personal disabilities, strengths,
weaknesses, accommodations, and modifications. Additionally, students participated in
instruction and watched videos that focus on asking for accommodations and modifications in
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the work place and school environment and about how to actively participant in their IEP
meetings. They also listened to a recorded presentation from a local community college about
disability services at post-secondary placements and how to access them. Students were provided
with opportunities to role play making such requests and being active participants in their IEP
meetings. Upon completion of the module, students were encouraged and guided to make
requests for accommodations within their general education classrooms. They were also
encouraged and guided to attend and be active participants in their IEP meetings.
Module Two
Module two focused on goal setting. Students learned about short term and long term
goals. Instruction was provided on how to monitor personal progress and adjust goals
accordingly. Students created a goal board electronically that was updated as they completed
more modules. The goal board focused on their personal goals related to post-secondary training,
employment, and independent living. The students shared their goal boards with their teacher
and family. They were required to write a journal entry after discussing their board with a family
member that provided information on who they talked to and reflected their family member’s
reaction and how they plan to achieve their goals.
Module Three
Module three focused on career exploration. Undecided students completed career
interest surveys to gain knowledge about careers that relate to their individual interests. Students
then read articles and watched videos relating to their careers of interest. Students compared and
contrasted their top two career choices by conducting research that focuses on the training
involved, skill sets required, average salary, career advancement opportunities, and job
placement. Students chose the career they were most interested in and created a Google Slide
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Presentation that will be shared with their family and teacher for feedback. Students were
required to complete a journal entry that focused on their family’s feedback and reflected on
their research results. The module consisted of virtual job shadowing and virtual interviews with
someone in the field of study. These experiences were done virtually due to COVID-19
restrictions. Upon completion of the job shadowing and interview experiences, students
completed reflections that focused on what they learned and what questions they still had.
Module Four
Module four focused on Post-Secondary Exploration. Students began by learning about
all of their post-secondary training options including: trade schools, technical schools,
community colleges, universities, apprenticeship programs, and the United States military.
Students watched videos and read articles about the different training options in addition to
watching a teacher created Google Slide presentation with voiceover. Students interested in the
military learned about ASVAB requirements, took practice tests, and met with recruiters
virtually. Students were also provided with opportunities to participate in virtual tours of local
community colleges, trade schools, technical schools, and apprenticeship programs. The tours
were virtual due to COVID-19 restrictions. After learning about their post-secondary options,
students began researching places that have the major of their interest. Students completed
research forms that focused on location, availability of disability services, availability of dorm
rooms or if it is within driving distance, class size, cost of tuition, placement test requirements,
school sports, and school sponsored activities. This activity helped the students learn how to
navigate the school websites. Students shared these research results with a family member and
teacher. They were required to write a reflection that focused on the reaction of their family
members and which program or school they felt would be the best fit.
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Module Five
Module five focused on employment readiness. During this module, students created a
resume and cover letter using a Google Doc template. They learned how to dress for interviews
and were provided with opportunities to participate in mock job interviews. How to find job
openings and apply for jobs was another topic of study. Students learned how to search for jobs
online and in newspapers as well as how to fill out job applications both paper and electronic.
They were provided opportunities to complete practice paper and electronic applications.
Students also received instruction on study skills and habits and time management. Students
watched videos and review Google Slide presentations focused on each skill set of the module.
The learning support teacher assigned modules for students to complete based on student
goals, progress, grade level, and needs. The teacher utilized the data they gathered from age
appropriate assessments to determine student levels and skill deficits in relation to postsecondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination. The implementation was a blended
learning process. This means that the assignments were posted onto Google Classroom but the
teachers also provided students with in-person and live virtual lessons. Teachers also continued
to meet and collaborate with the student in person or through virtual meetings. This allowed for
the teacher to continue to collaborate and mentor students throughout the learning process. All
students were assigned at least one period of academic support or resource room as part of their
IEP, either in person or virtually, which was utilized for student and teacher collaboration and
mentoring. The curriculum was implemented for one semester of school or an 18 week period of
time. Upon completion of the semester, student progress was assessed.
The final stage of the implementation process was to gather posttest data on all students
using the same initial rating scales: the Transition Planning Inventory-Second Edition and AIR
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Self-Determination Scale. The same people who completed the initial rating scale were solicited
to complete the post rating scales. The data was averaged to determine the mean and compared
to the mean obtained from the pretest data. The difference between the two means was then
analyzed using a Wilcoxon signed-rank test.
The following research questions were used to navigate this quantitative study:
1. How does the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum affect the
self-determination skills of students with high incidence disabilities?
2. How does the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum affect the
post-secondary and career readiness skills of students with high incidence
disabilities?
Rating Scales
A systematic review of literature was conducted to ensure best practice was utilized when
selecting the appropriate data collection and analysis system. The American Institutes for
Research (AIR) Self-Determination rating scale has been utilized by researchers to determine the
effects of a computer based intervention in previous quantitative studies that utilize a
pretest/posttest design (Lee et al., 2011; Wehmeyer et al., 2011). Researchers have also
previously utilized the Transition Planning Inventory to assess the effectiveness of a transition
curriculum on a student’s post-secondary and career readiness skills (Carter et al., 2009). Both
the AIR Self-Determination and Transition Planning Inventory-Second Edition are rating scales
that were utilized for this study.
Transition Planning Inventory-Second Edition
The Transition Planning Inventory-Second Edition (TPI-2) is a comprehensive
assessment tool that is designed to identify a student’s readiness to transition into a post-
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secondary schooling or employment setting. This criterion-referenced instrument can be utilized
to gather transition related information about student’s knowledge, skills, and behaviors in
eleven critical functioning domains identified in IDEA 2004. (Carter et al., 2009; Patton & Clark,
2018; Rehfeldt et al., 2012). The assessment contains 57 items linked to the eleven domains:
career choice and planning, employment knowledge and skills, further education/training,
functional communication, self-determination, independent living, personal money management,
community involvement and usage, leisure activities, health, and interpersonal relationships
(Patton & Clark, 2008). Every item the assessment contains required raters to assess the student’s
current level of competence using a six-point Liker-type scale from zero, which signifies
strongly disagree, to five which signifies strongly agree (Carter et al., 2009; Patton & Clark,
2018; Rehfeldt et al., 2012). Raters also had the options of choosing “not appropriate” if they do
not believe the item is an appropriate planning area for the student or “don’t know” if the rater
felt they do not have a sufficient knowledge base to assess a student’s level of competence in that
area (Carter et al., 2009; Patton & Clark, 2018). Multiple people can rate each student.
The TPI-2 consists of three rating forms: home, school, and student. All three versions of
the scale address the same planning areas and domains (Carter et al., 2009; Patton & Clark,
2018; Rehfeldt et al., 2012). However, the wording is altered slightly to ensure the respondent is
always reflecting on the strengths and needs of the student. Additionally the student and home
forms have a lower readability (Patton & Clark, 2008). All three forms of the assessment also
include sections requesting student demographic information and anticipated settings for Postsecondary outcomes in the areas of employment/further education or training and living
arrangements (Carter et al., 2009; Patton & Clark, 2018; Rehfeldt et al., 2012). However,
information on anticipated settings for Post-secondary outcomes was not collected for this study.
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For this study, only the home and school forms were utilized. Research has shown that
students self-rating scores are significantly higher than educator and home rating scores (Carter
et al., 2009; Rehfeldt et al., 2012). This score discrepancy can affect the reliability of the results
(Carter et al., 2009; Rehfeldt et al., 2012).
Research has found the TPI-2 to have acceptable validity (Carter et al., 2009; Patton &
Clark, 2018; Rehfeldt et al., 2012). The TPI-2 items were drawn from an extensive examination
of legislative transition guidelines articulated in IDEA 2004 as well as a review of career
development and transition literature (Carter et al., 2009). A selected panel of experts and
practitioners evaluated drafts of the assessment and provided suggested revisions to structure,
wording, and item inclusion. The panel also assessed the social validity of the overall assessment
through a pilot test that involved 227 caregivers, 329 school staff members, and 288 students
across 10 different states (Carter et al., 2009). Carter et al. (2009) also conducted exploratory
factor analyses which showed a uni-dimensional structure for each of the domains addressed in
the inventory. The variance averaged 74.5% and suggested the items for each domain shared a
significant amount of common variability (Carter et al., 2009). A content validity assessment was
also conducted during field testing that assessed the degree to which the content was ageappropriate and consistent with current knowledge in the area of transition planning through
surveys and feedback from field-test participants and the panel of experts (Patton & Clark,
2018). The majority, 87% to 94%, of the respondents indicated that the instrument was
consistent with the IEP planning process under IDEA 2004 and that it covered basic
considerations for transition planning (Patton & Clark, 2018). This assessment also possesses
acceptable reliability.
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Reliability was reported in the form of internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and
temporal stability (Rehfeldt et al., 2012). Reliability tests indicated strong internal consistency
with the average alpha equaling .85 and adequate test-retest reliability of .86 after two weeks
(Carter et al., 2009; Patton & Clark, 2018; Rehfeldt et al., 2012). Time sampling reliability
coefficients averaged across all three TPI-2 rating forms and for all eleven planning domains
ranged from .78 to .92 (Patton & Clark, 2018; Rehfeldt et al., 2012). These scores are indicative
of a good reliability for all planning areas for all raters. They also indicate that the assessment
can be utilized in a pretest/posttest format and the researchers can still obtain reliable results.
TPI-2 was utilized in a pre/posttest format to determine if a student with a high incidence
disability’s post-secondary and career readiness skills are effected by the implementation of a
transition curriculum using Google Classroom. TPI-2 is aligned with federal legislation and
consistent with current transition planning knowledge. As a result, it can also be used to provide
data driven information to assist with a student’s individualized transition planning development
but it cannot identify skill deficits (Patton & Clark, 2018; Rehfeldt et al., 2012). Special
education teachers utilized the results of the TPI-2 to drive individual module assignments for
student participants. Although, self-determination is one of the eleven domains of the TPI-2 only
nine items are devoted to the area. Given the important correlation between acquisition of selfdetermination skills and post-secondary success, a separate rating scale devoted to assessing selfdetermination was also utilized.
The American Institutes for Research Self-Determination Scale
The American Institutes for Research Self-Determination Scale (AIR) measures a
student’s capacity for and opportunity to act in a self-determined manner (Cho et al., 2017; Lee
et al., 2011; Shogren et al., 2008; Wehmeyer et al., 2011). The scale is designed to not only
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assess a student’s current level of self-determination but also identify areas of strength and need.
The information gathered from the scale can be used to identify individual IEP goals, guide
student transition instruction, and develop strategies to build a student’s self-determination
capacities and provide students with more opportunities to act in a self-determined manner (Lee
et al., 2011; Wehmeyer et al., 2011). Unlike most self-determination scales that contain only a
student rating scale, AIR contains three different rating forms (Cho et al., 2017; Lee et al., 2011;
Shogren et al., 2008; Wehmeyer et al., 2011).
AIR contains rating forms for educators, caregivers, and students to complete. The forms
are broken into two sub-categories: capacity and opportunity. Each form contains a different
number of Likert-style items ranging from one, which signifies never, to five, which signifies
always (Cho et al., 2017; Lee et al., 2011; Shogren et al., 2008; Wehmeyer et al., 2011). Capacity
and opportunity subscale scores can be calculated in addition to a self-determination score by
adding the two subscales together (Cho et al., 2017; Shogren et al., 2008).
For this study, again only the home and school forms were utilized since research has
shown that students self-rating scores are significantly higher than educator and home rating
scores. Additionally, only the capacity subscales of the AIR assessment were utilized. The
opportunity home scale requires parents to provide information based on opportunities their child
is provided at school to utilize self-determination skills. Researchers found that parents
frequently indicated they did not possess adequate knowledge to answer these questions
accurately and often left them blank (Cho et al., 2017; Shogren et al., 2008). Likewise, the
opportunity school scale requires teachers to provide information based on opportunities the
student is provided at home to utilize self-determination skills. Teachers also reported lacking
adequate knowledge to answer the questions adequately (Cho et al., 2017; Shogren et al., 2008).
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Thus, inaccurate information could be obtained if teachers and parents were to complete the
sections despite inadequate knowledge base affecting the reliability of results (Cho et al., 2017;
Shogren et al., 2008).
The AIR was developed and normed with a group of 450 teachers and their students with
and without disabilities in California and New York. All forms for the scale were found to
demonstrate adequate reliability and validity in the measurement of self-determination for
students with and without disabilities (Cho et al., 2017; Shogren et al., 2008; Wehmeyer et al.,
2011).
The AIR can be used to assess a student’s self-determination capacity. Thus it can be
utilized in a pre/posttest format to determine if a student with a high incidence disability’s selfdetermination skills are effected by the implementation of a transition curriculum using Google
Classroom. It is designed to identify a student’s strengths and needs related to self-determination.
As a result, it can also be used to provide data driven information to assist with a student’s
individualized goal setting. Special education teachers utilized the results of the AIR to drive
individual module assignments for student participants.
Three sources of data were gathered for each research question. This triangulation of the
data ensures the validity of the study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The researcher utilized the
Transition Planning Inventory-Second Edition and AIR Self-Determination Scale rating scores
for each participant from a regular education teacher, special education teacher, and a
parent/guardian. The use of three different data sources for each question fortified the results and
averted the ineffective analyses drawn from single-source studies (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Once gathered the data was averaged to determine the means and the difference was analyzed
utilizing a Wilcoxon signed-rank test.
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Data Analysis
Both the Transition Planning Inventory and AIR Self-Determination rating scales contain
Likert-type scales with ordinal responses. Long standing misinterpretation of Likert-type data
has resulted from researchers viewing the data as interval rather than ordinal even though the
distance between ratings, such as strongly agree and agree, is not equal (Bishop & Herron, 2015;
Laered Statistics, 2015). The Wilcoxon signed-rank test is the nonparametric test equivalent to
the parametric t-test. Unlike the t-test, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test does not assume normality
in the data (Laered Statistics, 2015). Thus non-parametric statistical measures and the
Wilcoxon’s Signed Rank Test are a more appropriate analysis method given the Likert-type scale
and ordinal data that was obtained from this research study.
The dependent variable, post-secondary and career readiness, was measured through
three TPI-2 rating scales: parent, special education teacher, and regular education teacher. The
scores were averaged to determine the mean. Upon completion of the 16-week implementation
of the transition curriculum utilizing Google Classroom, the three TPI rating scales were again
completed by the original raters. The scores were again averaged to determine the mean. The two
mean scores were compared to determine whether the mean score for the posttest or second
rating was higher or lower. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was run using Excel to determine
whether any difference between the means is statistically significant.
The dependent variable self-determination was measured through three AIR rating scales
(parent, special education teacher, and regular education teacher. The scores were averaged to
determine the mean. Upon completion of the 18 week implementation of the transition
curriculum utilizing Google Classroom, the three AIR rating scales were again completed by the
original raters. The scores were again averaged to determine the mean. The two mean scores
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were compared to determine whether the mean score for the posttest was higher or lower than the
pretest mean score. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was run using Excel to determine whether
any difference between the means is statistically significant.
Site Permission
Permission for the study was granted by school district superintendent. Given the school
district does not possess their own IRB, approval was obtained by the IRB at Slippery Rock
University. Participants of the study range in age of 14-19. As a result, informed assent was
obtained from all student participants and informed consent from the parents of student
participants under the age of 18.
Presentation of Results
The results of this study were utilized to further examine the initiative of improving
transition curriculum implementation at the high school. The results were provided to all
interested stakeholders including the superintendent, director of special education, building
principals, school board members, and transition coordinators.
Limitations of the study
This study is limited by sample size. The sample of this study was obtained from one
rural, Pennsylvania high school. Thus, the results may not be generalizable to other high schools
within Pennsylvania, other states, or other countries. Although, participation was solicited from
all students in grades 9-12 who fit the criteria of a high incidence learning disability, the sample
of students who agree to participate may not be representative of the student population of
students with high incident disabilities.
Another limitation to this study is it was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic. As a
result, school closures and limited in-person instruction, as a result of migration efforts, resulted
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in students participating in online learning in the home setting. Online learning may not be
conducive to student learning and progress. Students and schools staff may also experience
connectivity issues resulting in limited guidance and interactions between staff and participants.
As a result, student progress may be effected by the use of online learning in the home setting.
Summary
This study used quantitative methods to study the effects of using Google Classroom to
implement a transition curriculum on the post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and selfdetermination skills of students with high incidence disabilities. Ethical considerations were
addressed before implementation of the study through obtaining permission from the
superintendent, student participants, and parents/guardians of any participants under the age of
18. Approval for the study and all data collection tools were granted by the Slippery Rock IRB.
Two Likert-style rating scales, the Transition Planning Inventory-Second Edition and AIR SelfDetermination Rating Scale, were utilized to gather pretest and posttest data. Three raters
completed each rating scale for each student participant and the scores were averaged to
determine the mean. This triangulation of the data ensures the validity of the study. The
Wilcoxon signed-rank test was run using Excel to determine whether any difference between the
means is statistically significant. The specific results of the study will be presented in Chapter
Four.
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Chapter 4
Results
I used two rating scales, the Transition Planning Inventory Second Edition (TPI 2) and
the AIR Self-Determination rating scale to collect pre-and post-test data. These rating scales
were completed by a parent or guardian, general education teacher, and special education teacher
and then I averaged the scores. Both the Transition Planning Inventory and AIR SelfDetermination rating scales contain Likert-type scales with ordinal responses. Long standing
misinterpretation of Likert-type data has resulted from researchers viewing the data as interval
rather than ordinal even though the distance between ratings, such as strongly agree and agree, is
not equal (Bishop & Herron, 2015; Laered Statistics, 2015). Thus, non-parametric statistical
measures and the Wilcoxon’s Signed Rank Test were utilized to determine whether any
difference between the Likert-type scale and ordinal data means obtained from this research
study were statistically significant.
Chapter 4 contains multiple tables outlining the pretest and posttest data obtained for
each participant. The data is organized by the rating scale and then broken down into each rating
scale category in order to better evaluate the effectiveness of utilizing Google Classroom. In
addition to the data, an explanation of the findings and calculations will also be included within
this chapter.
I received consent and assent from ten student participants. However, one student did not
complete the study and was removed at parental request. I received consent to participate and
completed pretest and posttest rating scales from three general education teachers and two
special education teachers. Upon receipt of consent and assent, I sent pretest rating scales to a
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general education teacher, special education teacher, and parent to be completed for each
participant.
After receiving the pretest rating scales, the learning support teacher assigned modules
for students to complete based on student goals, progress, grade level, and needs. The
implementation was a blended learning process with assignments being posted onto Google
Classroom and the teachers still providing students with in-person and live virtual lessons. The
Teacher also continued to meet and collaborate with the student in person or through virtual
meetings. It should be noted that during the first five weeks of implementation the school was
still utilizing a blended virtual learning format and students would access Google Classroom
from their homes two days a week. Upon completion of the semester, student progress was
assessed by sending out the rating scales to the same teachers and parents who previously
completed the rating scales for each student. The results of the rating scales can be found in
Appendix D. To protect the identity of the participants, the name of the students will be replaced
by student 1, student 2, etc.
Results
The Wilcoxon’s Signed Rank Test was utilized to determine whether any difference
between the pretest and posttest means was statistically significant. If when subtracting the
pretest and posttest scores a zero is obtained, the individual’s score will be eliminated from the
data analysis and the sample size will be decreased. Therefore if one participate has no difference
or zero difference between their scores and there are nine participants total, the sample size will
be decreased to eight. With the Wilcoxon’s Signed Rank Test, the participants’ difference scores
are ranked or numbered in order. If two or more participants have the same difference score,
each of the tied scores was assigned the average of the tied ranks. For example if two participants
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scored a 3 which would be ranked fifth, each participant would receive the rank score 5.5. The
critical values of T for .05 level of significance for a two-tailed test was utilized for the
calculations (Gravetter & Wallnau, 2017). A Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test was completed for
each category of both rating scales. Both the Wilcoxon T-test and interpretation using the
Wilcoxon T-table were utilized to determine if each difference was statistically significant.
Self-Determination Skills
The AIR assesses individuals’ self-determination skills using two categories: knowledge
and ability. The null and alternative hypotheses for the first research question: How does the use
of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum affect the self-determination skills of
students with high incidence disabilities? are listed below.
𝐻0 : There is no difference between the pretest and posttest scores. Therefore, the use of
Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has no effect on the self-determination skills
of students with high incidence disabilities.
𝐻1 : There is a difference between the pretest and posttest scores. Therefore, the use of
Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has a positive or negative effect on the selfdetermination skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
Knowledge. Seven out of the nine students had a positive difference between their pretest
and posttest average scores (see table 3). When calculating the Wilcoxon Signed Rank the
positive sum was 42 and the negative sum was 3 resulting in a T value of 3. Given the sample
size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When the sample data produces a T
that is less than or equal to the table value, the null hypothesis is rejected. Given that the critical
value is 5 and the T value is 3, the null hypothesis is rejected and the conclusion that there is a
significant difference between the pretest and posttest can be drawn. A z-score of -2.35 was
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obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon T was performed. With the critical
values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the boundary and significant at the 0.05 level.
Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of Google Classroom to provide transition
curriculum has a positive effect on the Self-Determination knowledge skills of students with high
incidence disabilities.
Table 3
AIR Self-Determination Knowledge Results
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference
abs difference
rank abs difference
signed rank
1
19.7
19.0
-0.7
0.7
1
-1
2
20.3
23.7
3.3
3.3
5.5
5.5
3
23.0
25.0
2.0
2.0
3
3
4
16.0
18.7
2.7
2.7
4
4
5
15
14.0
-1.0
1.0
2
-2
6
17.0
24.0
7.0
7.0
9
9
7
17.7
21.3
3.7
3.7
7
7
8
22.0
25.3
3.3
3.3
5.5
5.5
9
21.0
25.0
4.0
4.0
8
8
Ability. Six out of the nine students had a positive difference between their pretest and
posttest average scores. One student had no difference between their scores (see table 4). When
calculating the Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive sum was 33 and the negative sum was 3
resulting in a T value of 3. The scores of the student with no difference were eliminated resulting
in a sample size of 8. Given the sample size of 8 the T critical value was 3 on the Wilcoxon T
Table. When the sample data produces a T that is less than or equal to the table value, the null
hypothesis is rejected. Given that the critical value is 3 and the T value is 3, the null hypothesis is
rejected and the conclusion that there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest
can be drawn. A z-score of -2.26 was obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon
T was performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the
boundary and significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of
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Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on the SelfDetermination ability skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
Table 4
AIR Self-Determination Ability Results
Student Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference abs difference
rank abs difference signed rank
1
22
21
-1
1
2
-2
2
20.3
24.3
4
4
7
7
3
24.7
28.7
4
4
7
7
4
17.3
17.3
0
0
5
17.7
18.3
0.7
0.7
1
-1
6
20.7
24
3.3
3.3
5
5
7
21.3
22.7
1.3
1.3
3
3
8
23
26
3
3
4
4
9
17.7
21.7
4
4
7
7
AIR Self-Determination Rating Scale total. Seven out of the nine students had a
positive difference between their pretest and posttest average scores (See table 5). When
calculating the Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive sum was 42 and the negative sum was 3
resulting in a T value of 3. Given the sample size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon
T Table. When the sample data produces a T that is less than or equal to the table value, the null
hypothesis is rejected. Given that the critical value is 5 and the T value is 3, the null hypothesis is
rejected and the conclusion that there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest
can be drawn. A z-score of -2.31 was obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon
T was performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the
boundary and significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of
Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on the SelfDetermination skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
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Table 5
AIR Self-Determination Rating Scale Total Results
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference
abs difference
rank abs difference
signed rank
1
41.7
40.0
-1.7
1.7
2
-2
2
40.7
48.0
7.3
3.3
4
4
3
47.7
53.7
6.0
6.0
6
6
4
33.3
36.0
2.7
2.7
3
3
5
32.7
32.3
-0.3
0.3
1
-1
6
37.7
48.0
10.3
10.3
9
9
7
39.0
44.0
5.0
5.0
5
5
8
45.0
51.3
6.3
6.3
7
7
9
38.7
46.7
8.0
8.0
8
8
Career and Post-Secondary Readiness Skills
The Transition Planning Inventory Second Edition assesses individuals’ career and postsecondary readiness skills using 11 categories: Career Choice Planning, Employment Knowledge
and Skills, Further Education/Training, Functional Communication, Self-Determination,
Independent Living, Personal Money Management, Community Involvement and Usage, Leisure
Activities, Health, and Interpersonal Relationships. The null and alternative hypotheses for the
second research question: How does the use of Google Classroom to provide transition
curriculum affect the post-secondary and career readiness skills of students with high incidence
disabilities? are listed below.
𝐻0 : There is no difference between the pretest and posttest scores. Therefore, the use of
Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has no effect on the post-secondary and
career readiness skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
𝐻1 : There is a difference between the pretest and posttest scores. Therefore, the use of
Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has a positive or negative effect on the postsecondary and career readiness skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
71
Career Choice and Planning. Eight out of the nine students had a positive difference
between their pretest and posttest average scores (See table 6). When calculating the Wilcoxon
Signed Rank the positive sum was 44 and the negative sum was 1 resulting in a test statistic (T
value) of 1. Given the sample size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When
the sample data produces a T that is less than or equal to the table value, the null hypothesis is
rejected. Given that the critical value is 5 and the T value is 1, the null hypothesis is rejected and
the conclusion that there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest can be drawn.
A z-score of -2.55 was obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon T was
performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the boundary and
significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of Google Classroom
to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on the Career Choice and Planning skills of
students with high incidence disabilities.
Table 6
TPI-2 Career Choice and Planning Results
Career Choice Planning
Student Pretest Average Posttest Average
Difference abs difference rank abs difference signed rank
1
15.7
15.3
-0.3
0.3
1
-1
2
6.7
13.0
6.3
6.3
9
9
3
11.7
16.0
4.3
4.3
6
6
4
10
15.7
5.7
5.7
8
8
5
4.3
7.3
3.0
3.0
3
3
6
14.0
17.7
3.7
3.7
4
4
7
9.3
14.7
5.3
5.3
7
7
8
15.3
18.0
2.7
2.7
2
2
Employment Knowledge and Skills. Nine out of the nine students had a positive
difference between their pretest and posttest average scores (See table 7).When calculating the
Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive sum was 48 and the negative sum was 0 resulting in a T
value of 0. Given the sample size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
72
the sample data produces a T that is less than or equal to the table value, the null hypothesis is
rejected. Given that the critical value is 5 and the T value is 0, the null hypothesis is rejected and
a conclusion can be drawn that there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest.
A z-score of -2.71 was obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon T was
performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the boundary and
significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of Google Classroom
to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on the Employment Knowledge and Skills
of students with high incidence disabilities.
Table 7
TPI-2 Employment Knowledge and Skills Results
Employment Knowledge and Skills
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference abs difference rank abs difference
signed rank
1
12
15.33
3.33
3.3
4
7
2
7.7
16.3
8.7
8.7
9
9
3
17.7
25
7.3
7.3
8
8
4
8
11.3
3.3
3.3
4
4
5
5.7
7.3
1.7
1.7
2
2
6
11.7
18.7
7
7
6.5
6.5
7
11
18
7
7
6.5
6.5
8
16.3
19.7
3.3
3.3
4
4
Further Education and Training. Nine out of the nine students had a positive
difference between their pretest and posttest average scores (see table 8). When calculating the
Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive sum was 46 and the negative sum was 0 resulting in a T
value of 0. Given the sample size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When
the sample data produces a T that is less than or equal to the table value, the null hypothesis is
rejected. Given that the critical value is 5 and the T value is 0, the null hypothesis is rejected and
a conclusion can be drawn that there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest.
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
73
A z-score of -3.13 was obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon T was
performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the boundary and
significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of Google Classroom
to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on the Further Education and Training skills
of students with high incidence disabilities.
Table 8
TPI-2 Further Education and Training
Further Education/Training
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference
abs difference rank abs difference
signed rank
1
10.7
14.7
4
4
2.5
2.5
2
4
11.7
7.7
7.7
6.5
6.5
3
10
17.7
7.7
7.7
6.5
6.5
4
5.7
7.7
2
2
1
1
5
1.7
7.7
6
6
5
5
6
5.3
14.7
9.3
9.3
9
9
7
6.3
15
8.7
8.7
8
8
8
11.7
16.3
4.7
4.7
4
4
9
9.7
13.7
4
4
3.5
3.5
Functional Communication. Eight out of the nine students had a positive difference
between their pretest and posttest average scores. One student had no difference between their
scores (See table 9). When calculating the Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive sum was 36 and
the negative sum was 0 resulting in a T value of 0. The scores of the student with no difference
were eliminated resulting in a sample size of 8. Given the sample size of 8, the T critical value
was 3 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When the sample data produces a T that is less than or equal to
the table value, the null hypothesis is rejected. Given that the critical value is 3 and the T value is
0, the null hypothesis is rejected and a conclusion can be drawn that there is a significant
difference between the pretest and posttest. A z-score of -2.56 was obtained when the normal
approximation for the Wilcoxon T was performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
74
z-score is outside of the boundary and significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be
drawn that the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on
the Functional Communication skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
Table 9
TPI-2 Functional Communication
Functional Communication
Student Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference abs difference
rank abs difference signed rank
1
14
14.7
0.7
0.7
1
1
2
16
17.3
1.3
1.3
2
2
3
16.3
19.3
3
3
7
7
4
10.3
13
2.7
2.7
5.5
5.5
5
10
14.3
4.3
4.3
8
8
6
11.7
14
2.3
2.3
4
4
7
12
14.7
2.7
2.7
5.5
5.5
8
14
14
0
0
9
13
15
2
2
3
3
Self-Determination. Nine out of the nine students had a positive difference between their
pretest and posttest average scores (See table 10). When calculating the Wilcoxon Signed Rank
the positive sum was 45 and the negative sum was 0 resulting in a T value of 0. Given the sample
size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When the sample data produces a T
that is less than or equal to the table value, the null hypothesis is rejected. Given that the critical
value is 5 and the T value is 0, the null hypothesis is rejected and a conclusion can be drawn that
there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest. A z-score of -2.67 was obtained
when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon T was performed. With the critical values of
±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the boundary and significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the
conclusion can be drawn that the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has a
positive effect on the Self-Determination skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
Table 10
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75
TPI-2 Self-Determination
Self Determination
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference abs difference rank abs difference
signed rank
1
22
22.7
0.7
0.7
1
1
2
19.3
31.3
12
12
8
8
3
28
38.3
10.3
10.3
7
7
4
13.3
21.3
8
8
4
4
5
14.3
18.3
4
4
3
3
6
18.7
28.3
9.7
9.7
5
5
7
14.3
19.3
15
15
9
9
8
21.3
31.3
10
10
6
6
9
22.7
25
2.3
2.3
2
2
Independent Living. Eight out of the nine students had a positive difference between
their pretest and posttest average scores. One student had no difference between their scores (See
table 10).When calculating the Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive sum was 36 and the negative
sum was 0 resulting in a T value of 0. The scores of the student with no difference were
eliminated resulting in a sample size of 8. Given the sample size of 8 the T critical value was 3
on the Wilcoxon T Table. When the sample data produces a T that is less than or equal to the
table value, the null hypothesis is rejected. Given that the critical value is 5 and the T value is 0,
the null hypothesis is rejected and a conclusion can be drawn that there is a significant difference
between the pretest and posttest. A z-score of -2.57 was obtained when the normal
approximation for the Wilcoxon T was performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained
z-score is outside of the boundary and significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be
drawn that the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on
the Independent Living skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
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76
Table 11
TPI-2 Independent Living
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference
abs difference rank abs difference signed rank
1
17.0
17.0
0.0
0.0
2
18.0
23.3
5.3
5.3
6.5
6.5
3
23.0
28.0
5.0
5.0
5
5
4
11.3
16.7
5.3
5.3
6.5
6.5
5
12.7
14.0
1.3
1.3
1
1
6
18.0
22.0
4.0
4.0
3.5
3.5
7
19.0
21.0
2.0
2.0
2
2
8
22.7
26.7
4.0
4.0
3.5
3.5
9
16.7
22.7
6.0
6.0
8
8
Personal Money Management. Nine out of the nine students had a positive difference
between their pretest and posttest average scores (See table 12). When calculating the Wilcoxon
Signed Rank the positive sum was 45 and the negative sum was 0 resulting in a T value of 0.
Given the sample size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When the sample
data produces a T that is less than or equal to the table value, the null hypothesis is rejected.
Given that the critical value is 5 and the T value is 0, the null hypothesis is rejected and a
conclusion can be drawn that there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest. A
z-score of -2.67 was obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon T was
performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the boundary and
significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of Google Classroom
to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on the Personal Money Management skills
of students with high incidence disabilities.
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77
Table 12
TPI-2 Personal Money Management
Personal Money Management
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference
abs difference
rank abs difference
signed rank
1
9
11
2
2
2
2
2
8
13
5
5
5
5
3
10.7
19.3
8.7
8.7
9
9
4
3.3
10.3
7
7
8
8
5
4.7
10
5.3
5.3
6
6
6
7.3
14
6.7
6.7
7
7
7
11.3
12.3
1
1
1
1
8
12.7
16.3
3.7
3.7
4
4
9
11.7
15
3.3
3.3
3
3
Community Involvement and Usage. Eight out of the nine students had a positive
difference between their pretest and posttest average scores (See table 13). When calculating the
Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive sum was 44 and the negative sum was 1 resulting in a T
value of 1. Given the sample size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When
the sample data produces a T that is less than or equal to the table value, the null hypothesis is
rejected. Given that the critical value is 5 and the T value is 1, the null hypothesis is rejected and
the conclusion that there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest can be drawn.
A z-score of -2.59 was obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon T was
performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the boundary and
significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of Google Classroom
to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on the Community Involvement and Usage
skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
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78
Table 13
TPI-2 Community Involvement and Usage
Community Involvement and Usage
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference
abs difference
rank abs difference
signed rank
1
19
17
-2
-2
1
-1
2
11.3
22
10.7
10.7
8
8
3
21
29.3
8.3
8.3
7
7
4
9.7
16.3
6.7
6.7
6
6
5
10.7
14
3.3
3.3
2
2
6
15.3
20.7
5.3
5.3
4.5
4.5
7
10.3
22.7
12.3
12.3
9
9
8
19.3
24.7
5.3
5.3
4.5
4.5
9
20.7
24.3
3.7
3.7
3
3
Leisure Activities. Seven out of the nine students had a positive difference between their
pretest and posttest average scores. One out of the nine students had no difference between their
scores (See table 14). When calculating the Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive sum was 28 and
the negative sum was 8 resulting in a T value of 8. The scores of the student with no difference
were eliminated resulting in a sample size of 8. Given the sample size of 8 the T critical value
was 3 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When the sample data produces a T that is greater than the table
value, the null hypothesis is accepted. Given that the critical value is 3 and the T value is 8, the
null hypothesis is accepted and the conclusion that there is no significant difference between the
pretest and posttest can be drawn. A z-score of −1.51 was obtained when the normal
approximation for the Wilcoxon T was performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained
z-score is inside of the boundary and not significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be
drawn that the use of Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has no effect on the
Leisure Activities skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
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79
Table 14
TPI-2 Leisure Activities
Leisure Activities
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference abs difference rank abs difference
signed rank
1
14
15
1
1
3
3
2
14.7
15.7
1
1
3
3
3
17.7
19.7
2
2
5
5
4
16.3
16.3
0
0
5
14.3
10
-4.3
4.3
8
-8
6
15.7
16.7
1
1
3
3
7
17.7
20
2.3
2.3
6
6
8
16
19.7
3.7
3.7
7
7
9
16.3
16.7
0.3
0.3
1
1
Health. Seven out of the nine students had a positive difference between their pretest and
posttest average scores (See table 15). When calculating the Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive
sum was 40.5 and the negative sum was 4.5 resulting in a T value of 4.5. Given the sample size
of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When the sample data produces a T that
is less than or equal to the table value, the null hypothesis is rejected. Given that the critical value
is 5 and the T value is 4.5, the null hypothesis is rejected and the conclusion that there is a
significant difference between the pretest and posttest can be drawn. A z-score of -2.16 was
obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon T was performed. With the critical
values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the boundary and significant at the 0.05 level.
Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of Google Classroom to provide transition
curriculum has a positive effect on the Health skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
80
Table 15
TPI-2 Health
Health
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference abs difference
rank abs difference
signed rank
1
17
16
-1
1
1.5
-1.5
2
19.3
22.3
3
3
5
5
3
21
25
4
4
7
7
4
12
13
1
1
1.5
1.5
5
13.7
12.3
-1.3
1.3
3
-3
6
13.3
19.7
6.3
6.3
9
9
7
14.3
19.7
5.3
5.3
8
8
8
18.7
21
2.3
2.3
4
4
9
17
20
3
3.3
6
6
Interpersonal Relationships. Eight out of the nine students had a positive difference
between their pretest and posttest average scores (See table 16). When calculating the Wilcoxon
Signed Rank the positive sum was 40 and the negative sum was 5 resulting in a T value of 5.
Given the sample size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon T Table. When the sample
data produces a T that is less than or equal to the table value, the null hypothesis is rejected.
Given that the critical value is 5 and the T value is 5, the null hypothesis is rejected and the
conclusion that there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest can be drawn. A
z-score of -2.43 was obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon T was
performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the boundary and
significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of Google Classroom
to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on the Interpersonal Relationship skills of
students with high incidence disabilities.
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81
Table 16
TPI-2 Interpersonal Relationships
Interpersonal Relationships
Student
Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference
abs difference rank abs difference signed rank
1
24.3
21.3
-3
3
5
-5
2
29
29.7
0.7
0.7
1
1
3
28.7
33.7
5
5
8
8
4
18
19
1
1
2.5
2.5
5
16
18.3
2.3
2.3
4
4
6
24.3
28.7
4.3
4.3
6.5
6.5
7
16.3
23.3
7
7
9
9
8
29.3
30.3
1
1
2.5
2.5
9
24.7
29
4.3
4.3
6.5
6.5
Transition Planning Inventory Second Edition Total. Nine out of the nine students
had a positive difference between their pretest and posttest average scores (See table 17).When
calculating the Wilcoxon Signed Rank the positive sum was 46 and the negative sum was 0
resulting in a T value of 0. Given the sample size of 9 the T critical value was 5 on the Wilcoxon
T Table. When the sample data produces a T that is less than or equal to the table value, the null
hypothesis is rejected. Given that the critical value is 5 and the T value is 0, the null hypothesis is
rejected and the conclusion that there is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest
can be drawn. A z-score of -2.67 was obtained when the normal approximation for the Wilcoxon
T was performed. With the critical values of ±1.96 the obtained z-score is outside of the
boundary and significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the use of
Google Classroom to provide transition curriculum has a positive effect on the Career and PostSecondary Readiness Skills of students with high incidence disabilities.
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
82
Table 17
TPI-2 Total Scores
Transition Planning Inventory II Total
Student Pretest Average
Posttest Average
Difference abs difference rank abs difference signed rank
1
174.7
180
5.3
5.3
1
1
2
154
215.7
61.7
61.7
7
7
3
205.7
271.3
65.7
65.7
8
8
4
118
160.7
42.7
42.7
5
5
5
108
133.7
25.7
25.7
2
2
6
155.3
215
59.7
59.7
6
6
7
142
210.7
68.7
68.7
9
9
8
197.3
238
40.7
40.7
4
4
9
185.3
220
34.7
34.7
4
4
Findings
The data from both the AIR and TPI-2 showed that Google Classroom had a statistically
significant effect on students with high incidence disabilities acquisition of career and postsecondary readiness skills and on the self-determination skills in all areas except leisure
activities. A further break down on the findings and skill sets assessed by the two rating scales
will be included and explained below.
Conclusion
The data from both rating scales revealed that utilizing Google Classroom had an overall
positive effect on the career and post-secondary readiness and self-determination skills of
students with high incidence disabilities. This positive effect has many implications on future
transition educational practices for students with disabilities. The results also have many
implications for high school special education teachers and administrators. Chapter 5 will discuss
these implications. It will also discuss limitations of the study and recommendations for future
areas of research.
TRANSITION CURRICULUM USING GOOGLE CLASSROOM
83
CHAPTER 5
Discussion
Introduction
Chapter 5 will serve three major purposes. First, it will summarize the results and discuss
their implications for future transition curriculum implementation and their impact on special
education teachers, students with high incidence disabilities and their families, and
administrators. Next, it will discuss the limitations of the study and their possible implications.
Lastly, recommendation for future research will be discussed.
Implications
The purpose of this quantitative study was to determine the effectiveness of using Google
Classroom to implement a transition curriculum on the post-secondary readiness, career
readiness, and self-determination skills of students with high incidence disabilities. A transition
curriculum was developed and implemented incorporating researcher emphasized essential
components of a transition curriculum including: age appropriate assessments, individualized
and student-centered planning and goal setting, career exploration, post-secondary training
exploration, employment preparations, and self-determination (Benz et al., 2000; Fullarton &
Duquette, 2015; Herbert et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Lindstrom et al., 2011; Lombardi et
al., 2020; Morningstar, 1997; Trainor et al., 2016). Pretest and Posttest rating scales were used to
determine if the utilization of Google Classroom had any effect on the skill acquisition of the
student participants. The data from both the TPI-2 and the AIR revealed that Google Classroom
has a positive effect on the post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination
skills of students with high incidence disabilities. This means that it helped to strengthen and
improve the students’ acquisition of skills. This statistically significant improvement has several
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implications for how transition curriculums are planned and implemented in the future. It also
has implications for students with high incidence disabilities and their families, special education
teachers, and administrators.
Impact of Transition Curriculums
The statistically significant gains made by the students with high incidence disabilities in
this study on their posttests indicate that the implementation of the seven components: age
appropriate assessments, individualized and student-centered planning and goal setting, career
exploration, post-secondary training exploration, employment preparations, family engagement,
and self-determination improved their acquisition of career readiness, post-secondary readiness,
and self-determination skills. These results could be a step in the direction of identifying what
should be included in an effective transition curriculum. There are many theories regarding
effective transition curriculum and often leave educators and administrators unsure which
curriculum to purchase or what components to implement. However, the results from this study
indicate that these seven components contribute to student growth in the area of career readiness,
post-secondary readiness, and self-determination skills. Thus, these seven components should be
considered when planning and choosing future transition curriculums for students with high
incidence disabilities to continue to promote student growth and success. However, given that
students did not make a statistically significant gain in the area of leisure activities, additional
activities focusing on this skill set need to be considered when making changes to the
curriculum. It could also mean that a bigger sample size was needed in order to see a gain in the
data.
The statistically significant student improvements indicate that Google Classroom might
be the tool to help school districts improve the delivery and instructional methods of providing
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transition curriculum to students with disabilities. The data also helped the researcher determine
that Google Classroom can bridge the current gaps schools face when implementing a transition
curriculum. Google Classroom allowed the special education teachers to assign activities for the
students to complete when they had free time during their Academic Support class or study halls.
The teachers were able to provide students with feedback online as well as work with the
students on days of in-person instruction. Teachers did not have to try to assist students in their
Academic Support Class or resource room with assignments and quizzes while also trying to
provide students with transition instruction. Teachers did not have to pull students from electives
or core classes to provide transition instruction. Instead the special education teachers were able
to plan and design the activities ahead of time and then assign them according to student
progress. This allowed teachers the ability to implement quality transition lessons instead of
haphazardly implementing a lesson while also providing other students with services and
support.
Additionally, due to COVID-19, part of the school year was a hybrid learning model.
This means the students would come to school for two days of in-person instruction and the other
three days the students engaged in online learning. Without the Google Classroom transition
curriculum, the students would not have received the amount of transition instruction due to the
hybrid learning model. The special education teachers were able to post lessons for students to
complete at home that were already planned and designed. They could then set up times to do a
Google Meet to conduct mini lessons or conference with the student or wait and conference
during an in-person school day.
The implications of implementing a quality transition curriculum with fidelity for
students with disabilities is paramount for improving student success after high school. Too
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many students with high incidence disabilities are graduating unprepared and thus find
themselves relying on others to have their needs met (Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020;
Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al., 2018). With the use of Google Classroom, teachers are able to
implement a quality transition curriculum that students can access when they have time in their
schedule. It also allows teachers to individualize the content and assigned lessons to each
students individualized needs and interests. The flexibility that Google Classroom provides to
both teachers and students is a stepping stone in the right direction of improving the skill
acquisition of students with high incidence disabilities and thus their post-high school outcomes.
Impact on Students
Post-secondary and career readiness skills create the foundation that ensures students
with high incidence disabilities achieve post-secondary and employment success. This is needed
to help students secure financial stability and successfully live independently after high school
(Izzo et al., 2010; Lombardi et al., 2020; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Test et al., 2018). The data
showed that the implementation of a transition curriculum using Google Classroom improved the
acquisition of this skill set which can lead to students with high incidence disabilities achieving
success in post-secondary placements and successfully obtaining and maintaining employment.
Achieving this success can result in the students not needing to rely on families or agencies for
support and therefore improving their quality of life.
Google Classroom allowed the students the flexibility to complete lessons and
assignments during their free time. They did not have to lose an elective class or be pulled from a
core class in order to participate in a transition lesson. Instead they were able to view and
complete the lessons when they had time in their school day. Google Classroom also allowed
students to receive a more individualized instruction. When provided with transition curriculum
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as a small group, the special education teachers differentiate but they are unable to fully
individualize instruction to each student individualized needs, interests, or progress. However,
Google Classroom provided teachers with this ability. If a senior was still unsure what they
wanted to do, the teacher was able to assign career interest surveys and career research
assignments to help the student begin thinking or narrowing their career choices. This flexibility
enable students to receive more transition instruction than in previous years and instruction that
was implemented in an organized and individualized manner thus resulting in the students
gaining a stronger skills set.
Google Classroom also allowed the students to share their activities and results with the
members of their family. Any assignment could be shared with a parent or guardian who has a
working email address. This allows the family members to provide feedback and stay up to date
on what the student is learning. Family members can greatly impact a student’s decision making
and thus it is important that they are involved in their transition learning (Carter et al., 2009;
Fullarton & Duquette, 2015; Landmark et al., 2013; Morningstar, 1997; Piers & Duquette, 2016;
Rodriguez et al, 2017; Test and Fowler, 2018; Trainor et al., 2016; Young, 2007).
The results from the study revealed that students’ self-determination skills statistically
improved when a transition curriculum was implemented using Google Classroom. This
improved knowledge of and ability to use self-determination skills can help students with high
incidence disabilities successfully enroll in post-secondary training, possess and maintain a job,
live independently, and contribute to their communities. It can also enable the students to live
independent and not rely heavily on their families and agencies for support. This can lead to
students having a higher quality of life. Thus, it is important to continue to research and study
ways to continue to improve their outcomes.
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Impact on Special Education Teachers
The statistically significant positive results from this study reveal that Google Classroom
can assist special education teachers in future implementations of a transition curriculum for
students with high incidence disabilities. The results of this study indicate that Google Classroom
can eliminate or at the least help offset the struggle special education teachers, especially those in
rural school districts, face when implementing a transition curriculum for students with
disabilities. This is important to ensure that transition curriculums are being implemented with
fidelity to encourage and ensure student success. With Google Classroom, special education
teachers do not need a common time to implement a curriculum. Instead they can assign modules
and lessons for students to complete during their free periods. Teachers do not have to worry
about accidently skipping lessons on important skills. They all do not have to worry about not
fully covering a lesson because they are trying to not only teach the transition lesson but also
provide other students with support or help on an assignment or test. Instead the curriculum will
be present on Google Classroom to implement throughout the school year or school years
depending on how long they provide the student with transition instruction. Teachers are also
provided with the flexibility of implementing a more individualize transition curriculum to
students. Teachers can implement modules and lessons based on student need, interest, and
progress. Teachers are still able to mentor and guide students throughout the process both in
person and online through video meetings which is important during these uncertain times with
the COVID-19 pandemic.
Impact on Families
The results did determine that Google classroom did have a positive effect on the career
readiness, post-secondary readiness, and self-determination skills of students with high incidence
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disabilities. This skill set can enable students with high incidence disabilities to achieve success
after high school and therefore improve their outcomes and quality of life. Students who have
successful outcomes do not have to financially rely on others such as their families for support.
They are able to successfully live on their own and possess and maintain employment. Thus,
families are not required or obligated to financially support their children after high school.
Google Classroom also provided families the opportunity of being more involved in their
child’s learning. Studies have shown several barriers prevent families from become engaged
including time and other children (Cavendish & Conner, 2018; Landmark et al., 2013; Rodriguez
et al, 2017). Family members have work commitments or other children at home that do not
allow them to frequently attend meetings. However, Google Classroom allowed teachers and
students to include their family members in assignments, projects, and meetings. Any family
member, who had a working email, could receive a copy of student work with the sharing
feature. This allowed parents to provide feedback and stay informed on what their child was
learning. Google Meet, a feature of Google Classroom, also enabled teachers to include parents
in IEP meetings that normally would not be able to attend because of other commitments.
Google Classroom and it’s many features may be one way to improve the involvement of a
student’s family in their learning and transition process.
Impact on Administrators
Administrators are tasked with deciding which curriculum is the best curriculum to
implement in the classroom for all academics, electives, and requirements. One of these state
requirements is a transition curriculum for students with high incidence disabilities. The variety
of transition curriculum models available for schools to implement makes it a difficult decision
to make. However, the results of this study revealed that when a curriculum was implemented
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using Google Classroom that focused on the seven components: age appropriate assessments,
individualized and student-centered planning and goal setting, career exploration, post-secondary
training exploration, employment preparations, and self-determination, students made
statistically significant progress. Thus, administrators should seek to purchase or develop a
curriculum containing these components or encourage and aid their special education staff to
create or build a curriculum that contains these components.
The positive results of the study indicate that the flexibility that Google Classroom
provides to both teachers and students may be an essential part of a transition curriculum for
teachers whose job description requires them to provide additional services to students other than
just transition services. Google Classroom can help teachers balance their instructional time to
ensure all students are provided with the supports they need while also implementing an
individualized transition curriculum with fidelity. It can allow students to access the lessons
when they have time in their schedules instead of losing an elective class or being pulled form a
core class because it is the only time their special education teacher has room in their schedule to
teach transition. Thus, administrators should seek to maintain their schools contract with Google
to ensure teacher and student access to Google Classroom or seek to find a similar format that
also provides students and teachers with the same flexibility.
The positive results of this study have many implications for transition curriculums,
special education teachers, administrators, families, and special education students. The
knowledge from this study has the potential to change transition curriculums to improve and
drastically change the post-high school outcomes of students with high incidence disabilities.
However, there are limitations to the current study. As a result, future research needs conducted
to determine if the same positive results are obtained from replicated studies.
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Recommendations for further research
The current literature surrounding transition curriculums and a description of this study
were presented in chapters one and two. When constructing the literature review, a clear gap in
the literature surrounding transition curriculums was defined. At the time of its construction,
there were no studies the explored utilizing Google Classroom to implement a transition
curriculum. This present study provides the ground work for filling this gap in literature. It also
sets the framework for replication for future studies within other school districts in Pennsylvania
and nationwide.
Only nine student participants completed this study. As a result of this small size, the
sample may not be fully representative of the student population of students with disabilities.
Given this limitation, it is recommended that the study be replicated in larger school districts or
multiple school districts at one time to determine if the same or similar results are obtained with
a large participant group.
The current study utilized participants in a rural setting. Additionally, the current study
utilized participants in the state of Pennsylvania. Given these limitations, it is recommended that
the study be replicated in urban and city schools in the state of Pennsylvania as well as a variety
of school settings nationwide.
The COVID-19 Pandemic was occurring during the time of this study. As a result, the
school district in which the study took place had implemented a hybrid learning model during a
portion of the study. A hybrid learning model means that the students were in school for face-toface instruction two days a week and at home for online instruction three days a week. It is
unknown if the distractions of accessing online learning in the home had an effect on the results
of this study. Given this limitation, it is recommended that the study be replicated during a time
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when the hybrid learning model is not being utilized and all student participants are receiving
instruction in person. Additionally, this study should be replicated within a cyber-school
program.
As discussed in the literature review in chapter two, family involvement is an important
component of transition curriculums and programs. There are several features of Google
Classroom that promote family involvement. However, the focus of this study was on the
student’s skill set and not tracking family involvement. As a result, it would be beneficial to
replicate a similar study that focuses on studying family involvement to determine if utilizing
Google Classroom to implement a transition curriculum improves and encourages student’s
families to become more involved.
Conclusion
There are a variety of directions future transition curriculum research can go. The goal of
this study was to determine if using Google Classroom to implement a transition curriculum had
an effect on the post-secondary readiness, career readiness, and self-determination skills of
students with high incidence disabilities. The positive results of this study set a framework for
special education teachers and administrators to use in their classrooms to assist with student
growth in hopes of improving their futures and quality of life after high school. This study also
sets the framework for future research studies to determine if the same results can be obtained in
different school settings.
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APPENDIX B: PARENTAL CONSENT
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APPENDIX D: TEACHER CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE
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APPENDIX D: AIR TOTAL RESULTS
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APPENDIX E: AIR TOTAL SCORES
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APPENDIX F: TPI2-TOTAL SCORES
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