admin
Fri, 02/09/2024 - 19:51
Edited Text
Running Head: CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Correlating Cognitive Flexibility and Mental Toughness While Examining the Connection
between Failure, Flexibility, and Change Within Spartan Obstacle Course Racers
A DISSERTATION
Submitted to the Faculty of the School of Graduate Studies and Research of California
University of Pennsylvania in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Health Science (DHSc) in Health Science and Exercise Leadership
by Melody Gardner
Research Adviser, Ellen West, EdD, LAT, ATC
California, Pennsylvania
2018
CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITY of PENNSYLVANIA
CALIFORNIA, PA
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Acknowledgements
To my husband, Ralph, my support system and sanity check throughout life, who originated
this idea when I utilized his lifelong mantra of “Semper Gumby, Always Flexible”.
To my Mom, who taught me to always trust my first instinct, because it was usually right.
To my Dad, who taught me that failing to plan was planning to fail.
To my brother, Jesse, and sister, Mary, who both make me laugh like Hell.
To my niece Amelia, who reminds me that there is no such thing as “too much insurance”.
To Mrs. Detterline, Mrs. Lamb, and my Aunt Tam who showed me how to truly live life.
To Joe and George, who both told me to keep dreaming big and never, ever give up.
To Tiny Bubbles and Kyle who provided a technical assist.
To Ashley, who held my drink while I typed.
To Scott; simply, thank you.
To Drs. Dennis and Vander Wal for the use of the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI).
To Drs. Madrigal, Hamill and Hill for the use of the Metal Toughness Scale (MTS).
To Drs. Daday, Hanes, Heery, Mayrhofer and Shuhler for their wise counsel.
To Dr. Hess, who did her absolute best to bulletproof us as we created our proposals.
To Dr. Sovak, who ensured that no analytical stone was left unturned.
To my dissertation committee members, Dr. Hatton and Dr. Miller, for their helpful input.
To my committee chair, Dr. Ellen West, who supported and encouraged my creative process
and personal growth throughout the entire doctoral program.
To Dr. Marc Federico and all the program faculty members for undertaking this nascent
program, sailing boldly through completely uncharted territory with their first crew.
To any reader who wonders how they can make a change in life that seems almost
completely out of reach, I offer this quote, attributed to Art Berg, but whose true original
author is unknown, “While the difficult takes time, the impossible just takes a little longer.”
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Table of Contents
Abstract ...........................................................................................................................................1
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................2
Methods ...........................................................................................................................................6
Research Design .................................................................................................................6
Subjects ...............................................................................................................................7
Instruments .........................................................................................................................8
Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI) .................................................................8
Mental Toughness Scale (MTS) ............................................................................9
Procedures ........................................................................................................................10
Data Analysis ....................................................................................................................13
Quantitative ..........................................................................................................14
Qualitative ............................................................................................................14
Results ...........................................................................................................................................16
Qualitative ........................................................................................................................16
Qualitative ........................................................................................................................19
Discussion......................................................................................................................................21
Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................47
Future Research ...........................................................................................................................50
References .....................................................................................................................................51
Appendix A (Literature Review) ................................................................................................57
Intro ...................................................................................................................................58
Theoretical Construct ......................................................................................................59
Applications ......................................................................................................................64
Sports ....................................................................................................................64
Workplace.............................................................................................................68
Military .................................................................................................................69
Education ..............................................................................................................71
Precursors .........................................................................................................................74
Age & Gender .......................................................................................................74
Hardship & Failure..............................................................................................76
Meaning ................................................................................................................78
Teamwork .............................................................................................................80
Caveats ..............................................................................................................................83
Lack of Support....................................................................................................83
Perfectionism ........................................................................................................85
Costs of Perseverance ..........................................................................................90
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................94
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix B (Problem Statement)...............................................................................................96
Appendix C ...................................................................................................................................99
Appendix C1 (Cognitive Flexibility Inventory)...........................................................100
Appendix C2 (Mental Toughness Scale) ......................................................................103
Appendix C3 (SurveyMonkey Survey) .....................................................................105
Appendix C4 (Interview Logistics) ..............................................................................123
Appendix C5 (IRB Approval) ......................................................................................125
Appendix C6 (Informed Consent) ................................................................................127
Appendix C7 (CITI Certificates) ..................................................................................133
References ...................................................................................................................................138
Supporting Materials .................................................................................................................147
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
List of Figures
Figure 1.
Number of Spartan Races by Gender - Bar Chart
Figure 2.
The DNA of Grit – The Intrinsic Components
Figure 3.
Tree of Life Illustration – The System
Figure 4.
Venn Diagram – Convergent Elements of Cognitive Flexibility
Figure 5.
7 Steps to Transformative Change – The Process
Figure 6.
Gardner’s Magic Quadrant – The Real-Life Takeaway
i
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
List of Tables
Table 1.
Independent-samples t-test of CFI by Gender
Table 2.
Independent-samples t-test of MTS by Gender
ii
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
1
Abstract
Although topical, the nature and function of grit remains incompletely understood, leading to
improper applications and misutilization. Employing a mixed methods research design, this
research examined cognitive flexibility (CF) and mental toughness (MT), two properties closely
related to grit. Quantitative inquiry conducted via SurveyMonkey gathered data from Spartan
obstacle course racers (n = 152) via the Dennis and Vander Wal (2010) Cognitive Flexibility
Inventory (CFI) and the Madrigal, Hamill, and Hill (2013) Mental Toughness Scale (MTS).
Analysis of data demonstrates CF and MT are positively correlated (p < .0001). Too, males
display both higher levels of MT (p < .0001) and CF (p = .0015), whereas no such correlations
exist in females. Subsequent qualitative personal interviews conducted via Facebook Messenger
utilized n = 15 derived from the original Spartan racer participant pool. Transcripts were
thematically analyzed to provide high-level insights and interpretative phenomenological
analysis (IPA) demonstrated both variables to be unique complex constructs with a synergistic
relationship dynamic. Deeper examination of how CF and MT are cultivated elucidated the
unequivocally beneficial impact of each on participants’ lived experiences and overall outcomes.
Implications of this research include stronger support for the neurological link between mindset
and the changes seen in biological structure (Ng, 2018; Schroder, Moran, Donnellan, & Moser,
2014). Future work may include examination of the efficacy of various mind-body interventions
such as bio-feedback, meditation, yoga and other mindfulness practices with the ultimate intent
of facilitating autodidactic improvements in physical, mental and emotional outcomes.
Keywords: Mental toughness, cognitive flexibility, grit, compassion, empowerment
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
2
Introduction
Grit is a term that has seen a surge of popularity in the last decade, its properties being
equated with toughness, defiance of hum-drum convention and inherently denoting all-around
accomplishment. Clear trends emerge when examining the literature showing it is increasingly
considered an important variable in everyday applications such as the workplace, educational
forums, high-pressure situations, or fitness-related pursuits. Studies have yielded significant
positive links between success in these environments and measures of grittiness (EskreisWinkler, Shulman, Beal, & Duckworth, 2013; Meriac, Slifka, & LaBat, 2015).
The generally accepted understanding of the construct of grit as being a ratio of
persistence of effort and longevity of interest seems to neatly echo the 2007 findings of
Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, and Kelly, who described grit as “the propensity to pursue
long-term goals with perseverance and passion” (p. 1100). Yet, when delving into the literature,
qualities associated with the grit construct also closely align with characteristics identified as
components of mental toughness (MT) in sport (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2007; Madrigal
et al., 2013; Perlis, 2013; Stonkus & Royal, 2015).
Research explores perseverance as a facet of MT, noting that it is also affected by its own
variable sub-components, relying on both the meaningfulness of the action to the actor (Kleiman,
Adams, Kashdan, & Riskind, 2013; Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015) and the resilience required to
keep working towards a goal when others may have already discontinued their efforts, having
deemed the task too daunting or the result not worth the effort (Lundman, Strandberg, Eisemann,
Gustafson, & Brulin, 2007; Perlis, 2013; Von Culin, Tsukayama, & Duckworth, 2014). These
findings suggest MT is not simply a mix of personality traits assignable only to a lucky few as
previously theorized. Instead, MT has been shown to be more of a frame of mind and state of
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
3
being, composed of attributes which may be cultivated and refined over time (Gucciardia,
Peeling, Duckera, & Dawson, 2016; Weinberg, Freysinger, Mellano, & Brookhouse, 2016).
The concept of resilience is an important facet of MT which Liu, Reed, and Girard (2017)
examined as a dynamic construct called the Multi-System Model of Resilience (MSMR). The
ebb and flow of the characteristic, as described by this model, speaks to the varied influences on
resilience, including personal lifestyle choices, interpersonal relationships and larger scale
factors such as geographic location, social groups and socio-economic status. Because the
influence that any combination of these factors may exert is constantly changing, our ability to
be resilient would logically also be affected as the gravity of each factor increases or diminishes.
This more comprehensive MSMR model demonstrates that resilience is also, as MT, not a
steady-state characteristic assignable at a fixed value (Liu et al., 2017; Lundman et al., 2007;
Martin, Byrd, Lewis Watts, & Dent, 2015; Robertson, Cooper, Sarkar, & Curran, 2015). This
expanded understanding of resilience should provide a sense of empowerment in the effort to
improve resilience at an individual level and further supports the observation that MT is similarly
adaptable in nature.
Current literature describes the effects of high-pressure situations on MT, recognizing the
potential pitfalls of its employment without maintaining a realistic perspective on outcomes.
Displaying perfectionist tendencies (Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Perlis, 2013), or pushing too hard
without regard to risk versus gain (Crust, Swann, & Allen-Collinson, 2016; Lucas, Gratch,
Cheng, & Marsella, 2015) often result in negative ramifications when there is a singular focus on
one perceived definition of success without the potential for flexibility or iterative revisions in
the pursuit of a goal. Perfectionism has been linked to a tendency towards a growth-limiting
fixed mindset (Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Perlis, 2013; Schroder et al., 2014), whereas the antithesis
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
4
of perfectionism, failure, has been identified as a contributory factor in the cultivation of greater
MT (DiMenichi & Richmond, 2015; Lucas et al., 2015).
When engaging in maladaptive perfectionism, the affected individuals experience great
difficulty or a complete inability to deviate from a singular prescribed definition of success,
defined by Flett and Hewitt (2014) as a fixed mindset. In that state, the person cannot or will not
recognize any amounts of progress or positive movement as success because it does not match
that one ideal they perceive as success. Dennis and Vander Wal (2010) developed the Cognitive
Flexibility Inventory (CFI) to measure the ability to adapt one’s thought patterns away from
fixating on a single definition of success to a less rigid viewpoint which accommodates varied
avenues towards stated goals and intentions. This measure of CF indicates that those who
exhibit mental rigidity often feel they have very little ability to generate alternatives or to control
the outcomes of their endeavors (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010). In contrast, adopting a growth
mindset promotes self-compassion and the willingness to employ cognitive flexibility (CF) to
generate iterative approaches in the pursuit of goals with the recognition that imperfection and
failure still align with progress, achievement, and ultimately, success (Mangels, Butterfield,
Lamb, Good, & Dweck, 2006).
The judicious application of MT has demonstrated benefits in long-term success across
varied life situations. However, in less mentally tough individuals, the practice of quitting when
faced with adverse conditions has become a prevalent and acceptable response to handling
difficult situations. Experiencing hardship and failure are essential to the process of developing
MT and since perfectionists avoid failure, perfectionism and its practices do not contribute to a
greater measure of mental toughness. Since quitting removes any possibility for improvement,
giving up is clearly not the preferred method of coping with adversity or facilitating personal
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
5
growth in any area of life. With research suggesting that MT is not simply trait-based but a
dynamic and adaptable state of being, gaining greater insight into the impact of CF in relation to
the purposeful applications of MT would clearly be beneficial and may provide an avenue to
reverse that trend (Gucciardi et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2017; Weinberg, et al., 2016).
Hardship creates fear of failure and discourages individuals from continuing to pursue
their goals. When working toward a meaningful life goal, remaining dynamic enough to
persevere through adversity or persist after failure is essential to MT development. However, no
research previously existed to directly correlate the impact that CF and failure have within the
actual process of developing greater MT. This research quantitatively measures the correlation
between cognitive flexibility and mental toughness. Additionally, through qualitative analysis of
personal interviews, it is possible to interpret meaning and draw credible conclusions about how
maintaining a growth mindset after experiencing a setback fosters greater MT.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
6
Methods
This section serves to specifically highlight the variables being studied in this research,
cognitive flexibility (CF) and mental toughness (MT), the design of the research, the nature of
the participants in this study, the instrumentation proposed to gather data, the procedures by
which the research will be carried out, and data analysis.
Research Design
The purpose of this mixed method design was to first examine the relationship between
CF and MT, and then to gather data about individual personal experiences to bolster the theory
that the ability to adapt one’s definition of success after failure is paramount to personal
achievement. The quantitative research questions are rooted in the negative correlation between
CF and perfectionism and utilized valid and reliable measures of MT and CF to further
demonstrate a positive correlation between having high CF and high levels of MT. The
qualitative research question was based upon the element of failure or hardship and its impact on
both the ability to be mentally flexible and the process of cultivating MT. The mixed methods
research design allows for a comprehensive approach, pairing data derived through valid and
reliable instruments of measurement with the perceptions and viewpoints of those participants
who embody the variables we seek to more thoroughly understand.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
7
Subjects
The subjects of both the quantitative and qualitative research were selected based upon
involvement in Spartan races. This terrain-dependent obstacle race series consists of three main
variants, increasing in both course length and number of obstacles included as they progress
from Sprint to Super to Beast. Participants may race independently or as part of a team.
Inclusion within this population increased likelihood of participant MT due to the challenging
nature of these races and made for ideal participants when examining how their measured levels
of CF and MT correlate to their personal experiences. Participants were recruited to participate
in an online SurveyMonkey survey via purposive sampling method by providing a survey link
to members of targeted Facebook groups focusing on participation in Spartan obstacle course
races. These included groups such as Spartans of the Northeast, a regional group with 15,000
members or Spartan 4-0, a national group for adults age 30 and over with more than 11,000
members. Qualified participants were adults, aged 18 or older, male or female, who had
previously taken part in a Spartan race. As there are a multitude of conditions such as inclement
weather, impassible terrain, illness or injury which can cause a do not finish (DNF), subjects
need not have completed a Spartan to have taken part in the research and non-finishers were not
excluded from the study.
Convenience and purposive sampling methods were used, as ideal subjects were those
who were already considered to be mentally tough (the desired research condition) and using
targeted groups provided salient insight into the participants’ personal journeys and the process
of becoming mentally tough. Although it may be assumed that an obstacle course race would
naturally attract mentally tough participants, thereby limiting the ability to apply the results of
this research to a broader population, it should be stated that this event is not restricted to elite or
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
8
professional athletes and purposely strives to be inclusive in its offerings. In so doing, the
participants in adult Spartan races cover a wide range of ages, fitness levels and backgrounds,
widening the implication and imbuing meaningfulness to this study’s findings in the context of a
more expansive population.
The large pool of potential participants in these targeted social media groups yielded a
statistically significant sample size for the both the quantitative (n = 152) and qualitative (n = 15)
portion of this study. Qualitative participants were selected from the quantitative participants
with the minimum number of participants identified as n = 15 for best data analysis outcomes.
Instruments
This section describes the instruments chosen to measure the variables we will study.
Quantitatively, we will measure cognitive flexibility (CF) and mental toughness (MT) and the
relationship between them. Qualitatively, in those individuals quantitatively shown to have high
measured levels of MT, we further explore links between failure and CF and their implications
on cultivating greater levels of MT.
Quantitative. Participants completed the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI), a 20item measure utilizing a 7-point Likert scale where 1 = Strongly Disagree and 7 = Strongly
Agree which was developed in 2010 by Dennis and Vander Wal (Appendix C1). The CFI
demonstrates high face, criterion and convergent validity (α = .90) and measures multiple facets
attributed to perfectionist personality traits with high reliability (r = .81). This instrument
provides insight into the participants’ propensity to exhibit perfectionism and identifies two
factors of CF, feeling able to control outcomes and the ability to generate alternatives. The CFI
notes that certain items are reverse-scored so that a higher overall score represents greater CF.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
9
This instrument was originally designed to be administered via a hard copy and scored manually,
however it was incorporated into an electronic format to record and reflect answers.
Participants also completed the Inventory of Mental Toughness Scale (MTS), which is a
valid (α = .86) measure of MT with a test-retest reliability of r = .90 at a 1-week interval.
Developed by Madrigal, Hamill and Gill in 2013, this 11-item instrument (Appendix C2) utilizes
a 5-point Likert scale where 1 = Strongly Disagree and 5 = Strongly Agree, and is designed to
assess respondent scores in MT. The results of this Likert-scale (minimum score = 11 and
maximum score = 55) are interpreted with higher scores representing higher levels of MT with
no items reverse scored. This instrument was originally designed to be administered via a hard
copy and scored manually, however it was also incorporated into an electronic format to record
and reflect answers. This SurveyMonkey survey shall henceforth be referenced as one single
item, considered to be Appendix C3 of this proposal.
Qualitative. Based upon the results of the quantitative data gathering process, semistructured interviews were conducted with 15 respondents who also consented to further
participation. Open-ended questions intended to target previous efforts that resulted in initial
failures and eventual success were included and further explore to expand upon their individual
experiences (Appendix C4). Questions addressed topics such as the participants’ definition of
MT and CF, what it means in their daily lives to be mentally tough, their perceptions about
failure. Each was also encouraged to share a transformative story from their personal experience
which has helped them become the person they are now. Utilizing a phenomenological approach
to perceive changes in viewpoint and approach which participants applied during subsequent
attempts at goals after an initial failure provided deeper understanding of the process which spurs
personal development and greater resilience. Following a loosely constructed framework as a
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
10
guideline while employing an iterative style of questioning ultimately allowed the research
findings to interleave, building upon previous answers to create a comprehensive landscape of
interconnected experiential data from which we may draw deeper insights about applied CF on
resultant MT.
First-person researcher presence in conducting interviews increased integrity during the
data collection process, ensuring that the participants truly met the requirements for inclusion in
the interviews (e.g. 18 years of age or older, former Spartan participant, etc.) Credibility of this
experiential data was further supported and strengthened by using Facebook Messenger and email exchanges to ensure that no data was missed, mishandled or misinterpreted when reviewing
participant feedback. As the transformative process this research was designed to study is
correlated to enduring hardship or failure, exploring research questions from different angles
provided clarity. Requesting information in the form of a retrospective summary and analysis of
participants’ own experiences elucidated the stimuli which acted as the catalyst for their
metamorphosis, lending greater dependability to the resulting responses.
Procedures
The following sub-section is a step-by-step description of the procedures employed after
receiving approval for the study by the California University of Pennsylvania IRB (Appendix
C5), as a means of gathering data needed for this research on cognitive flexibility (CF) and
mental toughness (MT).
Preliminary Survey. The preliminary survey was taken by twelve participants drawn
from other cohorts in the Doctor of Health Science (DHSc) program. The average time to finish
the survey was recorded as nine minutes. No significant flaws were noted in the functioning of
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
11
the survey itself and only slight cosmetic changes to clarify instructions were suggested and
subsequently incorporated into the final version of the survey. Although no analysis was
performed on data gathered in this pilot study, all answers were recorded by SurveyMonkey© as
anticipated with the gathered data valid for analysis. No malfunctions or unintended instances
occurred, and the survey gathered the intended CF and MT data.
Quantitative. Participants were recruited to participate in an online SurveyMonkey
survey (Appendix C3) via purposive sampling method by targeting Facebook groups which had
a focus on participation in Spartan obstacle course races. Groups included those such as
Spartans of the Northeast, a regional group with 15,000 members, or Spartan 4-0, a national
group for adults age 30 and over. This survey was promoted via Facebook posts within the
groups with reminders posted weekly for the 4-week duration of the data gathering timeframe.
Participants viewed the informed consent (Appendix C6) and clicked the link to continue,
confirming they were both age 18 or over and had previously participated in a Spartan race in
order to continue on and access the survey. Potential participants who did not meet the inclusion
criteria were directed to a page thanking them for their time while informing them that they did
not meet the parameters for participation in the survey. Participants who accepted the informed
consent and proceeded were prompted to complete non-identifying demographic questions
asking for current age (whole number), state of residence and gender (male or female).
Participants had the option to enter their contact information if they consented to
participate in the future qualitative personal interview portion of the study. Participants then
completed the Dennis and Vander Wal (2010) Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI, Appendix
C1) and the Madrigal, Hamill and Gill (2013) Mental Toughness Scale (MTS, Appendix C2),
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
12
both of which were converted to an electronic format (SurveyMonkey) for ease in scoring and
analysis (Appendix C3).
Qualitative. Based upon the results of the quantitative data gathering process, those
participants who consented to volunteer further participation were contacted using the e-mail
address, Facebook profile or phone number provided during the quantitative survey to ensure
interest and secure participation in the qualitative interviews. Subjects’ informed consent
(Appendix C6) would be implied, as an online survey response serves as consent in an adult
population. Also, quantitative data gathering was restricted to an electronic format without
personally identifying information and all results are reported in aggregate form. However,
those who had also consented to proceed further were also sent an informed consent checklist to
complete prior to scheduling an interview.
A total of 15 interviews were conducted to gather qualitative input, where all but one was
conducted via Facebook Messenger with the remaining one completed via e-mail exchange due
to scheduling constraints on the participant’s behalf. The instant transcripts provided by the
Messenger function ensured that no data was missed during analysis, increasing the integrity of
the responses and resultant findings. Also, the propensity for respondent acquiescence bias
decreased, as there was no face-to-face interaction where body language or tone of voice would
unintentionally guide participant responses. Participants were all self-identifying and by the
nature of their interactive communications were deemed to meet inclusion requirements (e.g. 18
years of age, Spartan participant). This identification process increased credibility that the
responses would provide salient findings with resultant insights meaningful and applicable to a
larger, more universal group.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
13
Semi-structured interviews were conducted employing open-ended questions which
pertained to CF and MT, but also extended into inquiry examining how participants’ experiences
with failure may have ultimately contributed to their long-term success. The phenomenological
interviews delved as deeply as possible into participants’ personal experiences while attempting
to identify overlapping elements within the variables being studied. This approach provided a
more thorough picture of how failure functions alongside CF and MT, offering the ability to
apply the knowledge gained here to a broader population. Deeper insights about applied CF and
effects on resultant MT in everyday life provide a broader scope beyond previously studied
venues of sport performance, occupational or educational circumstances. Sample interview
questions appear in Appendix C Additional Methods as Interview Logistics (Appendix C4).
Data Analysis
The following sub-section is an outline of the metrics and techniques used to analyze the
data collected during the quantitative research on cognitive flexibility (CF) and mental toughness
(MT) and the ensuing qualitative interviews which further explored the relationships amongst
CF, MT and instances of hardship and failure, with expectations including:
•
A positive correlation would be demonstrated between measures of CF and MT, meaning
obstacle course racers with high MT scores will also report high measures of CF and that
age is predictive of MT, with older racers consistently reflecting higher MT scores.
•
Mentally tough individuals would identify both previous failures and corresponding shifts
in perspective allowing them to overcome adversity and achieve success.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
•
14
The significance of enduring failure on the journey to greater strength is expected to align
mentally tougher individuals with a greater level of cognitive flexibility in terms of the
ability to re-frame the meaning of success after failure.
Quantitative. The quantitative portion of the study aimed to provide greater insight into
the process of the cultivation of MT, specifically in the context of CF and the ability to re-frame
or re-define the meaning of success. Based upon the findings established in previous research,
there was an expectation that a positive correlation would be demonstrated between measures of
CF and MT, meaning obstacle course racers with high MT scores would also report high
measures of CF. There was also support for MT scores of older participants being higher than
their younger counterparts and it was thought that this trend might be replicated upon analysis of
MTS scores compared to stated age. A significance level of α = p ≤ 0.05 was used for all
quantitative analyses comparing total CFI and MTS scores while considering the variables of
age, gender and number of Spartan races run. Analysis types included Pearson product-moment
correlation coefficient, Spearman rank-order correlation coefficient, linear regression analysis
and the independent-samples t-test.
Qualitative. Designs of this nature may be categorized as qualitative inductive content
analysis in that the outcomes of the research inform the hypothesis formation after the data has
been collected, analyzed and interpreted. More specifically, the aim of this research aligned well
with interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA), a technique which seeks to comprehend not
only the meaning of the data collected in relation to the variables studied, but also the underlying
meaningfulness of the events to participants themselves (Kidd & Eatough, 2017). Individuals
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
15
were expected to identify both previous failures and corresponding shifts in perspective allowing
them to overcome adversity and achieve success.
Systematic content analysis is a method of gaining insight from interview findings by
thoroughly evaluating the data collected via personal interviews and coding the data by
identifying repetitive thematic similarities (Dudovskiy, 2017). Iterative categorization of the
findings in terms of the catalytic events recalled during the development of greater MT allowed
deconstruction and closer inspection of those situations or themes. Creating categories and subcategories to demonstrate the incidence of answers sharing similar content supported validity
across the entirety of the findings. Digital transcripts were utilized to remove recall bias by
serving as a permanent record of the interview content not subject to memory gaps and provided
useful reference documentation during further analysis. Employing methodological triangulation
by comparing conclusions drawn from the analysis of qualitative interviews with the results of
quantitative data provides greater support for findings and lends increased credibility to
outcomes and findings.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
16
Results
This section describes the findings of the study and includes supporting documentation in
the form of tables outlining the findings.
Quantitative. Over a 4-week data collection period, survey responses were collected via
SurveyMonkey® survey distributed via link in Spartan racer Facebook groups.
Demographics & Summary Statistics. The quantitative survey gathered 152 complete
surveys for analysis (25 responses were excluded from analysis due to incomplete surveys). Of
the total participants, 91 were female (average age 40.4) and 61 were male (average age 42.5).
The mean age of all participants was 41.2 years. Respondents also identified state of residence
and a total of 30 different U.S. states and Canada were represented across the 152 participants.
CF & MT. Once all survey data had been gathered and recorded, SAS Studio 3.7
(Enterprise Edition) statistical analysis software (Cody, 2015) was utilized to determine the
strength and direction of the relationship between the two ordinal variables being studied, in this
case, the reported CF and MT scores (Hurley, Denegar, & Hertel, 2011). A significance level of
α = p ≤ 0.05 was used for all quantitative analyses. The average score for the CFI was 117.2 +
10.2. The average score for the MTS was 43.2 + 5.3. In performing a Pearson Correlation of
Coefficients analysis, a moderate positive correlation was shown between CF and MT (r(150) =
.391, p < .0001), indicating a significant linear relationship between the two variables. Based on
these findings, participants with higher CF would be expected to exhibit higher MT. No
significant relationship or weighting was seen when more closely examining the two sub-scales
of the CFI, Ability to Generate Alternatives and the Feeling in Control of Outcomes. Both
instruments demonstrated high internal reliability, with CFI (α = .86) and MTS (α = .84).
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
17
Age. In performing a Pearson Correlation of Coefficients analysis, no significant
correlation was shown between age and either of the variables CF (r(150) = 0.02, p = 0.81) or
MT (r(150) = 0.05, p = 0.58).
Gender. In examining the data through the lens of gender, there was roughly a 3:2 ratio
of women to men who participated in this quantitative survey. Figure 1 shows the three
categories of races broken down by gender with the number of participants shown in each.
Figure 1. Bar chart of total participants split by gender, based upon number of Spartan races run.
When examining the summary statistics for CFI and MTS in relation to gender, males scored
5.4 points higher on average on the CFI than females. Similarly, males scored an average of 3.5
points higher on the MTS than females. Using SAS Studio 3.7 (Executive Edition), the variables
of CF and MT were more closely examined to explore the implication of gender on outcomes.
Results are outlined in Tables 1 and 2.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
18
Independent-sample t-tests examining the CF and MT variables in the context of gender
demonstrated a strong positive correlation in males for both qualities. As shown in Table 1, an
independent-samples t-test comparing mean scores of the female and male groups for the CFI
found a significant difference between the means of the two groups’ CFI scores (t(123) = -3.25, p
= .0015).
Table 1. Independent-samples t-test of CFI by Gender.
Gender
N
M
SD
SE
Females
Males
91
61
115.1
120.5
9.6
10.3
1.01
1.31
t
-3.25
p
.0015
As shown in Table 2, an independent-samples t-test comparing the mean scores of the
female and male groups for the MTS found a significant difference between the means of the two
groups’ MTS scores (t(126) = -4.10, p < .0001). This shows scores are significantly different
between the genders, with men scoring higher than women on both the CFI and the MTS.
Table 2. Independent-samples t-test of MTS by Gender.
Gender
N
M
SD
SE
Females
Males
91
61
41.8
45.2
5.0
5.2
0.53
0.66
t
p
-4.10 < .0001
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
19
Additional Findings. Based upon the summary statistics showing both CFI and MTS
scores when accounting for number of Spartan races run, minimum scores of CF are highest in the
group who ran only one race (M = 118.4, SD = 7.7) versus for two to five races (M = 116.0, SD =
9.4) or for five or more races (M = 117.6, SD = 10.8). However, the highest CFI scores were found
in those reporting the most races run (five or more).
Qualitative. Fifty-six Spartan racers initially volunteered to take part in the qualitative
interview. Of those, one could not be identified as no contact information was provided.
Further, two Spartan racers returned their informed consent checklists but did not schedule
interviews and one racer returned a blank informed consent checklist and did not respond to
follow up requests for a completed form. A further thirty-seven racers did not respond to the
requests made for further participation, making the total of participants in the qualitative data
collection group n = 15.
Demographics & Summary Statistics. Over a 6-week data collection period, interviews
were conducted with 15 participants (6 females, 9 males) ranging in age from 23-67 years (M =
40). Interview duration ranged between 36 minutes to 133 minutes, with a mean duration of 76
minutes. Gender had no bearing on either response length or interview duration. Participants’
CFI scores ranged from a minimum of 94 and a maximum of 140 out of 140 possible points (M =
120). Participants’ MTS scores ranged from a minimum of 29 to a maximum of 52 out of 55
possible points, (M = 42).
Findings. As postulated, all 15 participants related instances of failure or hardship as an
impetus to develop greater MT through the use of CF. Specific instances of this process
included revising definitions of success, generating alternative approaches to previous failures,
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
20
enduring difficult circumstances without giving up and demonstrating the ability to be accept
uncertainty while maintaining a positive attitude. The dynamic approach to difficult problems
advised for CF work beyond the issue instead of halting the growth process by focusing on the
initial failure itself. This finding corresponds to research indicating that fixed mindsets do not
allow room for growth and cause difficulty when pursuing achievement (Dennis & Vander Wal,
2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Mangels et al., 2006; Perlis, 2013; Schroder et al., 2014).
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
21
Discussion
Quantitative
CF and MT. Because there is strong evidence highlighting the usefulness of flexibility
and compassion in combating perfectionist tendencies, a negative correlation between
perfectionism and MT (DiMenichi & Richmond, 2015; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Lucas et al., 2015),
and showing that MT development is supported by the qualities of CF (Dennis & Vander Wal,
2010), findings were expected to reflect a positive correlation between the variables of CF and
MT. This expectation was supported by data analysis outcomes and was clearly reflected in the
significance level of p < .0001 returned when examining the relationship between these two
constructs.
Age. Due to the influence of resilience on MT (Liu et al., 2017) and the demonstrated
increase in resilience over time (Lundman et al., 2007), older participants were expected to
reflect higher MT scores when comparing MTS scores to stated age. However, no significant
results were shown when analyzing either MT or CF in terms of participant age. This finding did
not align with the expectation of findings stated at the outset of the research. Because resilience,
a key component of MT, is shown to increase steadily year-over-year (Lundman et al., 2007), the
finding that no significant relationship existed between age and MT was initially surprising.
However, upon reflection, resilience must be considered as a multi-faceted construct (Liu et al.,
2017) and everyone may have a different "start point" or may experience mitigating factors
which affect resilience levels. Although there is evidence demonstrating that resilience increases
linearly with advancing age (Lundman et al., 2007), not every individual will reflect the same
initial level of resilience nor have the same life experiences or personal support network.
Therefore, the results of a single-instance general population sample will be inconclusive,
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
22
representing current individual measures whereas an individual may show linear progression in
levels of resilience by utilizing a repeated measures methodology of examining their personal
survey results over time.
Spartans. Findings indicate the minimum CF levels of Spartan races who have
completed a single race are higher than those who have completed 2-5 races or 5 or more races.
While initially counter-intuitive on the surface, it is logical to propose that the decision to take on
the challenge of something new and intimidating requires moving into a growth mindset from the
previously held fixed mindset and that levels of CF need to be relatively high to enact this
change. It is also logical to suggest that one’s maximum capacity for CF would continue to grow
over time as experience increases, a conclusion supported by findings indicating the highest
measures of CF were found in the most experienced racers. This suggestion is also supported by
previous findings that point to toughness accumulating over time with increased aptitude (Fieril,
Olsen, Glantz, & Larsson, 2014; Madrigal et al., 2013). It is plausible, then, to suggest that this
process of developing greater CF has no arbitrary end nor limits to advancement except those
which accompany the termination of effort or the denouement of one’s life.
Gender. Findings suggest that male Spartan racers are tougher at a general baseline and
may possess a greater ability to adapt than the females partaking in similar conditions. This
finding initially appears in conflict with research linking females’ GRIT-S scores to greater
academic achievement (Cross, 2014; Zimmerman & Brogan, 2015), increasing toughness
through life experiences such as pregnancy that only women undergo (Fieril et al., 2014) and
results indicating females become tougher as they age in comparison to the corresponding
increase in toughness seen in males (Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2013). However, the implication is
that women achieve the same goals as their male counterparts at lower levels of MT and CF.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
23
Although the age range and mean age is very similar within both groups in this participant pool,
one factor that may provide insight into this variance is a differing perception of change. In
males, once beyond puberty, physical appearance and body functions remain relatively
consistent for decades. However, from the onset of puberty, through menstruation, pregnancy,
menopause and beyond, a woman’s body chemistry changes constantly, even daily (Hoyt &
Falconi, 2015). This inevitability of change is a fact of life for women and may partially explain
why this group had a higher concentration of females than males who demonstrated similar
achievements while reporting lower levels of MT and CF than male participants.
Qualitative
This discussion sub-section outlines the important themes and insights gained from a
thematic and interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) of the data gathered in interviews.
The following sections describe CF and MT in the terms that participants used to identify their
meanings and usefulness in every day applications.
Mental Toughness. In discussions of mental toughness, participants identified the
following three themes in their definitions of MT.
Sense of Agency/Empowerment. The ability to continue functioning at a high level when
things are difficult and/or ambiguous was identified as crucial to maintaining MT, noted by
Participant #14 as “Keeping [one’s] mind in a place to endure stressful or challenging
situations.” Participant #2 defined it as “Pushing past the ‘quit’ in your brain” by acknowledging
the difficulty that is being faced but making the conscious decision to succeed anyway. One
prominent insight included the idea that people have an ability to choose their response to a
situation with Participant #9 saying “...to an extent, misery is a choice....” Another suggestion
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
24
mentioned allowing yourself, in the pursuit of a goal, the ability to decide if it is best to persevere
on your current path or to take a different path instead. These responses support the theory that a
growth mindset versus a fixed mindset is often the only difference between defeat and eventual
success (Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Mangels et al., 2016; Ng, 2018).
Perspective. Responses suggested that when there is a larger perspective available, a
greater comfort level exists to take on challenges and not avoid them. Understanding that similar
goals may hold different meaning to each person also provides a broader viewpoint on a situation
and more empathy towards others. Lastly, working with present abilities without allowing
judgment (either self-imposed or external) to negatively influence your decisions was noted as
important. This insight supports the negative correlation demonstrated between social
desirability bias, where a person is more concerned with outside judgement than their own
priorities and the development of greater MT (Madrigal, Hamill, & Gill, 2013). Logically, this
would explain why those who choose a unique path are often referred to as “the black sheep”.
Perseverance. This quality was described by participants as the ability to stay focused
and motivated over time, having continued dedication or committing to success over time. Other
answers included the ability to overcome adverse circumstances when others may have quit or
pushing harder towards a goal for a longer time than others might. These responses highlighted
the importance of longevity of effort, similarly noted by Duckworth, Eichstaedt, and Ungar
(2015) when describing the impact of work duration on the final outcomes of achievement in
comparison to the variable of raw talent.
Cognitive Flexibility. In discussions of cognitive flexibility, participants identified the
following three themes in their definitions of CF.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
25
Openness to Change. Participants identified the need to remain open to alternatives, both
self-generated or from external sources of input. Participant #8 mentioned this also possibly
meant “…facing uncertain outcomes with an open mind.” The ability to be flexible in approach
when outcomes may be ambiguous is how Flett and Hewitt (2014) propose that perfectionists
may see beyond their fixed mindset towards a growth mindset where they may continue making
progress towards goals. However, Brand et al. (2015b) note that perfectionist tendencies are
related to difficulty in identifying, understanding and regulating emotions, logically creating
difficulty in altering those emotions and pursuant reactions. The presence of openness seems to
be the vehicle allowing for the journey between those two mindsets, a theory supported by
findings of Lin et al. (2017) who noted that MT imbues us with the confidence in our own
psychological resources needed to cope with strong emotions and conditions which cause them.
Adaptability. The concept of adaptability was recognized by Participant #15 as the fact
that different days may require different approaches to similar issues because a previous solution
may no longer work. Others cited using problem solving skills and creativity to learn and
leveraging the ability to improvise in dynamic situations to overcome difficulties. Lastly,
adaptability was defined as working with what you have, even if it is not what was originally
expected or desired. In examining the literature, CF is partially defined as the ability to generate
alternative solutions to challenges (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010). DiMenichi and Richmond
show that revising methodology in the pursuit of mastery leads to measurable improvement in
sport performance (2015) while Martin et al. (2015) demonstrate that adaptability allows for
fulfilling life experiences after sustaining a serious debilitating injury. Flett and Hewitt (2014)
present adaptability as a crucial technique in combating perfectionism and Perlis (2013) links
non-perfectionism to greater toughness. With previous research showing value in the interactive
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
26
functions of CF and MT in real-life applications, the present findings serve to reinforce the
strong link between CF and MT when attempting to achieve success after failure or hardship.
Thinking Differently. When responding to interview questions about how using CF
potentially provided advantages in life, many respondents mentioned the ability to “think
differently” than others. They felt that the ability to see the same question from different angles
offered the capacity to consider options beyond the typical and an ability to derive more elegant
solutions. Thinking differently also was noted to provide a greater respect for alternative points
of view or input from external sources of information. As the ability to generate alternatives is
itself a sub-scale of the CFI instrument, this theme or welcoming and respecting additional
options clearly aligns with Dennis and Vander Wal’s (2010) definition of CF.
Integral Components. The successful measurement of personal experiences hinges on
the careful inspection and the subsequent comparison of the entire range of data collected
through these participant interviews. To ensure that the conclusions derived here possessed
sufficient validity, this IPA analysis employed the double hermeneutic theory which examines
both the meaningfulness assigned by participants to personal experiences and the interpretation
of the meaning of the qualitative data in the larger context of the phenomena studied in the
research (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2012/2014). Thus, the following sub-themes are the roots of the
process, combining to feed into the larger concepts of CF and MT.
Failure/Adversity. During analysis, it was found that all 15 participants mentioned both
navigating circumstances they considered failures or serious hardships and the value of
overcoming adversity or persisting after failure in the process of cultivating greater mental
toughness. Examples include abusive relationships, failed marriages, climbing (literal)
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
27
mountains, violent encounters, unexpected pregnancies, difficult workplace situations, and
physical/mental challenges. These circumstances factored into the cultivation of greater MT and
provided perspective into the participants’ priorities in life. Exploring the significance of
enduring failure on the journey to become stronger aligns mentally tough individuals with a
greater level of CF in terms of the ability to re-frame the meaning of success after failure.
Participants repeatedly mentioned the concepts of flexibility in thinking and approach,
receptivity to different ideas and an overall dynamic attitude towards change. This finding
supports the hypothesis that failure and corresponding shifts in perspective or approach are
integral components of becoming more mentally tough (DiMenichi & Richmond, 2015; Lucas et
al., 2015) and that perfectionism is contra-indicated in cultivating MT (Flett & Hewitt, 2014;
Perlis, 2013).
Support. Participants repeatedly mentioned receiving encouragement and feeling a sense
of community as a crucial element allowing for sustained effort during times of difficulty.
Examples included cultivating support through self-compassion after a personal failure (sporting
loss, failed marriage, unsuccessful attempt at an educational goal) or during a period of hardship
in life (death of a close family member, serious illness or disability). This was also reflected as
receiving support from external sources, such as the instance cited by Participant #1 about
climbing Mt. Kilimanjaro with 28 others where group members encouraged one another along
the way. An extension of these findings was the propensity to pay it forward by encouraging and
supporting others in their pursuit of achievement. These findings support previous research
about teamwork in sport performance. Discovered by Otto Köhler, a psychologist and rowing
coach who realized his athletes worked harder when they worked together, the Köhler motivation
gain effect was found to increase physical output when participants were part of a group versus
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
28
when working alone, even if one’s teammate was virtual in nature (Feltz, Kerr, & Irwin, 2011).
Group dynamics in sport performance require buy-in from both the supporting and supported
parties, ensuring the commitment to excel will flow in both directions to build a mutually
beneficial relationship over time.
Mindfulness. Many participants mentioned the concept of mindfulness as an intrinsic
part of approaching life and responses fell into one or more of three main categories.
Beginner’s Mind. First, the Buddhist concept of Beginner’s Mind, which is to look at
situations with fresh eyes instead of feeling as if you already know how things should or will go.
Interviewees repeatedly reflected the need to be open to different viewpoints outside of
previously held beliefs/approaches and to embracing the unknown instead of fearing or avoiding
what is not possible to predict. This finding correlates with the larger CF definition of being
flexible enough to adapt your mindset (Flett & Hewitt, 2014) and an ability to maintain
equanimity when outcomes are uncertain (Lundman et al, 2007).
Self-awareness. Next, participants pointed to the self-awareness that mindfulness offers
as crucial to success in life. This property was described as digging deep in hard times to find
your “reserves” when you feel tapped out and believing in your own abilities (mental, physical
and emotional) so as not to self-sabotage or quit in cases where you truly are capable of success
if you decide to keep going. These findings support employment of the knowledge of your own
skills as a benchmark to increase personal attributes across various platforms, including sport
performance, work efforts, and interpersonal relationships (Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2013; Jones et
al., 2007; Stonkus, 2011; Stonkus & Royal, 2015; Weinberg, Freysinger, Mellano, &
Brookhouse, 2016).
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
29
Self-respect. Lastly, the concept of self-respect was mentioned many times by
participants. Responses to explain its importance included taking the time to assess and adjust,
being kind to yourself without quitting, forgiving yourself for failing or not meeting
expectations, and knowing when you deserve better. Having the willingness to take time for
introspective reflection allowed participants to view self-care as choosing preservation instead of
exhaustion. Also, accepting your own point of view and version of 100% at any given time was
noted as an empowering practice. These responses about mindfulness draw a close parallel to
the methods suggested to address and dismantle the negative effects of perfectionistic fixed
mindsets by using kindness to transition unrealistic expectations or preconceived rigid notions to
a more flexible and tolerant growth mindset (Flett & Hewitt, 2014).
Gratitude. Although similar to mindfulness, gratitude is a unique concept in that while
mindfulness sees and accepts what is, gratitude goes one step further and move towards what
may be. The repeated sentiment amongst the interviewees was that there is a need to view
challenges as opportunities instead of something to be feared or avoided. Participants expressed
seeing the value in unanticipated or unwanted situations, but still using them for growth purposes
where others may have seen only “hassles” and received no benefit at all because they refused to
engage. This approach allows for dynamic decision-making and the ability to guide outcomes
instead of being subject to uncontrollable outside forces. This mindset aligns well with the
Feeling in Control of Outcomes sub-scale of the CFI instrument (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010).
Gratitude links meaningful actions to increased meaningfulness in one’s own life, (Kleiman et
al., 2013; Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015) and supports the process of becoming autonomous and
unbothered.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
30
Tenacity. A close cousin to perseverance, participants described this quality as
maintaining a positive attitude and “never quit” mentality despite failure or adversity. The
emphasis was put on drawing from inner strength, but unlike perseverance or hardiness (Bartone,
1995), there was no mention of meaningfulness or larger perspective. Simply, this is a patent
refusal to acquiesce. While this may be considered a positive quality in most cases, when
exhibited alone, this characteristic can stray into the territory of being “busy” but working
without meaningful direction (Meriac et al., 2015; Perlis, 2013; Willingham, 2016), or being too
tough for one’s own good (Crust et al., 2016). This difference denotes a lack of the underlying
emotional components and meaning which must be present to inspire the continued effort
associated with persistence (Von Culin et al., 2014). Because this emotional aspect is found
within the greater construct, it is a clear indication that individual elements are not enough on
their own and that multiple sub-components must blend together to sustain a larger successsupporting process.
Creative Control (Transformation). Much like the openness to change identified in
participant definitions of CF, this quality speaks to the presence of possibilities. However,
creative control is more specifically the understanding of a personal ability to envision and guide
outcomes. Interview responses highlighted this method as autodidactic, meaning a learning
process that is both self-driven and self-directed and viewed purposeful change as always
entirely possible. One description provided was an acknowledgement that we all have the
capacity for change and simply need to commit to working to make desired outcomes occur.
The ability to use adversity/failure as the impetus to enact positive change in life also appeared
thematically, reinforcing the advocacy for growth mindsets seen in the research of Flett and
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
31
Hewitt (2014) and Mangels et al. (2016) and demonstrating the value of transformation in the
development and execution of desired outcomes.
Development Process. The following sub-sections describe and illustrate the process of
developing greater CF and MT with visually presentations to support textual references and
research findings.
Intertwined Nature of CF and MT. Many interview participants defined mental
toughness and cognitive flexibility as synergistic and intertwined in nature, citing examples of
how they work together and suggesting they needed to co-exist to function properly. One
participant (#9) specifically referred to strength without flexibility as a “stubbornly static” state
of being, with others providing examples of how being too tough had been detrimental when
they were not able to see multiple avenues to success and refused to alter their methodology.
Conversely, we may point to flexibility which lacks strength as similarly one-sided, without the
substance required to sustain great effort over time or stand up in the face of adversity. Another
participant (#15) highlighted the relationship dynamic by referencing the famously fixed mindset
of the protagonist of the novel Don Quixote, saying “Mental toughness makes sure you keep
trying; cognitive flexibility makes sure you’re not tilting at windmills!”.
DNA of Grit. Grit was originally defined by Duckworth et al. (2007) as “passion and
perseverance for long term goals,” but in considering what the DNA of grit would look like, it
seems that the crucial significance of support (Feltz et al., 2011) empowerment and greater
perspective were not addressed here. Although the word “passion” alludes to personal relevance,
it may be (and often is) misconstrued as “enthusiasm”, which may unfortunately equate to a long
grind for someone else’s dream. Previous literature speaks to the element of meaningfulness as a
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
32
required component, as without it, there is no reason to continue to expend effort (Kleiman et al.,
2013; Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015).
Resilience, an integral part of MT, is a complex construct of dynamic sources of personal
support (Liu et al., 2017) and is itself strengthened by the process of CF. Further, the research
findings of this study show that CF and MT are intertwined in nature, meaning that their function
is enhanced by a synergistic relationship. Processing the original definition of grit through the
lenses of MT and CF may yield a more comprehensive statement such as, “Grit is the mindful
pursuit (CF) of personally relevant (empowerment) long-term goals via purposeful and
sustainable (compassion) perseverance (MT).” Figure 2 identifies the foundational elements
crucial to the success of this process.
Figure 2. What is DNA? Adapted from Genetics Home Reference, U.S. National Library of
Medicine, 2018, Retrieved October 20, 2018 from https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/basics/dna.
Copyright 2018 by U.S. National Library of Medicine. Adapted with permission.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
33
Cultivation Process. Participants pointed to CF and MT as qualities that grow in a
cumulative fashion, requiring both consistent effort and the passage of time. Though they seem
to accumulate with increased life experience, CF and MT may vary according to individual
personal circumstances and fluctuating external support factors (Liu et al., 2017; Stonkus, 2015).
Tree of Life. Figure 3 illustrates the entire system, starting from the roots or underlying
elements shown in this research to support CF and MT (creative control, gratitude, mindfulness,
self-awareness, self-respect, tenacity), proceeding through the trunk where CF and MT work in
concert with support to overcome failure/adversity and concludes with the leaves which
represent the subsequent world-facing outcomes of adaptability, empowerment, equanimity,
openness to change, perseverance, perspective and thinking differently.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Figure 3. Tree of Life – Systematic Illustration
34
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
35
Equanimity. The ability to remain calm amidst chaos, shown in Figure 3 as an outcome
of the cultivation process of CF and MT, was noted by participants as helpful to both self and to
others, making challenging situations easier to navigate while still achieving the most beneficial
outcomes. Findings suggest that approaching tough circumstances calmly provides the power to
thoughtfully direct our responses, a conclusion which reinforces similar findings showing the
ability to maintain a sense of serenity during times of turbulence is directly related to resilience
(Lundman et al., 2007). Participant #6 related a story about becoming a primary caregiver to a
parent as a teenager and stated that difficult situations often help us prioritize that which is
important in life versus becoming upset by the things which are just a distraction. This supports
research findings of Lin et al. (2017) who state that those with high MT know how to remove or
ignore distractions to focus on their goals.
Participants also mentioned believing that one’s attitude determines outcomes, a
statement supportive of the Feeling in Control of Outcomes sub-scale of the CFI instrument
(Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010), where it is understood that uncertainty and adverse situations are
an intrinsic part of life but that options exist because we make our own decisions. This finding
reflects the sense of ease which accompanies greater toughness due to the ability and willingness
to courageously, capably and dynamically address whatever arises (Lundman et al., 2007; Perlis,
2013).
These findings show a relationship more complex than a simple cycle, with MT shown to
be a component of equanimity (Lundman et al., 2007), which is itself both a component and an
output of CF and a component of resilience (Dennis and Vander Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt,
2014). Resilience is shown to be a component of MT (Liu et al., 2017), which requires CF to
function correctly (DiMenichi & Richmond, 2015; Martin et al., 2015; Perlis, 2013). Therefore,
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
36
it is logical to suggest that these elements must blend to create the optimal conditions supporting
personal growth and achievement. Figure 4 illustrates these relationships as a Venn diagram
with supporting explanations of their inter-related nature and convergent functions.
The “sweet spot”
denoting area of CF
Figure 4. Venn Diagram – Convergent Elements of Cognitive Flexibility
Insights. The following sections provide deeper insight into the overall impact that CF
and MT application are shown to have on real-life outcomes and the relevance of these findings
to the existing body of research on these qualities.
Swearing. Roughly two dozen instances of swear words were noted during interviews,
all used in non-derogatory fashion. These terms emphasized extremely difficult situations and
highlight the importance of passion and self-expression when striving for larger-than-life goals.
Research shows using swear words activates a portion of the brain which allows us to withstand
pain longer than using regular words and that they also boost strength and power in sport
performance (Stephens, Atkins & Kingston, 2009; Stephens, Spierer, & Katehis, 2018; Stephens
& Umland, 2011). Effectively, uncomfortable instances become more palatable and our capacity
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
37
for work increases. Because high MT individuals do not avoid difficult circumstances, swearing
may be used as a tactic to persevere when extraordinary levels of effort are required to overcome
adversity. Logically, those with lower MT may never even encounter these types of demanding
situations and may not understand the value in this neurological enhancement strategy.
Inevitability of Change. There were many instances of the word “change” within these
interviews with participant definitions of both CF and MT reflecting an awareness that
uncertainty or adversity is a normal part of life. As such, they were not crippled by fear when
those situations arose. Rather, their outlook empowered them to enthusiastically take on
challenges, knowing they already possessed the qualities needed to navigate them. Participants
also identified a willingness to expand outside their comfort zone and set intentions and
confidence in their ability to achieve great things. This sentiment echoes the previous literature
regarding equanimity (Lundman et al., 2007; Perlis, 2013) and provides context for the
quantitative data showing evidence that females, who encounter biological change at a higher
intensity and frequency than males, also possess both a higher minimum level of MT and a
higher maximum capacity for CF.
Increased Level of Respect. In terms of the value seen in the self, participants identified
increased confidence and self-worth, acknowledgement of effort made without regard to results
and the ability to be self-directed and make decisions which positively affect outcomes. This
aligns with Carol Dweck’s research showing that rewarding students for their level of effort
instead of focusing solely on outcomes is the way to teach empowerment at a young age
(Mangels et al., 2006). In terms of respect for others, responses noted increased empathy and a
greater understanding of other perspectives, enhancing ability to work within groups. This is
explained by employing the understanding that everyone’s 100% looks different and that the
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
38
amount of effort put forth is more important than end results. Lastly, this respect was
demonstrated through displaying compassion to others and “paying it forward” by offering
encouragement and support to others, which supports the research of Feltz et al. (2011) regarding
interpersonal dynamics as it relates to teamwork in a sport performance setting.
Sacrifice. Those displaying high MT are willing to take risks and accept the outcomes
related to their process of “thinking differently”. Participants discussed the willingness to make
sacrifices that others do not understand to achieve their desired outcomes. Participant #15
identified a scenario of running a very long and difficult off-road race and giving up a time
cushion to aid a fellow racer who had collapsed. Although this choice resulted in a time-related
disqualification with the racer receiving a did not finish (DNF), these actions reflected a desire to
help ensure another person’s well-being and were more important than a medal or finish time.
As that collapsed racer had been ignored by others, this is an excellent example of identifying
that which is important enough to make sacrifices for when others do not understand or share our
motivations. This example aligns closely with the findings of Lucas et al. (2015) and Ng (2018)
who noted that those with higher MT were willing to bear the costs of their choices including
those that were interpersonal, monetary or temporal in nature.
Participants also mentioned situations where their support or empathy was misunderstood
with others becoming hostile or alienated because they could not recognize the support they were
receiving. This finding aligns with research about how fixed mindsets may create an inability to
see change as positive or even a possible alternative (Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Mangels et al., 2016).
One caveat mentioned by multiple participants regarding sacrifice is that while working
towards goals requires compromise, purpose must be present to avoid burnout stemming from a
meaningless grind. Repetitive motion without meaning deadens us to the real importance of our
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
39
work and removes our reason for continuation of effort which is inherently necessary for
eventual success. Participant #17 stated that “Living in the grind can be exhausting.” supporting
the observation of Willingham (2016) that, “…sometimes, being the sort of person who does
what’s expected, putting one foot in front of the other, just won’t cut it….” (p. 31) because
neither work ethic nor conscientiousness addresses the underlying meaning of the activity and,
thus, cannot sustain long term positive gains in MT (Meriac et al., 2015; Perlis, 2013).
Contra-Indications. Though CF and MT are clearly valuable qualities, there are
instances where detrimental results may occur. The instances identified below are examples of
ways in which CF and MT are potentially decreased or misused.
Poor Mindset. Having a poor mindset was a definite theme when identifying conditions
which are detrimental to CF and MT. Three distinct types of poor mindsets were discovered
when exploring the transcripts of the qualitative interviews.
Fixed mindset. Expecting others to think the same way you do or to understand your
viewpoint was identified as a drawback which produces a lack of patience with self or others.
Participant #8 referred to this phenomenon as “…[an] old habit of expecting to be immediately
good at [something]…” which needed to be re-framed as unrealistic and non-conducive to
growth. This practice can create misunderstandings and may damage interpersonal relationships
by causing a breakdown in communication. As previously discussed, perfectionism is a
maladaptive pattern of behavior which may cause unrealistic expectations of self (Flett & Hewitt,
2014), leading to anxiety or inaction due to overthinking (known as “analysis paralysis”) (Brand,
Kirov, Kalak, Gerber, Pühse, Lemola et al., 2015b). Holding a fixed mindset leads to binary
thinking such as right/wrong, black/white, all or nothing and tends to be closed off to external
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
40
ideas or better alternatives than ones which have already been considered (Dennis & Vander
Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Mangels et al., 2016).
Flett and Hewitt (2014) suggest that a fixed mindset may cause an individual to feel
trapped in their current situation with no alternatives to explore and warned that unrealistic
expectations may also lead to self-destructive behavior instead of growth after failure when
people engage in self-harm, criticism of self or “beating up” on themselves. Participant #10
mentioned “despondence” and “disgust” with self after a perceived sport performance failure.
This is clearly counter to the development of CF, where generating alternatives is a core element
(Dennis & Vader Wal, 2010) and does not support MT, where there is a balance of maximizing
natural abilities while respecting personal limitations (Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015). In this case,
however, the perceived failure turned out to be a simple misunderstanding and instead of selfdisqualifying, with a little external support and the application of persistence, Participant #10
transformed the circumstance into success and related personal pride in achievement and
gratitude for the opportunity to positively affect the outcome of a challenging situation. This
directly reflects the idea that kindness is intrinsic to flexibility and development when seeking to
move beyond perfectionism towards a beneficial growth mindset (Flett & Hewitt, 2014).
Negative mindset. Related to fixed mindset, though distinct, is having a negative
mindset. This frame of view equates challenges to “struggles” instead of opportunities to be
leveraged for gain. Participants identified the need to not give in to self-doubt or engage in
negative self-talk, as they adversely affect performance beyond simple limits of physiological
capability. Participant #13 stated that “…self-doubt and loathing…are…terrible diseases
spreading through your body.” and related an instance of self-induced failure during sporting
competition due to nothing more than having a negative mindset at the time of the event.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
41
Holding onto emotions such as anger or bitterness can fuel miscommunication and
misunderstandings with others, often making a difficult situation harder than it truly needs to be.
Viewing the world through a lens of negative emotions can make us treat failure as something to
fear or hate instead of a vehicle for growth. Looking back to the discussion of transformation,
negativity can be an impetus for change, but only in instances where the outcome no longer
requires us to hold on to the uncomfortable situation which originally initiated the process.
Lack of perspective. Perspective is generally understood to be a view of the bigger
picture and a broader view of event significance within the scope of a larger system. In this way,
participant responses warned against an inability to relate to or even acknowledge the value of
other viewpoints as a limiting position, essentially blinding them to other possibilities. In the
design of the MTS instrument, authors Madrigal, Hamill and Hill (2013) highlight the initial
recognition of opportunities presented to us and having the gumption, willingness and dedication
to take advantage of them as vital factors of MT.
Other perils in lacking perspective include a lack of empathy for others, suggesting they
“suck it up and deal” or “get over it” when encountering difficulty. Closely related but opposite
in orientation is the lack of objectivity where it is possible to care for others too much, to the
eventual detriment of self. In both instances, the kindness factor necessary in cultivating a
growth mindset (Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Gross-Loh, 2016; Mangels et al., 2016) and the balance
and personal well-being which hallmark the successful application of MT (Lin et al., 2017;
Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015) are obviously absent.
Inappropriate Applications. Applying CF and MT improperly may lead to instances that
are damaging or harmful in nature. The following sections describe examples prevalent upon
examination of the qualitative interviews.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
42
Comparison. Evaluating self-worth or having envy based upon the perceived attributes
of others is a poor application because it spawns needless competition leading to detrimental
personal outcomes. As an example, there is a phenomenon known in social media circles as
“fear of missing out” (FOMO) where the pictures and posts of others cause envy or dejectedness
about one’s own life and achievements, even though what is being shown may not be an accurate
representation of the person who posted them. A comparative poor application called the
“summit or die” mentality (Crust et al., 2016, p. 608), causes a person to push too hard
physically or mentally when pride and a fixed mindset dictate decisions instead of grounding
decisions in a self-compassionate outlook. Outcomes of this negative ideation of maladaptive
perfectionism may include occurrences as serious as injury or death when the lack of perspective
in potentially hazardous circumstances overcomes the ability to make rational alternative
decisions such as waiting to proceed, re-defining success or choosing a different path to make
progress possible (Crust et al., 2016; Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Lucas
et al., 2015).
Avoidance. Learned helplessness and inaction to avoid blame or rationalizing others’
behavior to avoid conflict were cited by participants as manifestations of avoidance. The
practice of being a loner to prove a point versus simply being a capable person was also noted as
a tactic to self-isolate and avoid engaging with others. Though this behavior comes under the
auspices of not needing anyone else’s help, this is also non-engagement with others as a
mechanism to avoid failure and is counter to the previous findings noting that support is a crucial
element of cultivating MT (Feltz et al., 2011; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Gross-Loh, 2016; Liu et al.,
2017).
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
43
Another detrimental application includes being too open to the point of not being able to
make a concrete decision, suggesting a lack of accountability or unwillingness to make tough
decisions. Because the underlying issue in question is never addressed, it is impossible to
remedy the situation and individuals are at peril of repeating non-functional behavioral patterns
indefinitely. This viewpoint is counter to factors inherent to CF and MT such as thinking
differently, taking calculated risks or making sacrifices not well understood by others (Dennis &
Vander Wal, 2010; Lucas et al., 2015; Ng, 2018).
Lack of Support/Stability. Not “fitting in” with others can be difficult to navigate if you
are surrounded by those who do not agree with you or understand you. Interview data suggested
that tumultuous living conditions and/or the lack of a personal support network makes growth a
very challenging prospect compared to when you feel safe and cared for. Personal examples
included being discouraged, harassed or abused by those who were considered close friends and
family including co-workers, roommates and significant others. In many cases, the participant
reached a point where self-respect caused them to leave relationships, living conditions or
workplaces where they did not feel valued or loved. This finding aligns with the Multi-System
Model of Resilience (Liu et al., 2017) which layers immediate surroundings, social standing and
external support factors on top of personal attributes to explain the dynamic nature of resilience.
It also aligns with the observations that MT is negatively correlated with social desirability bias
(Madrigal, Hamill, & Hill, 2013), making those with higher MT less likely to feel the need to
adhere to the norms of larger groups in order to feel accepted or have their viewpoints validated.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
44
Visual Analytics
To demonstrate the meaning of the themes, components and overall process of creating
CF and MT and how they relate to our approach to life, several figures have been included to
express these concepts via graphical representation.
7 Steps to Transformational Change. Figure 5 demonstrates the process of becoming
more cognitively flexible and mentally tough in order to evoke transformative personal change.
Transformational change is engendered by autodidaxy and the internal desire to create change.
This differs from simply doing what you’re told in the case where you have not chosen to
change. Each item noted on the left side of the equation is the result of the additive process
below it, with the item on the right being the contributory work portion which allows an
individual to move from one level to the next in the growth process. The contributions of
introspection, gratitude, time, failure, compassion and flexibility reflect the key aspects of CF
noted by Dennis and Vander Wal (2010) and correspond to the approaches of Flett and Hewitt
(2014) to combat the negative ideations of a perfectionist mindset. This process also aligns with
sentiments of growth mindset researcher Carol Dweck who maintained that a supportive teacher
was the key to initially cultivating the ability to successfully choose one’s own learning path
(Gross-Loh, 2016). To further elucidate each of the seven steps, the text version of the process is
also outlined below.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Figure 5. 7 Steps to Transformational Change
7 Steps to Transformational Change
Step 1 – Support + Guidance = Awareness of Potential
o Teachers demonstrate the paths and encourage growth
Step 2 – Awareness + Introspection = Self-Awareness
o You decide what path is correct for you as a person
Step 3 – Self-Awareness + Gratitude = Mindfulness
o You become grateful for what you learn along the way
Step 4 – Mindfulness + Time = Achievement
o You continue to work to gain knowledge and success
Step 5 – Achievement + Failure/Adversity = Challenge
o You accept challenge along your path as a means to grow
Step 6 – Challenge + Self-Care/Compassion = Self-Respect
o You come to understand your limitations and face your fears to overcome them
Step 7 – Self-Respect + Flexibility = Change
o You respect the journey enough to understand that the approach you take to the
summit requires a different version of you than when you initially began the ascent.
45
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
46
Gardner’s Magic Quadrant. Figure 6 illustrates the takeaway message of how
employing CF and MT in real-life situations can provide advantages over those who do not.
This graphic, adapted from Gartner, Inc. who predict market industry trends, depicts the sense of
agency (also known as empowerment) that this combination provides, supporting the findings of
Ng (2018) who noted the power of recognizing one’s own competency. Resultant outcomes are
displayed as positive manifestations instead of negative ramifications when the focus is on
creating solutions instead of identifying problems (Mangels et al., 2016). This finding is directly
reflective of the recommendations of research which indicates mindfully choosing one’s attitude
towards challenges encountered along the path towards mastery is imperative to successful
outcomes and is clearly meaningful within real life applications (Jones et al., 2007; Madrigal,
Hamill, & Gill, 2013; Ng, 2018; Weinberg et al., 2016).
Figure 6. Gartner’s Magic Quadrant. Adapted from Gartner, Inc., 2018, Retrieved October 20, 2018 from
https://www.gartner.com/en/research/magic-quadrant. Copyright 2018 by Gartner, Inc. Adapted with permission.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
47
Conclusions
This research demonstrates evidence that the psychometric properties of cognitive
flexibility and mental toughness are contributory to positive personal outcomes and may be
utilized to increase a sense of empowerment across all facets of life. Quantitatively, CF and MT
were expected to be positively correlated, with survey data clearly confirming this hypothesis.
Because resilience is a component of MT (Liu et al., 2017) and is shown to increase over
time (Lundman et al., 2007), the second qualitative hypothesis held that older racers would
demonstrate greater MT. Findings did not support this hypothesis, with no significant
relationship found between chronological age and MTS scores. However, internal and
community-based support are factors identified in the Multi-System Model of Resilience (Liu et
al., 2017) as variable in nature, changing according to dynamic life conditions. Logically, a
deficiency of self-compassion or a lack of external support may negatively affect resilience at
any age and may explain why this expectation was not supported. This survey also explored a
single point in time, whereas a repeated-measures examination could yield evidence of the
projected increase.
Additionally, a significant variance was seen in measures of CF and MT between
genders, with males reflecting higher CF and MT scores. The participant pool was derived from
a group of Spartan racers, with female participants demonstrating an equal ability to engage in
similar challenges as their male counterparts while reporting lower CF and MT scores. It is
therefore logical to posit that females may outperform males when examining equally matched
samples.
Because neurological changes are evidenced to be dependent upon one’s mindset (Ng,
2018; Schroder, Fisher, Lin, Lo, Danovitch & Moser, 2017; Schroder et al., 2014), it is logical to
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
48
propose that changing one’s mind would directly affect one’s physiology. The qualitative
findings here highlight the evolutionary and intertwined nature of CF and MT, supporting the
theory that lived experiences follow mindset changes. Research participants used this
understanding to positively affect outcomes across a wide array of real-life applications, create
greater satisfaction with the circumstances of their own lives and demonstrate to others that
achieving similar improvements was entirely within the realm of possibility.
Grit is not a mystical unknown, nor is it a description of constant mindless motion
without purpose sometimes referred to as “the grind”. Rather, grit more viscerally describes the
outcome of persistent application of effort when attempting to overcome an impasse previously
considered insurmountable to achieve a goal above and beyond the norm. In the physical sense,
particulate matter demonstrates an iterative dissolution of a seemingly non-permeable structure
and evokes the understanding that the continued act of perseverance, not initial power, is the
ultimate arbiter of success. A reflection on ancient philosophical directives to regard the fluidity
of water as its true strength is based upon the simple scientific observation of the power found in
nature which only becomes evident over the course of time. This insight mirrors the conclusions
of Duckworth, Eichstaedt, & Ungar (2015) in noting the importance of continued effort as the
most important variable when calculating the equation of human achievement. Therefore,
progress may be made along any purposeful path, (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt,
2014). However, the methodology used to affect that change must be subtle and long-lived
enough to influence an ultimately successful outcome (Duckworth, Eichstaedt, & Ungar, 2015).
Findings support the hypothesis that CF promotes adaptability and engenders constant
improvement for better results without the negativity associated with perfectionistic fixed
mindsets. Additionally, the clear importance of a positive and receptive attitude towards newly
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
49
encountered ideas on outcomes directs practitioners to the crucial importance of fostering a
growth mindset when introducing new skills of any kind. Facilitation of receptivity and a
forward-looking perspective during learning experiences contributes greatly to overcoming fear
of failure and exerts a beneficial influence upon both student effort and eventual outcomes.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
50
Future Research
This research, along with previous literature, positively link CF with MT (Dennis &
Vander Wal, 2010), equanimity (Dennis and Vander Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014) and
resilience (Lundman et al., 2007). Kindness (both intrinsic and external) has been recommended
as a method to combat unrealistic expectations surrounding perfectionism (Dennis & Vander
Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Perlis, 2013) and is also shown in this study to be related to the
cultivation of CF which unites with MT to enhance life outcomes.
These findings may contribute to the unequivocally beneficial further exploration of the
synergistic and creative relationship between CF and MT. Immediately accessible applications
include measuring the efficacy of various mind-body interventions such as bio-feedback,
meditation, yoga and other mindfulness techniques as vehicles to improve the quality of the
underlying components of both complex constructs. Additional qualitative inquiry into
participant lived experiences would provide insight as to the significance of each intervention.
Because teamwork has been shown to enhance sport performance (Feltz, Kerr, & Irwin,
2011), future research comparing CF and MT scores of Spartan racers using the variable of
racing individually versus racing as a part of a team would demonstrate if the Köhler motivation
gain effect produces a differentiating influence between the two groups.
A significant variance was seen in measures of CF and MT between genders, with males
reflecting higher CF and MT scores. Further exploration is suggested as differing gender-based
viewpoints regarding the inevitability of change through the course of life may partially explain
the divergent evidence shown by the data where females are shown to accomplish similar
challenging goals while reporting lower levels of both variables than males. Also relevant is an
inquiry into effects on CF and MT shown when comparing the type(s) of Spartan race attempted.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
51
References
Bartone, P. (1995, July). A short hardiness scale. A paper presented at a meeting of the
American Psychological Society in New York, NY.
Brand, S., Kirov, R., Kalak, N., Gerber, M., Pühse, U., Lemola, S., …& Holsboer-Trachsler, E.
(2015b). Perfectionism related to self-reported insomnia severity, but not when controlled
for stress and emotion regulation. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 11, 263–271.
https://doi.org/10.2147/ndt.s74905
Cody, R. (2015). An introduction to SAS ® university edition. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc.
Crust, L., Swann, C., & Allen-Collinson, J. (2016). The thin line: A phenomenological study of
mental toughness and decision making in elite high-altitude mountaineers. Journal of
Sport & Exercise Psychology, 38, 598 -611. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2016-0109
Dennis, J., & Vander Wal, J. (2010). The cognitive flexibility inventory: Instrument
development and estimates of reliability and validity. Cognitive Therapy and Research,
34, 241–253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-009-9276-4
DiMenichi, B., & Richmond, L. (2015). Reflecting on past failures leads to increased
perseverance and sustained attention. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 27(2), 180-193.
https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2014.995104
Duckworth, A., Eichstaedt, J., & Ungar, L. (2015). The mechanics of human achievement.
Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9(7), 359–369.
https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12178
Duckworth, A., Peterson, C., Matthew, M., & Kelly, D. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion
for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1087–1101.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
52
Dudovskiy, J. (2017). Qualitative data analysis. Research-methodology.net. Retrieved from:
https://researchmethodology.net/research-methods/data-analysis/qualitative-dataanalysis/
Eskreis-Winkler, L., Shulman, E., Beal, S., & Duckworth, A. (2013). The grit effect: Predicting
retention in the military, the workplace, school and marriage. Frontiers in Psychology,
5(36), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00036
Fieril, K., Olsen, M., Glantz, A., & Larsson, M. (2014). Experiences of exercise during
pregnancy among women who perform regular resistance training: A qualitative study.
Physical Therapy, 94(8), 1135-1143. https://doi.org/10.2522/ptj.20120432
Flett, G., & Hewitt, P. (2014). A proposed framework for preventing perfectionism and
promoting resilience and mental health among vulnerable children and adolescents.
Psychology in the Schools, 51(9), 899-912. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21792
Gartner, Inc. (2018). Gartner Magic Quadrant. [Infographic]. Retrieved from
https://www.gartner.com/en/research/methodologies/magic-quadrants-research
Hoyt, L., & Falconi, A. (2015). Puberty and perimenopause: Reproductive transitions and their
implications for women's health. Social Science & Medicine, 132, 103-112.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.03.031
Hurley, W., Denegar, C., & Hertel, J. (2011). Research methods: A framework for evidencebased clinical practice. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Jones, G., Hanton, S., & Connaughton, D. (2007). A framework of mental toughness in the
world’s best performers. The Sport Psychologist, 21(2), 243–264.
https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.21.2.243
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
53
Kidd, M., & Eatough, V. (2017). Yoga, well-being, and transcendence: An interpretative
phenomenological analysis. The Humanistic Psychologist, 45(3), 250-280.
https://doi.org/10.1037/hum0000068
Kleiman, E., Adams, L., Kashdan, T., & Riskind, J. (2013). Gratitude and grit indirectly reduce
risk of suicidal ideations by enhancing meaning in life: Evidence for a mediated
moderation model. Journal of Research in Personality, 47, 539–546.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2013.04.007
Liu, J., Reed, M., & Girard, T. (2017). Advancing resilience: An integrative, multi-system
model of resilience. Personality and Individual Differences, 111, 111-118.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.02.007
Lucas, G., Gratch, J., Cheng, L., & Marsella, S. (2015). When the going gets tough: Grit
predicts costly perseverance. Journal of Research in Personality, 59, 15–22.
https://doi.org//10.1016/j.jrp.2015.08.004
Lundman, B., Strandberg, G., Eisemann, M., Gustafson, Y., & Brulin, C. (2007). Psychometric
properties of the Swedish version of the resilience scale. The Scandinavian Journal of
Caring Sciences, 21, 229–237. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6712.2007.00461.x
Madrigal, L., Hamill, S., & Gill, D. (2013). Mind over matter: The development of the Mental
Toughness Scale (MTS). The Sport Psychologist, 27(1), 62-77.
https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.27.1.62
Martin, J., Byrd, B., Lewis Watts, M., & Dent, M. (2015). Gritty, hardy, and resilient:
Predictors of sport engagement and life satisfaction in wheelchair basketball players.
Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 9, 345-359.
https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2015-0008
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
54
Meriac, J., Slifka, J., & LaBat, L. (2015). Work ethic and grit: An examination of empirical
redundancy. Personality and Individual Differences, 86, 401–405.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.009
Ng, B. (2018). The neuroscience of growth mindset and intrinsic motivation.
Brain Science, 8, 20. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8020020
Perlis, M. (2013). 5 characteristics of grit - how many do you have? Forbes.com.
Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/margaretperlis/2013/10/29/5characteristics
ofgritwhatitiswhyouneeditanddoyouhaveit/#378c201f764b
Pietkiewicz, I., & Smith, J. (2014). A practical guide to using interpretative phenomenological
analysis in qualitative research psychology. Psychological Journal, 18(2), 361-369.
https://doi.org/10.14691/CPPJ.20.1.7 (Original work published 2012)
Robertson, I., Cooper, C., Sarkar, M., & Curran, T. (2015). Resilience training in the
workplace from 2003 to 2014: A systematic review. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, 88, 533–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12120
Salmela, M., & Uusiautti, S. (2015). A positive psychological viewpoint for success at school –
10 characteristic strengths of the Finnish high-achieving students. High Ability Studies,
26(1), 117–137. https://doi.org/10.1080/13598139.2015.1019607
Schroder, H., Fisher, M., Lin, Y., Lo, S., Danovitch, J., & Moser, J. (2017).
Neural evidence for enhanced attention to mistakes among school-aged children with a
growth mindset. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 24, 42–50.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2017.01.004
Schroder, H., Moran, T., Donnellan, M., & Moser. J. (2014). Mindset induction effects on
cognitive control: A neurobehavioral investigation. Biological Psychology, 103, 27–37.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2014.08.004
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
55
Stephens, R., Atkins, J., & Kingston, A. (2009). Swearing as a response to pain. NeuroReport,
20(12), 1056–1060. Doi: 10.1097/WNR.0b013e32832e64b1
Stephens, R., & Umland, C. (2011). Swearing as a response to pain—Effect of daily swearing
frequency. The Journal of Pain, 12(12), 1274-1281.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2011.09.004
Stephens, R., Spierer, D., & Katehis, E. (2018). Effect of swearing on strength and power
performance. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, (35), 111-117.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.11.014
Stonkus, M. (2011). The development and validation of the Inventory of Mental Toughness
Factors in Sport (IMTF-S) (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations
& Theses (Publication number 3463253).
Stonkus, M., & Royal, K. (2015). Further validation of the inventory of mental toughness
factors in sport (IMTF-S). International Journal of Psychological Studies, 7(3), 35-45.
https://doi.org/10.5539/ijps.v7n3p35
U.S. National Library of Medicine. (October 16, 2018). What is DNA? [Infographic].
Retrieved from https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/basics/dna
Von Culin, K., Tsukayama, E., & Duckworth, A. (2014). Unpacking grit: Motivational
correlates of perseverance and passion for long-term goals. The Journal of Positive
Psychology: Dedicated to furthering research and promoting good practice, 9(4), 1-7.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.898320
Weinberg, R., Freysinger, V., Mellano, K., & Brookhouse, E. (2016). Building mental
toughness: Perceptions of sport psychologists. The Sport Psychologist, 30, 231 -241.
https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2015-0090
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Willingham, D. (2016). Ask the cognitive scientist: “Grit” is trendy, but can it be taught?
American Educator, 28-32 & 44. Retrieved from
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1104456.pdf
56
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix A
Review of the Literature
57
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
58
Grit is a term that has seen a surge of popularity in the last decade, its properties equated
with toughness, defying convention and all-around accomplishment. This literature review
originally sought to understand what grit truly is and the relevance it holds on practical daily
applications where it has been shown to be beneficial. However, Angela Duckworth, the preeminent modern researcher of grit, was recently interviewed (Dahl, 2016), and stated that she felt
as though the public’s enthusiasm for the novel concept of grit had far out-paced the scientific
research being performed from which to draw solid, data-backed conclusions about its value as it
relates to success in a wide range of daily situations.
Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, and Kelly described grit as “the propensity to pursue
long-term goals with perseverance and passion” (2007, p. 1100) and it was later postulated that
achievement is a ratio derived from persistence of effort and longevity of interest (Duckworth,
Eichstaedt, & Ungar, 2015). The construct of mental toughness (MT), defined by Stonkus and
Royal as the “…ability to withstand adversity, pressure and stress.” (2015, p. 35) closely
parallels this formula as it alludes to continuation of effort in the face of challenges. Further
review of the existing literature repeatedly revealed that qualities associated with the grit
construct either closely align or directly intersect with components of MT in sport (Jones,
Hanton, & Connaughton, 2007; Madrigal et al., 2013; Perlis, 2013; Stonkus & Royal, 2015).
It is the aim of this review to highlight those shared characteristics and functions, uncover
efficient interventions to best leverage the potential of MT to make a significant positive impact
and to provide direction for future MT research.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
59
Theoretical Construct
MT is widely studied in sport psychology, yet much of the foundational literature has
focused mainly on attempting to define the concept itself. Most people associate MT with a
feeling of not giving up in the pursuit of a difficult task where the goal or is reward not attainable
through half-hearted or less-than-diligent efforts. In the journey towards defining MT, there is a
need to examine how it works and deconstruct it into its foundational components to truly
understand what “being mentally tough” means. Sport psychologists consider MT a mindset
which may be cultivated, reinforced and refined over time (Weinberg, Freysinger, Mellano, &
Brookhouse, 2016). A systematic review of MT research outside of traditional sport
performance highlights the expanded scope of MT with applications in the workplace,
educational forums, fitness-related pursuits or other high-pressure situations (Eskreis-Winkler,
Shulman, Beal, & Duckworth, 2013) and yields evidence that MT “entails positive psychological
resources” with confidence in one’s own abilities factoring heavily into the equation (Lin, Mutz,
Clough, & Papageorgiou, 2017, p. 1).
Like the concept of grit, MT can also be described using alternate words which attempt to
capture the essence of how putting it to use may affect outcomes. Hardiness is described by Dr.
Paul Bartone (1995) as having an inverse correlation to depression and stress-related illness and
a positive correlation to the feeling of control over outcomes. This sense of control, noted as one
of the four central tenets of MT (Madrigal, Hamill, & Gill, 2013), means that individuals
displaying hardiness accept and allow for challenges as a normal and expected part of a fulfilling
life (Bartone, 1995). Related, though distinct, is the concept of resilience, defined as “…the
capability to cope successfully and recover from substantial adversity.” (Xie, Peng, Zuo, & Li,
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
60
2016, p. 1). Other common synonyms include tenacity, intestinal fortitude or stick-to-itiveness,
but do any one of these terms truly encompass what it means to be mentally tough?
In a 2015 study, researchers examined the potential question of work ethic and grit being
one and the same, assessing levels of work ethic, grit, conscientiousness, job satisfaction,
turnover intentions, and stress in employed college students. The research demonstrated a clear
overlap in behaviors and traits in those who had a strong work ethic or a high grit score, with
other variables providing protection against stress and demonstrating a strong relation to
conscientiousness. However, each quality was seen to possess unique core components and
display sufficiently divergent mechanisms such that each of them stands alone, making them
neither identical nor statistically redundant (Meriac, Slifka, & LaBat, 2015).
Perlis (2013) wrote about grit’s five factors, courage, conscientiousness, follow-through,
resilience, and non-perfectionism. When Lundman et al. (2007) tested the reliability of a
Swedish Resilience Scale on a large group meant to represent the general population of Sweden,
researchers identified five similar sub-factors (equanimity, meaningfulness, perseverance,
existential aloneness and self-reliance) confirmed to be supportive of the cultivation of
resilience. This is an important finding because such overlap of crucial characteristics for each
construct demonstrates resilience to be much more closely related to MT than either work ethic
or conscientiousness alone. These findings indicate that work ethic or conscientiousness may be
missing the emotional aspect shown to be essential in the broader picture of MT construct. As
Willingham (2016) states, “…sometimes, being the sort of person who does what’s expected,
putting one foot in front of the other, just won’t cut it….” (p. 31).
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
61
In terms of what combination of qualities must coexist for an individual to be considered
“tough” or to possess a higher than average level of MT, researchers have examined traits
considered well-aligned with the qualities exhibited when it was a variable amongst reasons for
success. There are varied ways to approach life so that individual happiness is an outcome, and
researchers took that into consideration when they examined: (1) perseverance of effort, and (2)
consistency of interests over time in the context of how it affects happiness (Von Culin,
Tsukayama, & Duckworth, 2014). The three types of happiness studied were: (1) pleasure in
immediately hedonistically positive activities, (2) meaning in activities that serve a higher,
altruistic purpose, and, (3) engagement in attention-absorbing activities. In this study, tougher
individuals showed interest in the outcomes of their own long-term efforts and wanted to derive
involvement and engagement in their pursuits, whereas those who sought happiness through
immediate gratification were much less interested in long-term effort and were less tough
overall. Schroder, Moran, Donnellan, and Moser (2014) found that there is a strong neural link
between employing intrinsic motivation and the growth mindset associated with greater MT.
This leads to the question of how much work will mentally tough individuals invest in their longterm pursuits and is that a defining factor when examining the core components of what MT is
made up of?
Persistence and perseverance were studied, along with continuation of interest in the
topic at hand (Credé, Tynan, & Harms, 2016), leading researchers to understand that how long
individuals could continue working made only slight differences in success measures when
measuring for reaching a goal versus not reaching a goal. However, this meta-analysis
demonstrated that small significant differences in additional effort had the potential to equal
much larger effects on outcomes. This finding indicates that MT relates to success by allowing
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
62
us to recognize those individuals who clearly stand out over and above those who had simply
achieved a set standard for what was considered success. The willingness to apply that little
extra bit of effort translated into the difference between only hitting the mark and completely
crushing a goal.
Duckworth, Eichstaedt, and Ungar (2015) had previously demonstrated this very point by
translating theoretical psychological concepts into tangible, physical metrics to produce an
innovative experimentation framework meant to elucidate the actual mechanics of those qualities
which drive people to succeed and how that success is evidenced in terms of the principles of
Newtonian physics. The outcome of this formula-based approach is the equation below.
achievement = (½ x talent x effort2)
The authors postulated that, because the ultimate outcome of the equation includes the
square of the effort (in terms of time spent towards an objective) required to produce that
outcome, any incremental additional effort will produce a significant effect on the level of
achievement that is not similarly reflected in the ratio of talent to final achievement outcomes.
In short, a person possessing raw talent or even developed skills which remain unapplied will
never reach the same level of success over an extended time period than a less-talented or lessskilled person who works steadfastly and unflaggingly towards their goals. Because the passage
of time has been shown to be a precursor of cultivating greater resilience (Lundman, Strandberg,
Eisemann, Gustafson, & Brulin, 2007), it is logical to conclude that, although raw talent and skill
are positive attributes to possess and helpful in short-term situations, neither are required
components when considering the makeup of MT.
Duckworth and Yeager (2015) sought to understand, from an investigation of current
measurement methods and instruments, what personality attributes were most valid to indicate
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
63
potential for success. The researchers wanted to determine if there were certain fixed personality
traits that are not defined by or tied to intelligence levels which are measurable and definitively
comprise the concept of grit. They also sought to examine and understand how best to measure
those traits to understand who used them most effectively to leverage situations to successful
outcomes. Characteristics such as resilience, hardiness, and self-control were examined
(Duckworth & Yeager, 2015), with all traits shown to address a piece of the puzzle, but not
completely produce success by standing alone. The authors concluded that there are multiple
measurable personality traits involved and to measure only one does not illuminate the entire
picture. However, when taken together, these traits contribute to the whole of a person’s
propensity to demonstrate overall toughness.
Supporting this finding, the authors of a systematic analysis of MT suggest support for a
multi-dimensional model of MT to reveal those component elements which allow for specific
identification of deficient areas and customized interventions when bolstering the development
of MT. A limitation of this systematic review, however, was the focus on quantitative research
only, possibly omitting further exploration of those construct qualities (Liu et al., 2017).
If the application of MT can be described as a dynamic equation as suggested by
Duckworth et al. (2015), testing for only one measure of MT cannot demonstrate the full range
of a person’s ability to apply it and can only indicate their strengths in the individual
characteristic being tested at the time of the assessment. This conclusion is important beyond the
question of what MT is made up of and lends itself to a greater understanding of how it works
since personality traits are being measured as opposed to cognitive tests that measure fixed traits.
A logical offshoot of this theory may be that personality traits like resilience are malleable over
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
64
the course of life and may be cultivated or downplayed over time, meaning MT itself is not a
fixed characteristic and can be and acquired through experience and influenced by surroundings.
Applications of MT
Moving beyond the initial, general questions of how we define and measure MT, we
move to the next logical step; identifying the applications of MT. Discussing the instances and
real-life situations in which MT is most widely cited and studied, we can gain insight on how it
is being viewed and utilized in educational settings, workplaces, fitness-related situations and
high-pressure vocations, such as the military, sports and medical fields.
Sports
There is not one absolute definition of mental toughness, so in 2007, Jones, Hanton, and
Connaughton interviewed super-elite Olympic of world champion athletes, along with coaches
and sport psychologists to validate the necessary components of MT as defined at that high level
of athletic performance. After participants took part in a focus group, individual interviews and
follow up phone calls to provide further clarification, the data was analyzed thematically, and 30
characteristics were identified within the four main areas of attitude/mindset, training,
competition and post-competition (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2007). Some of these subthemes are similar in nature to the actions embodied by those who display MT and include the
ability to cope and still stay focused under pressure, the belief that one will continue to perform
at a high level under adverse conditions, the perception that your actions and emotions are under
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
65
your own control and the ability to handle either success or failure. More recently, Madrigal,
Hamill, and Gill (2013) acknowledged the following elements of MT: “control, confidence,
commitment [and] motivation” (p. 63) are ones which repeatedly appear in studies testing for
this characteristic or discussions of the topic. These also align closely with traits shown to
comprise the construct of grit discussed previously (Credé et al., 2016; Duckworth et al., 2015;
Duckworth et al., 2007; Duckworth & Quinn, 2009; Duckworth & Yeager, 2015; Gucciardia, et
al., 2016; Madrigal et al., 2013; Meriac, et al., 2015; Perlis, 2013; Stonkus & Royal, 2015; Von
Culin et al., 2014).
To examine those components in a real-life situation, an assessment of football players
was conducted, seeking a link between mental toughness and the relative influence of the
previously-identified perseverance component (Credé et al., 2016) to ascertain if there was a
correlation between them (Gucciardia, Peeling, Duckera, & Dawson, 2016). To ensure their
findings were valid and could be applied to the intended audience, the researchers performed
their own assessments using physical tasks meant to measure the level of participants’
perseverance. However, instead of simply reporting their results, the researchers incorporated
their data along with the outcomes of other studies to create a higher-validity meta-analysis.
Results were consistent across the analyzed studies and indicated that higher levels of
perseverance demonstrated during demanding physical tasks had a positive correlation to selfreported levels of mental toughness by sport participants (Gucciardia et al., 2016). This finding
indicates a reciprocal link between the degree of mental toughness a person possesses and one’s
ability to decide not to give up when faced with having to withstand difficult physical conditions
over a sustained length of time. These results further support a previous study of collegiate
basketball players whose self-reported level of mental toughness on the Mental Toughness Scale
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
66
(MTS), developed in 2013 by Madrigal, Hamill, and Gill, correlated positively with their
coaches’ assessments of individual athlete ability, thus establishing a solid link between mental
toughness and tangible measures of success in sport (Gucciardia et al., 2016; Madrigal et al.,
2013).
As this correlation needed more thorough exploration and documentation, validity for the
Inventory of Mental Toughness in Sport (IMTF-S), developed by Stonkus in 2011, was
strengthened by utilizing the same sample, but processing the data with a more stringent
calculation. The four indicators tested were motivation to leverage one’s assets to their best
outcomes, identification of one’s own potential, negation of negative thoughts, and determination
to succeed (Stonkus, 2011). In the updated study, all were shown to be valid, reliable measures
of MT, reinforcing the relationship between MT and measurable success in sports (Stonkus &
Royal, 2015).
As discussed earlier, fixed personality traits do not accurately predict success (Lundman
et al., 2007) with this conclusion supported by research of sport performance in both casual and
elite athletes. The Big Five personality traits (neuroticism, extraversion, conscientiousness,
agreeableness, and openness to new experience) which appear on the BFI-10 Scale developed by
Rammstedt and John in 2007 do not correlate to sporting performance, further suggesting that
fixed personality traits are unlikely to influence sport performance or affect one’s level of MT
which is not a fixed attribute but more of a work in progress (Elumaro, 2016; Reed, 2015).
Special populations. To explore a greater breadth of the significance of MT in sports,
we need to examine other populations to understand if the implications on performance extend
beyond the typical study populations of elite or collegiate athletes. Martin, Byrd, Lewis Watts,
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
67
and Dent (2015) conducted a study involving wheelchair basketball players, surveying
participant attitudes towards engagement in sports activities in the context of coping with
hardship and excelling in the face of adversity. It was noted that the positive relationships
demonstrated between measurements of hardiness, satisfaction with life and resilience and the
participants’ continued involvement in basketball might be attributed to a less-common
perspective bestowed upon them as adaptive athletes, which allows them to see opportunities
where others only see limitations. This quality, which can be equated to the concept of
hardiness, denotes the idea of not quitting or stopping because something in life has not gone
according to plan.
Physiological effects of grit. To elucidate why MT positively correlates with all aspects
of sport performance across multiple populations, a study was conducted which examined the
physiological effects of challenges to understand how the human body reacts to situations which
recruit a participant’s toughness to achieve an outcome (Silvia, Eddington, Beaty, Nusbaum, &
Kwapil, 2013). Measured in this study were autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity and
parasympathetic activity (respiratory sinus arrhythmia; RSA). Participants who scored high in
the Perseverance of Effort subscale of the Grit-S demonstrated increases in both the biometric
markers studied. However, those individuals who showed higher scores on the Consistency of
Interest subscale demonstrated lower ANS activity and no change in RSA. These findings could
be explained by understanding that perseverance of effort causes a more efficient and immediate
cardiac output, allowing for greater effort expenditure on a shorter-term and the continuation of
effort in the moment. On the other hand, consistency places more emphasis on completing
things correctly and regularly, leading to a relaxing effect to allow for a longer duration of effort
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
68
with less physical stress on the individual when the need for action is not as immediate and
expected to be sustained for a longer time.
Weinberg, Freysinger, Mellano, and Brookhouse (2016) interviewed 15 sport
psychologists to identify and categorize the concepts that they felt were paramount to
successfully fostering MT. Suggestions which emerged during the interviews were for players to
employ mindful behavior and learn coping mechanisms by practicing in similar conditions as
those which could cause stressed reactions when encountered in competition. The results
reaffirmed existing methods to help athletes develop MT, and these results could be generalized
onto a larger population engaging in sports pursuits or other stressful, toughness-evoking
applications.
Workplace
Stress in the workplace is prevalent in today’s “always-on” society and any method to
decrease or mitigate that stress should be employed. A systematic review of resilience training
methodologies in the workplace (Robertson, Cooper, Sarkar, & Curran, 2015) investigated four
broad categories of dependent variables: (1) mental health and subjective well-being outcomes,
(2) psychosocial outcomes, (3) physical/biological outcomes, and (4) performance outcomes, and
found that techniques such as mindfulness, compassion, and cognitive behavioral interventions
all demonstrated positive outcomes with no noted drawbacks. Meriac et al. (2015) found that
that tougher people may even have extra protection against workplace-related stress. While
work ethic was a strong indicator of how well one performed and predicted turnover more
accurately, hard workers who do not possess the requisite amount of toughness are more
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
69
vulnerable to dissatisfaction. Although findings suggest that both work ethic and toughness
negatively correlate to stress, toughness provides additional protection from the deleterious
effects of stress in the workplace, so tougher workers will potentially be more resilient and
persevere through difficult times. Likewise, a 2013 study by Eskreis-Winkler, Shulman, Beal,
and Duckworth demonstrated similar results, with grittier sales people being less likely to leave
their jobs, even though sales is a demanding and stressful profession. Certainly, workplace
initiatives such as increased employee retention rates and greater job satisfaction make it
worthwhile to pursue these avenues for the desired outcome of a stronger, more stable
workforce.
Military
Although sports and workplace situations can sometimes be stressful, the military
requires a different viewpoint on stress, as there may be much more at stake in terms of number
of individuals or gravity of the situation. The ability to maintain a clear head and make sound
decisions in high-pressure situations is an absolute must for members of our military branches,
and mechanisms to facilitate that mindset should be better understood to leverage situations to
their best outcomes. Since perseverance is typically measured in different ways and at different
times than optimism, military researchers sought a way to measure both simultaneously and
decided to utilize the hormone cortisol as an indicator of a soldier’s state of mind (Binsch, Van
Wietmarschen, & Buick, 2017). In tests using simulated courses, a significant correlation was
found between cortisol levels and how optimistic the participants self-reported on the revised
Life Orientation Test (LOT-R) Scale, with high optimism being linked to greater cortisol levels.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
70
On physical courses, the soldiers who did not give up and leave the course had higher levels of
cortisol and reported optimism than their counterparts who elected to withdraw from the course.
This result points to a clear link between the biometric marker of cortisol levels found in the
participants during activities requiring coping and having an optimistic outlook and persevering
through difficult situations.
These findings build upon the findings of Eskreis-Winkler et al. (2013) who studied
Army Special Forces candidates. Individuals’ grit scores (GRIT-S) were examined in the
context of their willingness to continue in a program that was physically rigorous and mentally
demanding. Grittier participants were more likely to continue and complete the program, which,
once again, positively correlated with the presence of perseverance, and evidence of MT.
As with sports and workplace applications, it seems a beneficial undertaking to cultivate
MT in a military venue as well. Adler et al. (2015) tested the effects of mental skills training on
basic military skills trainees to see if they would increase both their physical skills and ability to
cope with difficult situations which are often encountered in a military setting. Techniques
utilized included self-talk, positive imagery, relaxation techniques, goal setting, and affirmation;
a control group was used to increase the implications of the findings. Upon analysis, researchers
had predicted improvement in both physical skill and the increased ability to successfully
navigate mentally challenging tasks, and both were found to be statistically significant in the
mental skill training group. Results point to the conclusion that teaching coping mechanisms to
those in high-stress occupations can improve their ability to handle physical difficulty or highstress interactions better than someone who is untrained (Adler et al., 2015). The participants’
abilities to improve coping strategies are also linked to the theory that levels of resilience are
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
71
dynamic and can be developed over time (Lundman et al., 2007; Martin et al., 2015; Robertson
et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2017).
Education
Education, at any level, can be rife with unrealistic expectations, inter-cohort competition
and will include subjects not chosen by the learner. These factors inevitably lead to increased
pressure on the students in question and could undoubtedly benefit from supportive factors
provided by MT to ensure a greater propensity for success.
Willingham (2016) reflects on the topic of teaching grit in the context of elementary
school education. He questions the possibility of adding a grit component to education
curriculum and potential benefits to be gained by doing so but admits that the lack of clear and
concise definitions of the subject matter or the desired outcomes makes it somewhat difficult to
distill into teachable subject matter. The author further suggests that grit is not the sole attribute
that educators should develop in students; instead, they should foster multiple positive and
desirable traits throughout a child’s educational career. Further, he concludes that teaching the
ability to achieve success in the face of adversity is more about the role of educators to focus a
student’s intent and facilitate goal setting to propel students in the direction they aspire to go.
When examining applied MT in the educational forum, research shows that higher MT is
positively correlated to the ability to engage in directed forgetting, or the ability to filter out nonrelevant information when working on a task. This capability to remove distractions in the form
of extraneous information allows an individual to focus closely on the task at hand and therefore
derive greater success in their work (Lin, Mutz, Clough, & Papageorgiou, 2017).
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
72
Gerber et al. (2012) polled high-school and college students to assess their levels of
stress, mental toughness and their propensity towards depressive symptoms. Across the samples,
higher levels of mental toughness indicated lower incidence of depressive symptoms or reported
stress levels. This outcome is supported by research conducted by Eskreis-Winkler et al. (2013)
who showed toughness was positively correlated as a predictor of graduation in high-school
students enrolled in Chicago Public Schools, and Li and Yang (2016) who demonstrated across
multiple continents that college-age students consistently encounter similar stressors and employ
similar techniques to cope and achieve success, without regard to global location.
Salmela and Uusiautti (2015) examined the habits and viewpoints of Finnish straight-A
students and thorough analysis of the students’ shared characteristics, viewpoints and attitudes
towards the exams uncovered some common themes. The ability of the students to maximize
their natural abilities yet understand and respect their own limitations in the pursuit of excellence
speaks to the integral relationship between personal well-being and success in the face of a
challenging goal. This picture of success was not limited to the academic forum, but points to
the essential need to recognize and find meaning in all aspects of life, including sport pursuits,
interpersonal relationships and future endeavors, such as career and family. This attitude of
balance is embodied by the practice of thriving in life, defined as having excellent interpersonal
interactions and a positive attitude in the face of difficulty (Lin et al., 2017). Using the same
tactics as they applied to their studies, the students reasoned that they could facilitate growth and
multi-faceted success in many pursuits in life (Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015). Since higher MT is
related to the feeling of having control over outcomes despite challenges, the high MT individual
identifies and remediates an issue via problem-focused coping, successfully tackling it head on
rather than becoming emotional or avoiding it (Lin et al., 2017).
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
73
These results indicate some important findings. Being mentally tough is clearly shown to
assist this age group with coping with difficult or unexpected stressors and lessen the impact of
negative side effects than may be more intensely experienced by less mentally tough peers. The
positive effects of MT extend beyond the academic forum and successful applications are
demonstrated, providing a broader perspective on life (Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015). Finally,
although local variability may somewhat influence application and greater study is warranted in
populations beyond the US, Asia and Western Europe, similar results have been shown to be
common to students in multiple geographic locations and would be generally applicable to a
larger global population (Li & Yang, 2016; Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015).
Studies examining outcomes in higher education settings outside the typical high-schoolto-undergraduate experience provide further insight into the effects of MT on educational
endeavors. Cross (2014) gathered the grit levels of non-traditional doctoral students and
compared those scores to the students’ reported current GPA values to determine if higher grit
scores (GRIT-S) were a predictor of higher scholastic achievement. A positive link and
significant indicator of academic success was shown for females only, with no such direct link
existing for the males in the study. The conclusion postulated that non-traditional doctoral
candidates are already a tougher-than-typical group and may not display significant GPA
variability within their own peer group, however, they may vary greatly from their traditional
undergraduate counterparts.
Zimmerman and Brogan (2015) conducted a similar study attempting to link grit scores
(GRIT-S) to final GPA scores of law school students and found that measure of grit did not
positively correlate to higher GPA scores, with the students’ GPA scores showing very little
variability. Interestingly, ancillary results indicated that, much like the non-traditional doctoral
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
74
students in the study done by Cross in 2014, female law graduates also displayed measurably
larger grit scores than their male counterparts. This interesting, if unexpected, finding leads us
from the discussion of individual measures of grit and situational application into the larger
question of what makes certain groups grittier than others. By examining and understanding
those supportive attributes, might we leverage that knowledge towards cultivating those qualities
for ourselves and employing them within the communities we live in and care about?
Precursors to Cultivating MT
In reviewing the theoretical construct of MT and its applications, there is a clear focusing of
definitions, components and patterns. However, further examination expands upon the role and
meaningfulness of its origins.
Age & Gender
As discussed earlier, gender clearly plays a role in dictating demonstrable evidence and
effects on the application of grit, as measured grit scores (GRIT-S) linearly predict academic
success in females (Cross, 2014; Zimmerman & Brogan, 2015). But, are there similar correlates
shown in other venues and do other factors play a part in those effects? Eskreis-Winkler et al.
(2013) studied various applications including how toughness predicted the likelihood of a
married person to remain married over time. Results indicated that men with higher scores were
more likely to stay married, whereas women with higher scores were not as likely to stay married
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
75
as their male counterparts. Because MT is shown to be an indicator of perseverance over the
course of time and has a component of resilience which offers protective factors against negative
effects of stressful situations, it is unlikely that women end a marriage because they are incapable
of handling the occasional adversity which accompanies such an institution. Other
considerations could include the possibility that tougher women have gained confidence through
age and experience and may be seeking roles beyond the traditional ones of mother and wife,
knowing that they could handle the challenges that an expanded worldview may bring (Fieril et
al., 2014; Madrigal et al., 2013).
In Fieril et al. (2014), researchers explored this topic and found evidence for internal
strength and a sense of control to be strong supporting factors of grit cultivation in pregnant
women. In this qualitative study of Swedish women who were pregnant for the first time,
participants universally cited the ability to engage in behaviors and take actions which increased
their own sense of control in life as one such factor; this sentiment was positively correlated with
higher grit scores (GRIT-S) (Fieril et al., 2014). It was acknowledged that while adversity was a
part of life, the ability to tailor one’s choices to best handle those difficult times was always an
option, even during pregnancy, which may be a confusing time with possible unpleasant
physical, mental, and emotional ramifications.
MT is positively correlated to a sense of controlling one’s own destiny in life, and, in this
case, led to a greater sense of well-being, illuminating the link between self-reliance and the
behavior demonstrated by females in the context of academic achievement and their larger life
choices (Cross, 2014; Fieril et al., 2014; Zimmerman & Brogan, 2015). These traits grow
through navigating challenges, expanding with the knowledge that a woman is capable of
tackling adversity, and are shown to increase with age and continued practice. These factors
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
76
may explain the linear increase of grit with age, and the correlation to women’s grit scores to
their accomplishments across multiple applications (Cross, 2014; Lundman et al., 2007;
Zimmerman & Brogan, 2015).
Speaking to the complex nature of the topic at hand, we examine more closely the
individual qualities that are components of, and closely related to MT in the context of how
gender and age may affect them. Lundman et al. (2007) examined a mixed gender group with
participant ages ranging from 19 to 103 years to determine if resilience scores would be affected
by those demographic markers. While gender had no correlation to levels of resilience, age was
indicated as a predictor of resilience, demonstrating a linear increase in resilience for each
additional year of age, with no limit. This finding indicates that age and accompanying
experience is an accurate predictor of general levels of resilience, with experience playing a
more important role in developing resilience than gender. This result highlights the important
point that, although women are often found to be tougher than their male counterparts, they are
not shown to similarly possess wholesale higher levels of resilience. Since resilience is an
important component of MT, there must be additional elements involved in its cultivation which
would explain the seeming disparity we have uncovered.
Hardship & Failure
Building upon evidence from Fieril et al. (2014), who examined the viewpoints held by
individuals in a temporarily adverse situation, it bears mentioning that the very act of facing and
developing methods and strategies to cope were reported to be at the core of successfully
navigating that situation with a greater sense of well-being and control. It follows that we should
explore that interaction between adversity and a greater ability to cope over the course of time.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
77
DiMenichi and Richmond (2015) studied this relationship when they conducted two
randomized control trials intended to understand the value of failure in predicting future success.
By randomly assigning participants into one of three groups in which subjects either wrote an
essay about a past success, a past failure (experimental groups), or about the most recent movie
they’d seen (control), researchers could set the participants’ frame of mind. After the essay
portion of the research, grit scores were gathered (GRIT-S) and compared among the three
groups with researchers expecting to find that the group who focused on a past success would
correlate to the highest grit scores. However, the opposite was found, leading to the conclusion
that failure is essential to the process, since winning does not require you to try harder or work
longer to attain goals. Armed with this knowledge, researchers conducted a second experiment
almost identical to the first, but which included an additional testing component after the essay
and GRIT-S to gauge participants’ ability to persevere through a boring activity. Results
confirmed the findings of the previous study, showing those who reflected on past failures were
both tougher and demonstrated greater accuracy compared to both the control groups and the
success condition group. The failure group demonstrated slower response rates but fewer errors
indicating that participants learned from past failures to slow down and focus on completing the
task with accuracy instead of rushing through and making avoidable errors. This response
reinforces the role of perseverance as a crucial component of long-haul efforts (Credé et al.,
2016; Lundman et al., 2007).
Reflecting upon the literature discussed thus far, both resilience and persistence are
shown to be integral elements in the construct of MT. As well, instead of a fixed characteristic,
MT has been shown to be a dynamic attribute where it is possible to cultivate greater levels
through focused and consistent effort. These findings certainly support both previous research
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
78
findings and the commonly accepted understanding of MT. However, if this were the extent of
the components which explain MT, every person who dutifully applied themselves to a topic
would both be a subject matter expert as defined by Malcolm Gladwell’s 10,000-hour rule
(Willingham, 2016), and possess high levels of MT. However, as this is clearly not true in all
cases, there must be other facets of MT to explore.
Meaning
Although research indicates that work ethic is not completely redundant to MT (EskreisWinkler et al., 2013) cognitive scientist and author, Willingham (2016) attempts to clarify the
difference, adding some structure to the somewhat ephemeral definition and construct,
suggesting that the notable difference between the two is the ability of grit to assign “direction
and purpose” (p. 28) to work ethic. In this section, we explore the concept of that “purpose”.
In a 2013 study, Kleiman, Adams, Kashdan, and Riskind examined the interaction
between gratitude and grit in college students of both genders and across an age range of 17-50.
By gathering information via online studies one month apart, researchers observed that higher
grit scores (GRIT-S), which indicate perseverance and long-term striving, offers some protection
from suicidal thoughts or actions. Gratitude, which links meaningful actions to increased
meaningfulness in one’s own life, protects against hopelessness, a precursor to suicidal thoughts
or actions. Recognizing the symbiotic relationship between grit and gratitude, researchers
concluded the combination of the two translates into pursuing a goal purposefully, which has a
more powerful impact than either not working consistently towards something meaningful or
pursuing a goal without meaning. This component of purpose speaks to the element of “passion”
put forth by Duckworth et al. in 2007 and aligns well with the concept of “thriving” (Lin et al.,
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
79
2017) and the approach of the Finnish students who felt empowered to chart their own path in
life (Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015) and separates those who are making choices based upon what is
expected of them versus those who pursue those things that light the fire in their soul.
Salmela and Uusiautti (2015) sought to identify and examine themes in the personalities
and attitudes of high-achieving Finnish secondary school graduates. Secondary school
examinations in Finland are the culmination of three to four years of self-guided education
beginning at approximately age 16 and are considered very difficult in the context of global
viewpoints on education. Out of approximately 30,000 students testing annually, only 5%
(between 40-104 persons per year) of the students who attempt any given matriculation exam
will achieve the highest ranking. This study focused on only those students who achieved the
highest ranking on at least six such examinations, which is high achievement indeed. Narrative
analyzing methods of qualitative data produced ten common characteristic strengths that were
further categorized into three key areas shared amongst all the students interviewed: (1) the thirst
of knowledge and passion for learning, (2) fortitude and authenticity, and (3) love. These results
demonstrate that for students to enjoy great success, they must find meaning in their academic
pursuits which warrant greater efforts in terms of time or effort for the subject in question, and
further strengthen the argument for meaningfulness as a component of the grit construct.
Liu, Reed, and Girard (2017) conducted a systematic analysis of literature and
subsequently proposed that resilience is a dynamic trait. They introduced a predictive model
which explained the ebb and flow of the characteristic. The noted flaw of previous research was
that resilience was considered solely attributable to the individual and did not consider influences
across multiple facets of life and their ability to either foster or detract from its development.
The suggested model, called the Multi-System Model of Resilience (MSMR), speaks to the
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
80
varied influences on resilience as: (1) internal or core resilience factors or a person’s individual
baseline, including personal lifestyle choices and health metrics, right down to their DNA, (2)
internal resilience, which is interpersonal in nature, such as family, education or skills and
experience in the workplace, and, (3) external resilience, which is even larger in scale and
includes factors such as your geographic location, groups to which you belong, and your socioeconomic status.
As resilience is not a steady-state characteristic (Lundman et al., 2007; Martin et al.,
2015; Robertson et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2017), and because the influence that any one factor may
exert is constantly changing, our ability to be resilient would logically be affected as the gravity
of each factor expands or diminishes according to the individuals’ concerns at the time.
Unfortunate events are impossible to predict, other than to say it is statistically inevitable that
they will eventually occur. Reflecting upon this more comprehensive model of which variables
factor into our ability to cultivate and maintain resilience provides us with both greater insight
and a sense of empowerment to improve resilience at an individual level.
Teamwork
Examining the expanded framework for resilience estimation (MSMR) proposed by Liu
et al. (2017) provides insight into the role of MT on a larger scale. Activities which include
interactions beyond the individual highlight the mechanics of MT precursors in the context of
teamwork. If the presence of others and the process of interacting with them has appreciable
effects on individual displays of MT, the hypothesis that resilience is dynamic and affected by
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
81
factors outside the self will be shown to be valid and a point to consider in future research as
well as program development.
A very important concept in the domain of teamwork research is the Köhler motivation
gain effect, which is the effect on physical output noted when comparing effort expended when
working alone versus the amount of work performed when participating in a group. This effect
was discovered by Otto Köhler, a psychologist and rowing coach who realized his athletes
worked harder when they worked together (Feltz, Kerr, & Irwin, 2011).
Researchers Feltz, Kerr, and Irwin (2011) examined this concept by engaging participants
in a health game setting using virtual partners to see if someone with a lower expected output
would improve their level of effort to keep up with a superior partner. College-aged students of
both genders performed a series of isometric plank exercises within an exercise game, first
holding planks as individuals and then, in the intervention conditions, engaging with a same-sex
virtual partner who was programmed to always be superior to the participant. Across three
different experimental conditions, coaction – the team works in close proximity but is not codependent, additive – the team averages the efforts of both participants, and conjunctive – the
team is reliant on the weaker member, participants derived a greater level of effort than in the
individual control condition. Because all intervention conditions demonstrated equal evidence
of greater motivation compared to the control condition of doing a plank individually, results
suggest that when introducing a moderate challenge and another participant, the Köhler effect
comes into play and participants display greater perseverance of effort, even though the team
member they work with may be virtual in nature.
Building upon the previous study, Irwin, Scorniaenchi, Kerr, Eisenmann, and Feltz
(2012) conducted an experiment to ascertain whether the Köhler effect would have similar
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
82
effects on participants performing aerobic exercise with superior virtual partners. Participant
motivation levels were measurable in terms of length of effort during aerobic exercise, where
they exercised on a stationary bike at 65% of heart rate reserve on six separate days. This study
tested only females using two intervention conditions: a coactive condition or a conjunctive
condition. The control group was assigned to an individual condition. It was noted that the
conjunctive condition participants exercised significantly longer (M = 21.89 min, SD = + 10.08
min) than those in either the coactive (M = 19.77 min, SD = + 9.00 min) or individual (M = 10.6
min, SD = + 5.84 min) conditions. Therefore, exercising with a virtually-present partner can
improve performance in terms of persistence of effort in aerobic activity as well as strength.
To demonstrate this mechanism in action with live, in-person teamwork, Osborn, Irwin,
Skogsburg, and Feltz (2012) investigated the Köhler effect in terms of how motivational levels
are affected by the teamwork aspect of sports participation. Although Köhler motivation gains
have been documented in additive and coactive tasks, previous findings suggest that conjunctive
group tasks, performed with moderately superior partners, will result in the largest motivation
gain for the weakest performing group member, with less improvement shown for the superiorly
skilled individuals. In the first study, 68 college-aged swimming athletes (44 women, 24 men)
had their performance data on preliminary and final swim times recorded. The second study
observed 156 high school-aged track and field athletes (87 boys and 69 girls), competing in track
meets in the State of Washington, made up of 52 teams of three. In both cases, the athletes
participated in group training sessions with at least one superior athlete and one athlete with
lower capabilities. In all cases, the least-capable athlete in the group gained the most
performance improvement over the course of the training, which is directly attributable to the
Köhler motivation gain effect. This finding indicates that the Köhler effect is demonstrated over
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
83
a breadth of various activities and is not limited by the nature of activity, the age of the
participants, or by the type of the superior training partner or team mate.
One ancillary finding of these studies is that women display greater initiative during
conjunctive tasks than men. This result may be explained by the greater emphasis that women
place on the importance of teamwork and relationship investment when working in groups than
men, who are more affected by social comparisons, such as learning of a superior competitor in
the workplace or in a sporting situation (Feltz et al., 2011; Irwin et al., 2012; Osborn et al.,
2012). Combined, the results also indicate that working with someone else who is relying on
you in some capacity increases the ability of an individual to persevere through a difficult
situation and increase their total work output, thus validating the earlier suggestion that resilience
as a trait is also changeable and influenced by factors outside one’s own internal mechanisms
(Liu et al., 2017). As this has been shown to be true, we may now theorize that teamwork
provides opportunities to improve MT construct metrics, and by association, assist in the
development of MT itself.
Caveats of MT
Lack of Support
Though the benefits of MT are multiple and varied, it is wise to examine all facets of the
construct to fully understand its mechanisms. In a 2014 article, author Zakrzewski addressed
what she referred to as the “dark side of grit” and The Dark Triad is a term which refers to
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
84
Machiavellianism, narcissism and psychopathology, all which may also be linked to high MT.
Although MT is typically seen as a pro-social characteristic (Lin et al., 2017) and the underlying
components may be linked to self-discipline and self-control in students and athletes (Brand et
al., 2015b; Meriac et al., 2015; Perlis, 2013; Willingham, 2016), if there is no additional
consideration given to the emotions and wishes of an individual when choosing areas of
academic focus, adding it to curriculum or grading on it may have harmful effects on the
development of a child. Willingham (2016) mentions that forcing a child into the maladaptive
application towards a topic which holds no interest or meaning for them can elicit fear and anger
or provoke undesirable reactionary behaviors. However, without receiving the compassionate
guidance required to recognize, understand and re-focus those emotions towards a positive end,
negative coping mechanisms may be developed, inhibiting a child’s ability to correctly process
and handle unpleasant emotions and situations as they enter adulthood (Zakrzewski, 2014).
This research clearly points to the critical need to identify and support the emotions
underlying displays of academically rebellious behavior in children in order to facilitate proper
attitudes and approaches to those topics which truly pique their interest. However, there
currently exists a systemic lack of methodological training among educators to facilitate the
process of children identifying and selecting their favorite activities and topics. In a recent
interview, growth mindset researcher Carol Dweck stated, “…as educators, it is our
responsibility to create a context in which a growth mindset can flourish.” (Gross-Loh, 2016,
para. 15). This point was supported by author Betsy Ng (2018) who articulated the neurological
evidence which demonstrates that nurturing autodidactic pursuits empowers children to make
appropriate self-directed educational decisions and provides a springboard for increased intrinsic
motivation. By supporting that essential fundament, educators avoid forcing subject matter onto
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
85
students who are capable of great volumes of work but may suffer from lack of interest
throughout the learning process due to a dearth of emotional support or guidance on the part of
the educator. This point is supported by the Multi-System Model of Resilience (Liu et al., 2017)
which articulates the various factors which effect an individual’s level resilience, highlighting its
variable nature, and can affect a child’s ability to enthusiastically pursue greater knowledge.
Perfectionism
Related to the potential for developing dysfunctional coping mechanisms is the
propensity for perfectionist behavior in children. Perfectionism is a learned trait typically taken
on in childhood due to dysfunctional approaches and extreme pressure from influential authority
figures such as parents, teachers or coaches and may lead to anxiety, unrealistic or unattainable
expectations and a limited understanding of one’s own ability to revise goals or influence
outcomes in a positive manner (Brand, Kirov, Kalak, Gerber, Pühse, Lemola et al., 2015b).
Although striving for excellence is a lofty ideal, when the notion that anything less than perfect
is unacceptable, expectations of self cannot possibly be achieved through realistic effort, that
ideal becomes a self-imposed limitation and a barrier to self-acceptance and happiness.
Flett and Hewitt (2014) conducted a systematic analysis of qualitative studies to
understand perfectionism and best address its negative ideations among children and adolescents.
Their study explored five types of “maladaptive” perfectionists: (1) the driven “Academic
Achiever,” who must achieve 110%, (2) the “Risk Evader,” with the all-or-nothing approach
who lacks the confidence to try new things, (3) the “Aggravated Accuracy Assessor,” who must
achieve exactness and is fixated on “re-do’s”, (4) the “Procrastinating Perfectionist,” paralyzed
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
86
by fears and self-doubts that impair the ability to start or finish work, and (5) the “Controlling
Image Manager,” who wants to be perfect and be regarded as perfect (p. 900).
Lin et al. (2017) cited the work of Crust and Swann (2013) and Madrigal et al. (2013) to
reinforce the finding that high MT does not signal over-ambition or over-reaching. Rather, high
MT supports realistic yet flexible goal-setting and repeated achievement of progressively
challenging objectives. While those with high MT set large goals and have high ambitions,
perfectionists tend to set goals which are unrealistic or not attainable without significant or
unjustified risks. Flett and Hewitt (2014) concluded that fixed mindsets in young children are
barriers to taking the risks required to gain skills and improve knowledge (Gross-Loh, 2016).
Research by Schroder et al. (2014) found evidence that fixed mindsets inhibit improvement at a
task because the expectation exists that no action will make a difference to an unchangeable
situation and no further work is done to alter the outcome.
Further exploration into the neural reactions of children to errors in an educational setting
found that what transpired immediately following an error determined future success in
subsequent activities (Schroder, Fisher, Lin, Lo, Danovitch, & Moser, 2017). Children with
fixed mindsets about their abilities diverted their attention away from the failure, engaged in selfdeprecating statements about their lack of control and registered different patterns of brain
activity than children who expected that they could learn and do better the next time and paid
even closer attention to the explanation of the correct answer (Schroder et al., 2017). Ng (2018)
points to evidence that intrinsic motivation (versus external rewards) produce brain activity
which correlates to “a sense of agency” (p. 6), or the feeling that a person may control their own
outcomes by adapting their behavior. This evidence shows a clear link between the perspective
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
87
one holds about themselves and the varying patterns of brain activity produced by those thoughts
and predicts the participants’ pursuant behaviors.
Brand et al. (2015b) stated that traits associated with perfectionism “… were significantly
associated with lower scores for Perception and acknowledgement of own emotion, and the
Regulation and control of own emotions” (p. 266). This finding indicates that perfectionists may
not fully recognize or understand their own feelings, nor may they know how to alter their
perception of a situation to revise their response to it. This implication is reinforced by Lin et al.
(2017) who refer to the work of Crust (2009) and Cowden et al. (2014) in examining the
emotional responses of those with high MT. Although MT provides protections against
stressors, emotions are felt just as strongly by high MT individuals as in those with lower MT.
The only difference is the understanding that they have sufficient psychological resources to
cope with the source of such strong emotion. Because perfectionists often engage in selfdeprecation, misperceptions may exist in the perfectionist’s understanding of the terms selfcontrol or emotional regulation with a mistaken belief that they prescribe “stuffing” or denying
their feelings. By employing a technique called cognitive re-appraisal, a perfectionist may make
the acknowledgement that self-compassion is warranted, engage in an objective examination of
the source of negativity, and revise their initially elicited emotional response to one which is
more conducive to progress (Brand et al., 2015b).
Flett and Hewitt (2014) concluded that there are multiple types of perfectionist
viewpoints and emphasized that the potential negative ramifications of perfectionism including
anxiety, depression, self-harm and suicide must all be addressed proactively using both
appropriate goal-setting and self-compassion techniques to integrate the dichotomous nature of
the perfectionist. Encouraging progress over perfection and highlighting mistakes as a crucial
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
88
and desired part of the learning process facilitates the development of resilience required for
goal-oriented yet emotionally vulnerable individuals to exude more confidence in the pursuit of
their goals. These sentiments are echoed by Perlis (2013) who lists courage, described as facing
one’s fear of failure, and striving for excellence (versus perfection) as two major indicators of
resilient behavior. These behaviors allow for failure and imperfect results but still align with
progress, achievement and the desired successful outcomes.
To encourage this mindful transition, Dennis and Vander Wal (2010) developed the
Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI) as a measure of the ability to adapt one’s thought patterns
away from fixation on a single definition of success towards a less rigid viewpoint which
accommodates varied avenues towards stated goals and intentions. Because cognitive flexibility
(CF) is the ability to adapt one’s perspective and revise expectations by challenging fixed
thought patterns (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010) and a dynamic approach to progress has been
shown to align with successfully employing MT (Weinberg et al., 2016), the role and function of
CF in the context of its relationship to MT warrants closer examination.
Growth mindset. This ability to shift perspective, referred to as a growth mindset, is
shown to positively affect outcomes when people believe they can improve their own abilities
and their results in a learning environment (Mangels, Butterfield, Lamb, Good, & Dweck, 2006).
Mangels et al. (2006) showed a measurable difference in neural activity between students who
perceived intellectual qualities to be unchangeable versus those who expected to improve, with
much greater frontotemporal brain activation shown in those who simply believed they were
capable of improvement. In a review of the research comparing neural activity with motivation
and growth mindset, Ng (2018) found that the adaptive behaviors demonstrated by dynamic
individuals are linked to dopamine, the brain chemical associated with a feeling of reward. The
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
89
derived conclusion indicates that those who perceive personal growth as a possible outcome are
more willing to both make and examine their mistakes. Because they approach learning as a
process and not a fixed point of failure or success, they bounce back from failure better and
achieve more in comparison to those who shun failure and do not benefit from that introspection.
Studying applications of growth mindset beyond the context of education and intelligence
reveals similar findings. In individuals with anxiety, holding a fixed mindset about perceived
levels of anxiety evidences more negative coping behaviors such as self-harm, drug abuse and
depressive symptoms and feeling less capable of change than those who adopted a growth
mindset instead (Schroder, Yalch, Dawood, Callahan, Donnellan, & Moser, 2017). These
findings support the previous conclusions that employing a growth mindset offers protections
against negative ramifications of stressful life events and may encourage development of MT.
In the context of well-being, those with higher MT display “harmonious passion” for a
subject, which is well-adjusted desire to achieve goals over time and through continued effort
and contrasts with “obsession”, which is a maladaptive need to achieve unrealistic outcomes and
is driven by the fear of failure (Gucciardi et al., 2015b, as cited in Lin et al., 2017). Maladaptive
perfectionism is related to many negative outcomes, such as anxiety, depressive symptoms,
insomnia and non-achievement (Brand et al, 2015b; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Lin et al., 2017), but it
is the underlying construct and function of the negative and counterproductive behavior patterns
which set us up for harm and, ironically, failure. Comparatively, higher levels of MT are linked
to higher resilience, lower overall levels of stress and the mitigation of anxiety and depressive
symptoms when dealing with stressful situations (Lin et al., 2017). Because sleep quality is
better in those with high MT and those who report insomnia frequently also report the anxiety
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
90
and depressive symptoms common to perfectionists (Brand et al., 2015b), there is a clear link
between higher MT and constructive stress coping behaviors.
Because Flett and Hewitt (2014) demonstrated that the pursuit of perfection is associated
with both stress and suicidal ideations and that growth mindsets and MT have been shown to
provide protection against those harmful ramifications of perfectionism (Brand et al, 2015b;
Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Lin et al., 2017; Schroder et al., 2016), we
must conclude that pursuing perfection is negatively correlated to MT and should be avoided
when attempting to leverage it to its highest efficacy. We may also further conclude that fixed
mindsets, which are the cause of maladaptive perfectionism, are also contra-indicated in the
pursuit of cultivating MT, but that maintaining a growth mindset will assist in developing MT.
Costs of Perseverance
Another consideration regarding outcomes of employing MT is that perseverance may
require trade-offs, ranging from monetary to social to time-related. Lucas, Gratch, Cheng, and
Marsella (2015) studied those trade-offs in monetary terms by investigating how some
individuals might incur some costs by not giving up when others would. Researchers postulated
that tougher individuals would continue to seek a solution on a difficult task when others might
have already given up and gone on to the next task.
Three related studies conducted by Lucas et al. (2015) examined the costs of
perseverance. In all cases, participants took the Short Grit Scale (GRIT-S) then were given tasks
designed to test their propensity to either give up or persevere. The first group was given 37
anagrams to solve within a 20-minute time frame. Among those 37 puzzles, 21 anagrams were
considered difficult for college-age individuals, while 16 were unsolvable red herrings. In the
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
91
second study, participants were placed in scenarios of playing a game that was based on mouse
clicks and given rigged feedback about their status in the game to simulate a situation in which
they were losing to see how grit affected their level and persistence of effort. In the third study,
participants engaged in a MouseWars game that included math problems and offered participants
multiple options to quit the game.
In all three studies, researchers noted tougher participants were found to be less willing to
give up when they encountered scenarios engineered to ensure there was an element of failure,
even though they were likely to incur a cost (time-based, monetary, etc.) for their persistence.
Further, tougher participants were more willing to risk failing to complete a task overall because
they choose to persist on individual difficult items such as anagrams without solutions. Another
finding was that when tougher individuals were told that they were losing or failing, instead of
withdrawing, they tried harder (persistence) and for a longer duration (perseverance) than their
less-tough counterparts. Researchers attributed these findings to tough participants possessing a
more positive outlook and higher expectations of success during difficult tasks, which makes
working hard in the face of adversity a better prospect than when one views potential outcomes
as out of reach or the journey more negative or fraught with difficulty than it needs to be (Lucas
et al., 2015). These findings correlate to Adler’s 2015 research about persistence and optimism.
Lucas et al. (2015) concluded from their examination of perseverance and its effects,
which sometimes include monetary or time trade-offs, that perhaps tough individuals should
learn “the value in knowing when to quit” (p. 22), but it may be more valuable, instead, to
understand the divergent opinions surrounding the concept of quitting itself. When value is
assigned to a situation, these authors assume the locus of that value must center on metrics such
as monetary gain, social equity (as examined in terms of the Köhler effect) or other such self-
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
92
serving measures as opposed to those goals which seek to improve the greater good. If the value
to the individual is found to be in the process of participation itself, as noted in the happiness
research by Von Culin, Tsukayama, and Duckworth (2014), tangible rewards will necessarily be
secondary to the experience, a point completely dependent on the level of toughness and intrinsic
motivators of the participants (Ng, 2018), potentially skewing the results of any inquiry not
accounting for this variable.
In a study of 14 high-altitude mountaineers, Crust, Swann, and Allen-Collinson (2014)
interviewed individuals with noteworthy amounts of extreme mountaineering experience and
gathered their feedback about how mental toughness (MT) translated in the context of harsh
conditions, extreme situations, and difficult decisions. Participants were from around the globe,
represented both genders, had an average age of 44.4 years, and each had a minimum of six years
climbing experience in the Himalayas. Freeform interviews allowed researchers to gather
unscripted answers to their inquiries about what the climbers had experienced in respect to MT
and its effect on outcomes during high-altitude climbing. Answers were transcribed verbatim
and then analyzed, with three common themes identified: (1) interactions with risk, (2) decision
making (DM) processes, and (3) dangers of mental toughness (MT). The climbers specifically
noted that risk in these environments was inevitable, and a higher level of MT allowed them to
both anticipate and quickly move to mitigate risks, instead of being caught unaware. When
making decisions, higher MT equated to better decision making because those decisions were
based on the analysis of facts available and divorced from emotional reactions. It was noted that
greater climbing experience led to less impulsive decisions.
In exploring the potential dangers of MT, the interviews revealed the unpleasant nature of
allowing MT to drive illogical, obsessive, or emotionally-based decisions. Dangers mentioned
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
93
were pushing through physical limitations from which one cannot recover, ignoring one’s own
sense and intuition, and losing grip on reality outside of the goal, called the “summit or die”
mindset (Crust et al., 2016, p. 608). These observations highlight that the forced application of
MT for the sake of accomplishing a goal, without consideration for alternative interpretations of
success, can have disastrous outcomes. Comparing the work of Flett and Hewitt (2014) who
examined the fixed mindsets of perfectionists to the negative corporeal ramifications evidenced
via first-hand interviews in Crust et al. (2016) when mountaineers allowed themselves to be “too
tough” (p. 598), one could surmise that maintaining a more flexible outlook on what constitutes
success would assist to avoid these limited mindsets and, instead, support and promote MT.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
94
Conclusion
The examined literature identifies several major component parts of MT including
perseverance, resilience, meaningfulness, and growth mindset, delving into the inter-related and
sometimes inter-dependent nature of those elements. Real-world applications of instances where
MT is advantageous and useful including education, sport performance and in the workplace
were explored. Further, this literature review validates attributes such as age and gender or
situations like teamwork and conditions involving failure which facilitate the cultivation of MT.
In terms of the more specific question of the implications on demonstrated outcomes when
employing MT, we have described how it “works” to recognize potential pitfalls. For example,
perfectionist tendencies, pushing too hard without regard to risk versus gain or the improper
unilateral application of MT in an academic setting. With this knowledge, the next endeavor
would be to most effectively harness the power of MT for best outcomes.
In his 2016 article about the value of toughness in academic achievement, author Dr.
Daniel Willingham stated that those who perceive the tasks they are performing as a step towards
a larger, externally-beneficial goal (i.e. the greater good) were more likely to maintain their
efforts as opposed to those who linked their motivations to goals which could be described as
self-directed but less meaningful overall. In the context of the literature which has been
reviewed, it seems that the deciding factor which determines whether an individual who
encounters adversity in the pursuit of a lofty goal should discontinue their efforts or double down
to overcome temporary obstacles may simply be the meaningfulness of that goal to that
individual. Since the judicious application of MT has demonstrated benefits in long-term
success across varied situations and the elements of hardship and failure have been shown to be
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
95
integral components in the process of developing MT, in the absence of a perilous obstacle to
progress, discontinuation of effort would generally not be an indicated technique supportive of
cultivating greater levels of MT, and, therefore, success in life.
With that said, we must inquire how, in less mentally tough individuals, the prevalent
happenstance of quitting when faced with adverse conditions has become an acceptable response
to handling difficult situations? Pursuant to that question, further inquiry arises; how can we
reverse that trend in those who currently do not already possess high levels of MT and foster a
growth mindset to cultivate it in an organic, natural, balanced way, promoting autonomy and
achievement and increasing the ability to succeed?
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix B
Problem Statement
96
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
97
Problem Statement
In the context of sport performance, mindfulness is routinely encouraged as a method for
athletes to understand that progress is not always linear, and that setbacks can be performanceenhancing learning experiences if they can revise their expectations and persevere through
adversity (Weinberg, Freysinger, Mellano, & Brookhouse, 2016). Mental toughness (MT),
defined as the “…ability to withstand adversity, pressure and stress.” (Stonkus & Royal, 2015, p.
35) is linked to this process of iterative revisions when making goals and defining success.
Cognitive flexibility (CF) is a perspective which allows an individual to circumvent maladaptive
perfectionist tendencies such as fixed mindset where only one definition of success may be
accepted to dynamically work around perceived barriers to success (Dennis & Vander Wal,
2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Perlis, 2013). It would seem, then, that MT and CF are related in the
cultivation of that ability to persevere through failure for eventual accomplishment.
Although the literature links a growth mindset to both increased resilience against
hardship and greater personal achievement, there is currently little research to reference in terms
of facilitating and maintaining such a viewpoint outside of highly specialized forums. Sport
psychologists delve deeply into the topic of building MT and collegiate and professional athletes
have resources to draw upon and frameworks to reference on topics such as rehabilitation,
progressions and return to play after an injury. In contrast, the emphasis in popular everyday
sport and fitness pursuits has historically been placed largely upon the physical nature of activity
versus the psychological benefits imparted. Therefore, reliable information regarding the effects
of mindset upon human physiology has only recently begun to permeate the forum of casual
sports and recreational athletes.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
98
This research explores the link between mental toughness (MT) and cognitive flexibility
(CF), and seeks to elucidate their intertwined nature during the process of facilitating progress
after failure in those who demonstrate a high level of MT. Empowering individuals to take
control of their own outlook and overall satisfaction with life will contribute towards healthier
communities by demonstrating that the power to change for the better lies within the individual.
A potential limitation of this study is that we are drawing a purposive sample from a population
that may be more mentally tough than an average member of the general population, because
these participants have already chosen to test themselves by participating in an obstacle course
race known for a formidable level of challenge. On the other hand, Spartan races are inclusive of
multiple fitness levels, ages, locations and cultures, so the limitations to application noted above
may be somewhat mitigated by the wide range of participants who are attracted to this race
series.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix C
Additional Methods
99
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix C1
Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI)
100
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI)
101
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
102
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix C2
Mental Toughness Scale (MTS)
103
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Inventory of Mental Toughness in Sport (MTS)
104
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix C3
SurveyMonkey Survey
105
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
106
Hello, fellow Spartan racer! My name is Melody Gardner and I’m a doctoral candidate at
California University of PA pursuing the degree of Doctor of Health Science (DHSc) in Health
Science and Exercise Leadership. Thank you for participating in my research exploring the
relationship between cognitive flexibility and mental toughness in obstacle course racers! The
aim of this research is to gain a better understanding of how mental toughness functions so we
can apply that knowledge to help people overcome obstacles in everyday life.
This study has been approved by the Internal Review Board of California University of PA from
XXX to XXX and this survey should take less than 30 minutes to complete. By completing this
study, you acknowledge that you are an adult over the age of 18 who has previously participated
in a Spartan Race. You do not need to have finished a Spartan Race to take part. Further, by
completing the survey, you consent to your answers being used in the analysis of this study.
If you do not meet those criteria or do not wish to participate, please exit the study now. You
may also withdraw from the study at any time for any reason without penalty. Any unfinished
surveys will be discarded, and those partial answers will not be included.
To participate, you will be asked to answer demographic questions (age, state of residence and
gender) and to complete survey questions regarding cognitive flexibility and mental toughness.
You may also choose to provide contact information if you would like to participate in a future
confidential interview about your personal experiences with cognitive flexibility and mental
toughness. No personally identifiable information will be collected through the quantitative
research (surveys) and any names or other identifying information collected during the
qualitative research (interviews) will not be linked to published results. Survey data will only be
reported in aggregate form and all personal interview participant identities shall be kept
confidential, with no identifying information published.
If you have any questions about this survey you may either contact me (Melody Gardner/primary
investigator), at gar90603@calu.edu or my faculty advisor, Dr. Ellen West, at west_e@calu.edu.
By continuing, you are indicating that you are 18 years of age or older and have previously
participated in a Spartan race. You further agree that you have read the above text in its entirety
and voluntarily consent to participate in the survey. Please click Continue to begin the survey.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Demographic Questions
1. What was your age on your last birthday?
(Please use whole numbers.)
2. What state do you live in?
(Choose from drop-down menu)
3. What is the gender you identify most closely with?
Male
Female
Other
Prefer not to answer
4. How many Spartan races have you previously participated in?
(Note: you need not have finished a race to count it in your total.)
1 race
2-5 races
More than 5 races
107
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
108
Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI)
Using the scale provided in the questions below, please indicate the extent to which you agree or
disagree with each statement.
1. I am good at “sizing up” situations.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
2. I have a hard time making decisions when faced with difficult situations.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
3. I consider multiple options before making a decision.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
4. When I encounter difficult situations, I feel like I am losing control.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
109
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
5. I like to look at difficult situations from many different angles.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
6. I seek additional information not immediately available before attributing causes to
behavior.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
110
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
7. When encountering difficult situations, I become so stressed that I cannot think of a
way to resolve the situation.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
8. I try to think about things from another person’s point of view.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
111
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
9. I find it troublesome that there are so many different ways to deal with difficult
situations.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
10. I am good at putting myself in others’ shoes.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
112
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
11. When I encounter difficult situations, I just don’t know what to do.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
12. It is important to look at difficult situations from many angles.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
113
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
13. When in difficult situations, I consider multiple options before deciding how to
behave.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
14. I often look at a situation from different viewpoints.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
114
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
15. I am capable of overcoming the difficulties in life that I face.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
16. I consider all the available facts and information when attributing causes to behavior.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
115
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
17. I feel I have no power to change things in difficult situations.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
18. When I encounter difficult situations, I stop and try to think of several ways to
resolve it.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
116
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
19. I can think of more than one way to resolve a difficult situation I’m confronted with.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
20. I consider multiple options before responding to difficult situations.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
117
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Mental Toughness Scale (MTS)
Listed below are a series of statements regarding your views on being an athlete. Please think
about how you usually feel and rate each of the statements.
1.
I have an inner arrogance that makes me believe I can achieve anything I set my mind to.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
2.
I know when to celebrate success but also know when to stop and focus on the next
challenge.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
118
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
119
3. I have a killer instinct to capitalize on the moment when I know I can win.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
4. I know what needs to be done in order to achieve a level of performance required to win.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
5.
I have the patience and discipline to control my efforts to achieve each goal along the ladder
of success.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
6. Even though I am tired, I continue to train to achieve my goal.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
7.
I use all aspects of a very difficult training environment to my advantage.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
8. I am able to increase my effort if it is required to win.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
120
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
121
9. When an obstacle is in my way I find a way to overcome it.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
10. I accept, embrace, and even welcome the elements of training that are considered painful.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
11. I have total commitment to my performance goal until every possible opportunity of success
has passed.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
122
Qualitative Consent to be Contacted for a Personal Interview
If you would be interested in volunteering to participate in a brief personal interview to be held
in the second phase of this research, please provide your contact info below. This information
will not be linked to your survey results, which may only be published in aggregate form, nor
will it ever be published or sold, as this academic research is completely confidential and will
never be made public.
Name: _________________________________________________________________
Phone Number: __________________________________________________________
E-mail or Facebook profile: _________________________________________________
Thank you for your participation in this research about the link between cognitive flexibility and
mental toughness. Your input is very much appreciated!
All comments, questions, or requests for results may be directed to the primary investigator,
Melody Gardner, at gar9603@calu.edu or the study’s faculty advisor, Dr. Ellen West at
west_e@calu.edu. Study results will be available upon request after January 1, 2019.
Thank you again for participating in this study and best wishes on your adventures in obstacle
course racing and a fit lifestyle!
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix C4
Interview Logistics
123
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
124
Interview Logistics
Semi-structured interviews will have the same starting point but rely upon iterative exploration
to reach the most detailed and poignantly evocative themes of the narrative.
Sample Interview Questions
1. How would you define the concepts of mental toughness and cognitive flexibility?
2. Please provide examples of how you employ the concepts of mental toughness and/or
cognitive flexibility in everyday life?
3. Do you feel that your personal thoughts and practices about mental toughness and cognitive
flexibility set you apart from others, and, if so, in what way(s)?
4a. Do you feel that being mentally tough and/or having cognitive flexibility offers you any
advantages in life?
4b. Can you recount specific times or situations in which this mindset has been detrimental
instead?
5. Can you identify a specific experience in your life which caused you to develop greater
mental toughness? If yes, what do you think contributed to that process?
Interview Techniques
Virtual chat (Facebook Messenger providing textual documentation)
E-mail (paper trail documentation)
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix C5
IRB Approval Form
125
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
IRB Approval Form
126
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix C6
Informed Consent Form
127
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
128
Informed Consent Form
Correlating Cognitive Flexibility and Mental Toughness While
Identifying Patterns in the Mechanics of Change Within Mentally Tough Individuals
Please read this informed consent form thoroughly to be certain you completely understand the
implications of agreeing to participate in this research study.
Introduction
You are invited to participate in a research study of obstacle course racers to understand the
correlation between levels of cognitive flexibility (CF) and mental toughness (MT) with
viewpoints on real-life applications. You are eligible to take part if you are an adult (age 18 or
older) who has previously participated in a Spartan Race. Please note that you need not have
finished a Spartan Race to be eligible to take part in any portion of the study.
This study is being conducted by Melody Gardner, a doctoral student at California University of
Pennsylvania, to complete the dissertation in partial fulfillment of the DHSc degree program.
Purpose
This research study is being undertaken to determine the correlation between cognitive flexibility
(CF) and mental toughness (MT). Through subsequent qualitative analysis of personal
interviews, the study will interpret and draw credible conclusions about the relationship between
maintaining a growth mindset and fostering the process of becoming mentally tough.
Procedures
Quantitative Study
Because you are an adult, participation in electronic survey formats is considered implied
consent. However, you have rights as a participant and you may discontinue
participation in this study at any time without penalty. Foreseeable risks are minimal and
may include feelings of frustration with current fitness levels leading to the potential to
over train in the pursuit of fitness goals. Benefits may include a feeling of
accomplishment in your obstacle course race participation or pride in contributing to a
growing body of research about the psychological aspects of mental toughness.
If you elect to participate in this research, you must agree to two pre-screening questions
confirming that you are age 18 or older and have participated in a Spartan Race in order
to continue.
After responding in the affirmative to both pre-screening questions, eligible participants
will continue to electronically complete the Likert type questionnaires Cognitive
Flexibility Inventory (CFI) (Appendix C1) and the Inventory of Mental Toughness in
Sport (MTS) (Appendix C2), combined into one online survey (Appendix C3) which
should take no more than 20-30 minutes.
Upon completing the CFI and MTS, you will be asked if you consent to be contacted for
future participation in the qualitative portion of the research study. This consent would
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
129
be provided by indicating contact information for the purpose of scheduling a qualitative
interview. This interview would last no longer than one (1) hour.
Qualitative Study
Based upon the results of the quantitative data gathering process, those participants who
have consented to volunteer for further participation will be contacted to ensure they are
still interested and able to participate in the qualitative interviews.
Appointments will be scheduled with the location of the interview to be determined by
physical logistics. All interview methods will allow for recording the interactions
between researcher and participant.
Prior to beginning an interview, you will be provided a copy of this informed consent
form that you must sign. This form is a reminder that you have rights as a participant and
you may discontinue participation in this study at any time without penalty. Foreseeable
risks are minor and may include feelings of frustration with current fitness levels leading
to the potential to over train in the pursuit of fitness goals or cognitive discomfort when
recalling and discussing previous difficult personal circumstances. Benefits may include
a feeling of accomplishment in your obstacle course race participation or pride in
contributing to a growing body of research about the psychological aspects of mental
toughness.
Semi-structured interviews lasting no more than one hour each will be conducted,
employing open-ended questions which pertain to CF and MT, but also extend into
inquiry examining how study participants’ experiences with failure may ultimately
contribute to their long-term success.
Risks and Benefits
No physical interventions are included in this research. Therefore, any risks that accompany
participation in this study are minimal, limited to possible temporary feelings of frustration and
discontentment in participants when reviewing personal health and mindsets or increased
motivation to do more in the context of physical fitness, which, although largely unforeseen, may
lead to overtraining and/or injury.
The benefit of this study is the deeper understanding of the mechanisms that affect the
development of cognitive flexibility and mental toughness. Better insight into this relationship
could provide greater support in their cultivation and more efficiency in application of these
properties, leading to a better ability to withstand hardship and ultimately achieve success,
particularly in physical tasks or during competition.
Costs
There are no tangible costs associated to participation in this research study. For quantitative
participants, there is a 30-minute maximum time investment. For those who also participate in
the qualitative portion of the study, there will be an additional hour maximum, for a total of
approximately 90 minutes total required for participation in this research study.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
130
Remuneration
There will be no remuneration provided for taking part in this research.
Confidentiality
Those participants who choose to take part in the quantitative portion of the study will access the
inventories electronically with information reported in aggregate form, and will see the message,
“No names or identifying information were requested in the course of this survey, and therefore,
all study results will be kept completely anonymous.” as part of the welcome cover letter they
read prior to participating in the quantitative research.
On the page requesting contact information to volunteer to participate in the qualitative research,
all participants will see the message, “No names or identifying information will be linked with
your responses to this survey and all study results will be kept completely confidential.”
In all cases, these quantitative results will be kept in a password-protected digital format housed
on a secure server accessible only to the primary researcher and will not be printed out or
distributed at any time for any purpose. The recordings, transcripts, notes or observations
pursuant to the qualitative interviews will be stored in a locked file cabinet housed in a secure
location, accessible only to the primary researcher and will never be publicly distributed.
Voluntary Participation
Participation in any aspect of this research study is completely voluntary and withdrawal at any
time is permissible without penalty. No negative ramifications will occur due to discontinuation
of participation. Upon the request of the participant to withdraw and not participate further, all
data gathered during the qualitative interviews will be discarded in a confidential manner with
electronic records deleted and any physical notes shredded. Quantitative data cannot be matched
to any particular participant unless the participant chooses to self-identify, but incomplete
surveys may be either disregarded in part or in their entirety. In the event that a participant
refuses to answer the qualitative questions or begins to answer in an inappropriate manner or in
ways which do not further the aims of this research study, they may be dismissed from the study
without indicating that they no longer wish to participate, and their data will be discarded and
destroyed to protect participant privacy and will not be considered within the scope of the study.
Contact Information
The researcher conducting this study is Melody Gardner. Please feel free to ask questions at any
time, either during or after participation or after the study has concluded by contacting:
Melody Gardner, MS, CPT, CAPM
Primary Researcher
Department of Exercise Science and Sport Studies
Gar9603@calu.edu
610-390-1907
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
131
Ellen J. West, EdD, LAT, ATC
Research Advisor
Department of Exercise Science and Sport Studies
west_e@calu.edu
724-938-4356
This study has been approved by the California University Institutional Review Board. Any
questions you may have regarding this study or that you feel have not been sufficiently addressed
or you would prefer not to pose to the research team may be directed to the California University
Institutional Review Board at instreviewboard@calu.edu.
Statement of Consent (Qualitative)
I have read and understood the informed consent form, asking for clarification wherever
necessary, and I consent to participate in this study.
Name of Participant (Please Print)
Signature of Participant
Date
Name of Authorized Researcher Obtaining Informed Consent
Date
This study has been approved by the California University of Pennsylvania Institutional Review
Board. This approval is effective Month/Day/Year and expires Month/Date/Year.
Please keep the copy of this informed consent form which has been provided to you.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
132
Title: Correlating Cognitive Flexibility and Mental Toughness While Elucidating the Connection
Between Failure, Flexibility and Change Within Mentally Tough Individuals
Consent Checklist for Interviews: a Qualitative Sub-study
Thank you for reading the information sheet about the interview sub-study. If you are happy to
participate then please complete and sign the form below. Please initial the boxes below to confirm that
you agree with each statement:
Please Initial
box:
I confirm that I have read and understood the information sheet and have had the opportunity to ask
questions.
I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time without giving
any reason and without there being any negative consequences. In addition, should I not wish to answer
any particular question or questions, I am free to decline.
I understand that my responses will be kept strictly confidential. I understand that my name will not be
linked with the research materials, and will not be identified or identifiable in the report or reports that
result from the research.
I agree for this interview to be recorded. I understand that the audio or text recording of this interview will
be used only for analysis and that extracts from the interview, from which I would not be personally
identified, may be used in any conference presentation, report or journal article developed as a result of
the research. I understand that no other use will be made of the recording without my written permission,
and that no one outside the research team will be allowed access to the original recording.
I agree that my anonymised data will be kept for future research purposes such as publications related to
this study after the completion of the study.
I agree to take part in this interview.
___________________________________________________________________________
Participant Electronic Signature
Date
___________________________________________________________________________
Principal Investigator Electronic Signature
Date
To be counter-signed and dated electronically for telephone or text-based interviews or in the presence of
the participant for face to face interviews
Security and Retention: Once this has been signed by all parties, the participant shall receive a copy of
the signed and dated participant consent form, and the information sheet. A copy of the signed and dated
consent form will be kept in a secure location.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix C7
Certification of IRB (Citi Forms)
133
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Certification of IRB (Citi Forms)
134
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
135
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
136
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
137
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
138
References
Adler, A., Bliese, P., Csoka, V., Hammermeister, J., Harada, C., Holliday, B., ...& Williams J.
(2015). Mental skills training with basic combat training soldiers: A group-randomized
trial. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(6), 1752–1764.
https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000021
Bartone, P. (1995, July). A short hardiness scale. A paper presented at a meeting of the
American Psychological Society in New York, NY.
Binsch, O., Van Wietmarschen, H., & Buick, F. (2017). Relationships between
cortisol, optimism, and perseverance measured in two military settings.
Military Psychology, 29(2), 99-116. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000146
Brand, S., Kirov, R., Kalak, N., Gerber, M., Pühse, U., Lemola, S., …& Holsboer-Trachsler, E.
(2015b). Perfectionism related to self-reported insomnia severity, but not when controlled
for stress and emotion regulation. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 11, 263–271.
https://doi.org/10.2147/ndt.s74905
Credé, M., Tynan, M., & Harms, P. (2016). Much ado about grit: A meta-analytic
synthesis of the grit literature. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1-20.
Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000102
Cross, T. (2014). The gritty: Grit and non-traditional doctoral student success. Journal of
Educators Online, 11(3). Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1033306.pdf
Crust, L., Swann, C., & Allen-Collinson, J. (2016). The thin line: A phenomenological study of
mental toughness and decision making in elite high-altitude mountaineers. Journal of
Sport & Exercise Psychology, 38, 598 -611. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2016-0109
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
139
Dahl, M. (2016). Don’t believe the hype about grit, pleads the scientist behind the concept.
NYMag.com. Retrieved from http://nymag.com/scienceofus/2016/05/dont-believe-thehype-about-grit-pleads-the-scientist-behind-the-concept.html
Dennis, J., & Vander Wal, J. (2010). The cognitive flexibility inventory: Instrument
development and estimates of reliability and validity. Cognitive Therapy and Research,
34, 241–253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-009-9276-4
DiMenichi, B., & Richmond, L. (2015). Reflecting on past failures leads to increased
perseverance and sustained attention. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 27(2), 180-193.
https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2014.995104
Duckworth, A., Eichstaedt, J., & Ungar, L. (2015). The mechanics of human achievement.
Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9(7), 359–369.
https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12178
Duckworth, A., Peterson, C., Matthew, M., & Kelly, D. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion
for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1087–1101.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087
Duckworth, A., & Quinn, P. (2009). Development and validation of the short grit scale
(Grit-S). Journal of Personality Assessment, 91, 166–174.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890802634290
Duckworth, A., & Yeager, D. (2016). Measurement matters: Assessing personal qualities other
than cognitive ability for educational purposes. Educational Researcher, 4(4), 237–251.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X15584327
Elumaro, A. (2016). Personality, grit and sporting achievement. IOSR Journal of Sports and
Physical Education, 3(1), 14-17. https://doi.org/10.9790/6737-0311417
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
140
Eskreis-Winkler, L., Shulman, E., Beal, S., & Duckworth, A. (2013). The grit effect: Predicting
retention in the military, the workplace, school and marriage. Frontiers in Psychology,
5(36), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00036
Feltz, D., Kerr, N., & Irwin, B. (2011). Buddy up: The Köhler effect applied to health games.
Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 33, 506-526.
https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.33.4.506
Fieril, K., Olsen, M., Glantz, A., & Larsson, M. (2014). Experiences of exercise during
pregnancy among women who perform regular resistance training: A qualitative study.
Physical Therapy, 94(8), 1135-1143. https://doi.org/10.2522/ptj.20120432
Flett, G., & Hewitt, P. (2014). A proposed framework for preventing perfectionism and
promoting resilience and mental health among vulnerable children and adolescents.
Psychology in the Schools, 51(9), 899-912. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21792
Gartner, Inc. (2018). Gartner Magic Quadrant. [Infographic]. Retrieved from
https://www.gartner.com/en/research/methodologies/magic-quadrants-research
Gerber, M., Kalak, N., Lemola, S., Clough, P., Perry, J., Pühse1, U., … & Brand, S. (2012). Are
adolescents with high mental toughness levels more resilient against stress? Stress &
Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress, 29, 164–171.
https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2447
Gross-Loh, C. (2016). How praise became a consolation prize. TheAtlantic.com.
Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2016/12/how-praisebecame-a-consolation-prize/510845/
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
141
Gucciardia, D., Peeling, P., Duckera, K., & Dawson, B. (2016). When the going gets tough:
Mental toughness and its relationship with behavioural perseverance. Journal of Science
and Medicine in Sport, 19, 81–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2014.12.005
Hoyt, L., & Falconi, A. (2015). Puberty and perimenopause: Reproductive transitions and their
implications for women's health. Social Science & Medicine, 132, 103-112.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.03.031
Hurley, W., Denegar, C., & Hertel, J. (2011). Research methods: A framework for evidencebased clinical practice. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Irwin, B., Scorniaenchi, J., Kerr, N., Eisenmann, J., & Feltz, D. (2012). Aerobic exercise is
promoted when individual performance affects the group: A test of the Köhler
motivation gain effect. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 44(2), 151-159.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-012-9367-4
Jones, G., Hanton, S., & Connaughton, D. (2007). A framework of mental toughness in the
world’s best performers. The Sport Psychologist, 21(2), 243–264.
https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.21.2.243
Kidd, M., & Eatough, V. (2017). Yoga, well-being, and transcendence: An interpretative
phenomenological analysis. The Humanistic Psychologist, 45(3), 250-280.
https://doi.org/10.1037/hum0000068
Kleiman, E., Adams, L., Kashdan, T., & Riskind, J. (2013). Gratitude and grit indirectly reduce
risk of suicidal ideations by enhancing meaning in life: Evidence for a mediated
moderation model. Journal of Research in Personality, 47, 539–546.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2013.04.007
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
142
Li, M., & Yang, Y. (2016). A cross-cultural study on a resilience–stress path model for college
students. Journal of Counseling & Development, 94, 319-332.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12088
Lin, Y., Mutz, J., Clough, P., & Papageorgiou, K. (2017). Mental toughness and individual
differences in learning, educational and work performance, psychological well-being,
and personality: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1-15.
Liu, J., Reed, M., & Girard, T. (2017). Advancing resilience: An integrative, multi-system
model of resilience. Personality and Individual Differences, 111, 111-118.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.02.007
Lucas, G., Gratch, J., Cheng, L., & Marsella, S. (2015). When the going gets tough: Grit
predicts costly perseverance. Journal of Research in Personality, 59, 15–22.
https://doi.org//10.1016/j.jrp.2015.08.004
Lundman, B., Strandberg, G., Eisemann, M., Gustafson, Y., & Brulin, C. (2007). Psychometric
properties of the Swedish version of the resilience scale. The Scandinavian Journal of
Caring Sciences, 21, 229–237. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6712.2007.00461.x
Madrigal, L., Hamill, S., & Gill, D. (2013). Mind over matter: The development of the Mental
Toughness Scale (MTS). The Sport Psychologist, 27(1), 62-77.
https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.27.1.62
Mangels, J., Butterfield, B., Lamb, J., Good, C., & Dweck, C. (2006). Why do beliefs about
intelligence influence learning success? A social cognitive neuroscience model.
Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 1(2), 75–86.
https://dpi.org/10.1093/scan/nsl013
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
143
Martin, J., Byrd, B., Lewis Watts, M., & Dent, M. (2015). Gritty, hardy, and resilient:
Predictors of sport engagement and life satisfaction in wheelchair basketball players.
Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 9, 345-359.
https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2015-0008
Meriac, J., Slifka, J., & LaBat, L. (2015). Work ethic and grit: An examination of empirical
redundancy. Personality and Individual Differences, 86, 401–405.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.009
Ng, B. (2018). The neuroscience of growth mindset and intrinsic motivation.
Brain Science, 8, 20. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8020020
Osborn, K., Irwin, B., Skogsburg, N., & Feltz, D. (2012). The Köhler effect: Motivation gains
and losses in real sports groups. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 1-12.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026887
Perlis, M. (2013). 5 characteristics of grit - how many do you have? Forbes.com.
Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/margaretperlis/2013/10/29/5characteristics
ofgritwhatitiswhyouneeditanddoyouhaveit/#378c201f764b
Pietkiewicz, I., & Smith, J. (2014). A practical guide to using interpretative phenomenological
analysis in qualitative research psychology. Psychological Journal, 18(2), 361-369.
https://doi.org/10.14691/CPPJ.20.1.7 (Original work published 2012)
Reed, J. (2015). A survey of grit and exercise behavior. Journal of Sport Behavior, 37(4), 390406. Retrieved from http://proxycalu.klnpa.org/login?qurl=http%3a%2f%2fsearch.ebscohost.com%2flogin.aspx%3fdirect
%3dtrue%26db%3dccm%26AN%3d107837023%26site%3deds-live%26scope%3dsite
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
144
Robertson, I., Cooper, C., Sarkar, M., & Curran, T. (2015). Resilience training in the
workplace from 2003 to 2014: A systematic review. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, 88, 533–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12120
Salmela, M., & Uusiautti, S. (2015). A positive psychological viewpoint for success at school –
10 characteristic strengths of the Finnish high-achieving students. High Ability Studies,
26(1), 117–137. https://doi.org/10.1080/13598139.2015.1019607
Schroder, H., Fisher, M., Lin, Y., Lo, S., Danovitch, J., & Moser, J. (2017).
Neural evidence for enhanced attention to mistakes among school-aged children with a
growth mindset. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 24, 42–50.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2017.01.004
Schroder, H., Yalch, M., Dawood, S., Callahan, C., Donnellan, M., & Moser, J. (2017).
Growth mindset of anxiety buffers the link between stressful life events and
psychological distress and coping strategies. Personality and Individual Differences,
110, 23–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.01.016
Schroder, H., Moran, T., Donnellan, M., & Moser. J. (2014). Mindset induction effects on
cognitive control: A neurobehavioral investigation. Biological Psychology, 103, 27–37.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2014.08.004
Stephens, R., Atkins, J., & Kingston, A. (2009). Swearing as a response to pain. NeuroReport,
20(12), 1056–1060. Doi: 10.1097/WNR.0b013e32832e64b1
Stephens, R., & Umland, C. (2011). Swearing as a response to pain—Effect of daily swearing
frequency. The Journal of Pain, 12(12), 1274-1281.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2011.09.004
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
145
Stephens, R., Spierer, D., & Katehis, E. (2018). Effect of swearing on strength and power
performance. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, (35), 111-117.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.11.014
Stonkus, M. (2011). The development and validation of the Inventory of Mental Toughness
Factors in Sport (IMTF-S) (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations
& Theses (Publication number 3463253).
Stonkus, M., & Royal, K. (2015). Further validation of the inventory of mental toughness
factors in sport (IMTF-S). International Journal of Psychological Studies, 7(3), 35-45.
https://doi.org/10.5539/ijps.v7n3p35
Silvia, P., Eddington, K., Beaty, R., Nusbaum, E., & Kwapil, T. (2013). Gritty people try
harder: Grit and effort-related cardiac autonomic activity during an active coping
challenge. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 88, 200–205.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2013.04.007
U.S. National Library of Medicine. (October 16, 2018). What is DNA? [Infographic].
Retrieved from https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/basics/dna
Von Culin, K., Tsukayama, E., & Duckworth, A. (2014). Unpacking grit: Motivational
correlates of perseverance and passion for long-term goals. The Journal of Positive
Psychology: Dedicated to furthering research and promoting good practice, 9(4), 1-7.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.898320
Xie, Y., Peng, L., Zuo, X., & Li., M. (2016). The psychometric evaluation of the ConnorDavidson resilience scale using a Chinese military sample. PLoS ONE 11(2): e0148843.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0148843
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Weinberg, R., Freysinger, V., Mellano, K., & Brookhouse, E. (2016). Building mental
toughness: Perceptions of sport psychologists. The Sport Psychologist, 30, 231 -241.
https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2015-0090
Willingham, D. (2016). Ask the cognitive scientist: “Grit” is trendy, but can it be taught?
American Educator, 28-32 & 44. Retrieved from
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1104456.pdf
Zakrzewski, V. (2014.) What’s wrong with grit? Greater Good.com. Retrieved from
http://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/whats_wrong_with_grit
Zimmerman, E., & Brogan, L. (2015). Grit and law education. Pace Law Review, 36(1),
112-157. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.pace.edu/plr/vol36/iss1/4
146
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
147
Supporting Materials – Preliminary Study Invitation Letter
Hello fellow Doctoral candidate,
Thank you for being a part of the preliminary study for my doctoral dissertation. The objective of this
study is to explore the relationship between cognitive flexibility and mental toughness. In order to ensure
that the participants in this study understand the survey as it is currently designed, I would ask for you to
participate and provide critical feedback to improve the experience.
Due to your current affiliation with the Doctoral program and ability to provide crucial insight into the
process from a participant perspective, I would appreciate your participation in this preliminary version of
the study. The feedback you provide about this survey is valued and important for the success of this
study, with revisions to be made in reference to the information obtained from this preliminary study.
Below, you will find the link to SurveyMonkey where the survey, including the Cognitive Flexibility
Inventory (CFI) and Mental Toughness Scale (MTS) will be located. Clicking on the link will
automatically open the survey and from there you may begin.
Upon completing the survey, please inform me of the following items:
1.
The time it took to complete the survey
2.
Questions (outside of instrumentation) suggested to add or remove
3.
Grammatical corrections required
4.
Clarity of the questions asked
5.
General feedback regarding improvements or recommendations
In order to move forward with this research, your completion of this survey and feedback within the next
week would be greatly appreciated. Please contact me if you have any questions at gar9603@calu.edu.
Thank you for taking the time to participate as a member of this panel of experts. Your contribution is
greatly appreciated!
(link to survey)
Have a great day,
Melody Gardner
Correlating Cognitive Flexibility and Mental Toughness While Examining the Connection
between Failure, Flexibility, and Change Within Spartan Obstacle Course Racers
A DISSERTATION
Submitted to the Faculty of the School of Graduate Studies and Research of California
University of Pennsylvania in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Health Science (DHSc) in Health Science and Exercise Leadership
by Melody Gardner
Research Adviser, Ellen West, EdD, LAT, ATC
California, Pennsylvania
2018
CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITY of PENNSYLVANIA
CALIFORNIA, PA
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Acknowledgements
To my husband, Ralph, my support system and sanity check throughout life, who originated
this idea when I utilized his lifelong mantra of “Semper Gumby, Always Flexible”.
To my Mom, who taught me to always trust my first instinct, because it was usually right.
To my Dad, who taught me that failing to plan was planning to fail.
To my brother, Jesse, and sister, Mary, who both make me laugh like Hell.
To my niece Amelia, who reminds me that there is no such thing as “too much insurance”.
To Mrs. Detterline, Mrs. Lamb, and my Aunt Tam who showed me how to truly live life.
To Joe and George, who both told me to keep dreaming big and never, ever give up.
To Tiny Bubbles and Kyle who provided a technical assist.
To Ashley, who held my drink while I typed.
To Scott; simply, thank you.
To Drs. Dennis and Vander Wal for the use of the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI).
To Drs. Madrigal, Hamill and Hill for the use of the Metal Toughness Scale (MTS).
To Drs. Daday, Hanes, Heery, Mayrhofer and Shuhler for their wise counsel.
To Dr. Hess, who did her absolute best to bulletproof us as we created our proposals.
To Dr. Sovak, who ensured that no analytical stone was left unturned.
To my dissertation committee members, Dr. Hatton and Dr. Miller, for their helpful input.
To my committee chair, Dr. Ellen West, who supported and encouraged my creative process
and personal growth throughout the entire doctoral program.
To Dr. Marc Federico and all the program faculty members for undertaking this nascent
program, sailing boldly through completely uncharted territory with their first crew.
To any reader who wonders how they can make a change in life that seems almost
completely out of reach, I offer this quote, attributed to Art Berg, but whose true original
author is unknown, “While the difficult takes time, the impossible just takes a little longer.”
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Table of Contents
Abstract ...........................................................................................................................................1
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................2
Methods ...........................................................................................................................................6
Research Design .................................................................................................................6
Subjects ...............................................................................................................................7
Instruments .........................................................................................................................8
Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI) .................................................................8
Mental Toughness Scale (MTS) ............................................................................9
Procedures ........................................................................................................................10
Data Analysis ....................................................................................................................13
Quantitative ..........................................................................................................14
Qualitative ............................................................................................................14
Results ...........................................................................................................................................16
Qualitative ........................................................................................................................16
Qualitative ........................................................................................................................19
Discussion......................................................................................................................................21
Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................47
Future Research ...........................................................................................................................50
References .....................................................................................................................................51
Appendix A (Literature Review) ................................................................................................57
Intro ...................................................................................................................................58
Theoretical Construct ......................................................................................................59
Applications ......................................................................................................................64
Sports ....................................................................................................................64
Workplace.............................................................................................................68
Military .................................................................................................................69
Education ..............................................................................................................71
Precursors .........................................................................................................................74
Age & Gender .......................................................................................................74
Hardship & Failure..............................................................................................76
Meaning ................................................................................................................78
Teamwork .............................................................................................................80
Caveats ..............................................................................................................................83
Lack of Support....................................................................................................83
Perfectionism ........................................................................................................85
Costs of Perseverance ..........................................................................................90
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................94
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix B (Problem Statement)...............................................................................................96
Appendix C ...................................................................................................................................99
Appendix C1 (Cognitive Flexibility Inventory)...........................................................100
Appendix C2 (Mental Toughness Scale) ......................................................................103
Appendix C3 (SurveyMonkey Survey) .....................................................................105
Appendix C4 (Interview Logistics) ..............................................................................123
Appendix C5 (IRB Approval) ......................................................................................125
Appendix C6 (Informed Consent) ................................................................................127
Appendix C7 (CITI Certificates) ..................................................................................133
References ...................................................................................................................................138
Supporting Materials .................................................................................................................147
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
List of Figures
Figure 1.
Number of Spartan Races by Gender - Bar Chart
Figure 2.
The DNA of Grit – The Intrinsic Components
Figure 3.
Tree of Life Illustration – The System
Figure 4.
Venn Diagram – Convergent Elements of Cognitive Flexibility
Figure 5.
7 Steps to Transformative Change – The Process
Figure 6.
Gardner’s Magic Quadrant – The Real-Life Takeaway
i
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
List of Tables
Table 1.
Independent-samples t-test of CFI by Gender
Table 2.
Independent-samples t-test of MTS by Gender
ii
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
1
Abstract
Although topical, the nature and function of grit remains incompletely understood, leading to
improper applications and misutilization. Employing a mixed methods research design, this
research examined cognitive flexibility (CF) and mental toughness (MT), two properties closely
related to grit. Quantitative inquiry conducted via SurveyMonkey gathered data from Spartan
obstacle course racers (n = 152) via the Dennis and Vander Wal (2010) Cognitive Flexibility
Inventory (CFI) and the Madrigal, Hamill, and Hill (2013) Mental Toughness Scale (MTS).
Analysis of data demonstrates CF and MT are positively correlated (p < .0001). Too, males
display both higher levels of MT (p < .0001) and CF (p = .0015), whereas no such correlations
exist in females. Subsequent qualitative personal interviews conducted via Facebook Messenger
utilized n = 15 derived from the original Spartan racer participant pool. Transcripts were
thematically analyzed to provide high-level insights and interpretative phenomenological
analysis (IPA) demonstrated both variables to be unique complex constructs with a synergistic
relationship dynamic. Deeper examination of how CF and MT are cultivated elucidated the
unequivocally beneficial impact of each on participants’ lived experiences and overall outcomes.
Implications of this research include stronger support for the neurological link between mindset
and the changes seen in biological structure (Ng, 2018; Schroder, Moran, Donnellan, & Moser,
2014). Future work may include examination of the efficacy of various mind-body interventions
such as bio-feedback, meditation, yoga and other mindfulness practices with the ultimate intent
of facilitating autodidactic improvements in physical, mental and emotional outcomes.
Keywords: Mental toughness, cognitive flexibility, grit, compassion, empowerment
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
2
Introduction
Grit is a term that has seen a surge of popularity in the last decade, its properties being
equated with toughness, defiance of hum-drum convention and inherently denoting all-around
accomplishment. Clear trends emerge when examining the literature showing it is increasingly
considered an important variable in everyday applications such as the workplace, educational
forums, high-pressure situations, or fitness-related pursuits. Studies have yielded significant
positive links between success in these environments and measures of grittiness (EskreisWinkler, Shulman, Beal, & Duckworth, 2013; Meriac, Slifka, & LaBat, 2015).
The generally accepted understanding of the construct of grit as being a ratio of
persistence of effort and longevity of interest seems to neatly echo the 2007 findings of
Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, and Kelly, who described grit as “the propensity to pursue
long-term goals with perseverance and passion” (p. 1100). Yet, when delving into the literature,
qualities associated with the grit construct also closely align with characteristics identified as
components of mental toughness (MT) in sport (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2007; Madrigal
et al., 2013; Perlis, 2013; Stonkus & Royal, 2015).
Research explores perseverance as a facet of MT, noting that it is also affected by its own
variable sub-components, relying on both the meaningfulness of the action to the actor (Kleiman,
Adams, Kashdan, & Riskind, 2013; Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015) and the resilience required to
keep working towards a goal when others may have already discontinued their efforts, having
deemed the task too daunting or the result not worth the effort (Lundman, Strandberg, Eisemann,
Gustafson, & Brulin, 2007; Perlis, 2013; Von Culin, Tsukayama, & Duckworth, 2014). These
findings suggest MT is not simply a mix of personality traits assignable only to a lucky few as
previously theorized. Instead, MT has been shown to be more of a frame of mind and state of
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
3
being, composed of attributes which may be cultivated and refined over time (Gucciardia,
Peeling, Duckera, & Dawson, 2016; Weinberg, Freysinger, Mellano, & Brookhouse, 2016).
The concept of resilience is an important facet of MT which Liu, Reed, and Girard (2017)
examined as a dynamic construct called the Multi-System Model of Resilience (MSMR). The
ebb and flow of the characteristic, as described by this model, speaks to the varied influences on
resilience, including personal lifestyle choices, interpersonal relationships and larger scale
factors such as geographic location, social groups and socio-economic status. Because the
influence that any combination of these factors may exert is constantly changing, our ability to
be resilient would logically also be affected as the gravity of each factor increases or diminishes.
This more comprehensive MSMR model demonstrates that resilience is also, as MT, not a
steady-state characteristic assignable at a fixed value (Liu et al., 2017; Lundman et al., 2007;
Martin, Byrd, Lewis Watts, & Dent, 2015; Robertson, Cooper, Sarkar, & Curran, 2015). This
expanded understanding of resilience should provide a sense of empowerment in the effort to
improve resilience at an individual level and further supports the observation that MT is similarly
adaptable in nature.
Current literature describes the effects of high-pressure situations on MT, recognizing the
potential pitfalls of its employment without maintaining a realistic perspective on outcomes.
Displaying perfectionist tendencies (Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Perlis, 2013), or pushing too hard
without regard to risk versus gain (Crust, Swann, & Allen-Collinson, 2016; Lucas, Gratch,
Cheng, & Marsella, 2015) often result in negative ramifications when there is a singular focus on
one perceived definition of success without the potential for flexibility or iterative revisions in
the pursuit of a goal. Perfectionism has been linked to a tendency towards a growth-limiting
fixed mindset (Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Perlis, 2013; Schroder et al., 2014), whereas the antithesis
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
4
of perfectionism, failure, has been identified as a contributory factor in the cultivation of greater
MT (DiMenichi & Richmond, 2015; Lucas et al., 2015).
When engaging in maladaptive perfectionism, the affected individuals experience great
difficulty or a complete inability to deviate from a singular prescribed definition of success,
defined by Flett and Hewitt (2014) as a fixed mindset. In that state, the person cannot or will not
recognize any amounts of progress or positive movement as success because it does not match
that one ideal they perceive as success. Dennis and Vander Wal (2010) developed the Cognitive
Flexibility Inventory (CFI) to measure the ability to adapt one’s thought patterns away from
fixating on a single definition of success to a less rigid viewpoint which accommodates varied
avenues towards stated goals and intentions. This measure of CF indicates that those who
exhibit mental rigidity often feel they have very little ability to generate alternatives or to control
the outcomes of their endeavors (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010). In contrast, adopting a growth
mindset promotes self-compassion and the willingness to employ cognitive flexibility (CF) to
generate iterative approaches in the pursuit of goals with the recognition that imperfection and
failure still align with progress, achievement, and ultimately, success (Mangels, Butterfield,
Lamb, Good, & Dweck, 2006).
The judicious application of MT has demonstrated benefits in long-term success across
varied life situations. However, in less mentally tough individuals, the practice of quitting when
faced with adverse conditions has become a prevalent and acceptable response to handling
difficult situations. Experiencing hardship and failure are essential to the process of developing
MT and since perfectionists avoid failure, perfectionism and its practices do not contribute to a
greater measure of mental toughness. Since quitting removes any possibility for improvement,
giving up is clearly not the preferred method of coping with adversity or facilitating personal
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
5
growth in any area of life. With research suggesting that MT is not simply trait-based but a
dynamic and adaptable state of being, gaining greater insight into the impact of CF in relation to
the purposeful applications of MT would clearly be beneficial and may provide an avenue to
reverse that trend (Gucciardi et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2017; Weinberg, et al., 2016).
Hardship creates fear of failure and discourages individuals from continuing to pursue
their goals. When working toward a meaningful life goal, remaining dynamic enough to
persevere through adversity or persist after failure is essential to MT development. However, no
research previously existed to directly correlate the impact that CF and failure have within the
actual process of developing greater MT. This research quantitatively measures the correlation
between cognitive flexibility and mental toughness. Additionally, through qualitative analysis of
personal interviews, it is possible to interpret meaning and draw credible conclusions about how
maintaining a growth mindset after experiencing a setback fosters greater MT.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
6
Methods
This section serves to specifically highlight the variables being studied in this research,
cognitive flexibility (CF) and mental toughness (MT), the design of the research, the nature of
the participants in this study, the instrumentation proposed to gather data, the procedures by
which the research will be carried out, and data analysis.
Research Design
The purpose of this mixed method design was to first examine the relationship between
CF and MT, and then to gather data about individual personal experiences to bolster the theory
that the ability to adapt one’s definition of success after failure is paramount to personal
achievement. The quantitative research questions are rooted in the negative correlation between
CF and perfectionism and utilized valid and reliable measures of MT and CF to further
demonstrate a positive correlation between having high CF and high levels of MT. The
qualitative research question was based upon the element of failure or hardship and its impact on
both the ability to be mentally flexible and the process of cultivating MT. The mixed methods
research design allows for a comprehensive approach, pairing data derived through valid and
reliable instruments of measurement with the perceptions and viewpoints of those participants
who embody the variables we seek to more thoroughly understand.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
7
Subjects
The subjects of both the quantitative and qualitative research were selected based upon
involvement in Spartan races. This terrain-dependent obstacle race series consists of three main
variants, increasing in both course length and number of obstacles included as they progress
from Sprint to Super to Beast. Participants may race independently or as part of a team.
Inclusion within this population increased likelihood of participant MT due to the challenging
nature of these races and made for ideal participants when examining how their measured levels
of CF and MT correlate to their personal experiences. Participants were recruited to participate
in an online SurveyMonkey survey via purposive sampling method by providing a survey link
to members of targeted Facebook groups focusing on participation in Spartan obstacle course
races. These included groups such as Spartans of the Northeast, a regional group with 15,000
members or Spartan 4-0, a national group for adults age 30 and over with more than 11,000
members. Qualified participants were adults, aged 18 or older, male or female, who had
previously taken part in a Spartan race. As there are a multitude of conditions such as inclement
weather, impassible terrain, illness or injury which can cause a do not finish (DNF), subjects
need not have completed a Spartan to have taken part in the research and non-finishers were not
excluded from the study.
Convenience and purposive sampling methods were used, as ideal subjects were those
who were already considered to be mentally tough (the desired research condition) and using
targeted groups provided salient insight into the participants’ personal journeys and the process
of becoming mentally tough. Although it may be assumed that an obstacle course race would
naturally attract mentally tough participants, thereby limiting the ability to apply the results of
this research to a broader population, it should be stated that this event is not restricted to elite or
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
8
professional athletes and purposely strives to be inclusive in its offerings. In so doing, the
participants in adult Spartan races cover a wide range of ages, fitness levels and backgrounds,
widening the implication and imbuing meaningfulness to this study’s findings in the context of a
more expansive population.
The large pool of potential participants in these targeted social media groups yielded a
statistically significant sample size for the both the quantitative (n = 152) and qualitative (n = 15)
portion of this study. Qualitative participants were selected from the quantitative participants
with the minimum number of participants identified as n = 15 for best data analysis outcomes.
Instruments
This section describes the instruments chosen to measure the variables we will study.
Quantitatively, we will measure cognitive flexibility (CF) and mental toughness (MT) and the
relationship between them. Qualitatively, in those individuals quantitatively shown to have high
measured levels of MT, we further explore links between failure and CF and their implications
on cultivating greater levels of MT.
Quantitative. Participants completed the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI), a 20item measure utilizing a 7-point Likert scale where 1 = Strongly Disagree and 7 = Strongly
Agree which was developed in 2010 by Dennis and Vander Wal (Appendix C1). The CFI
demonstrates high face, criterion and convergent validity (α = .90) and measures multiple facets
attributed to perfectionist personality traits with high reliability (r = .81). This instrument
provides insight into the participants’ propensity to exhibit perfectionism and identifies two
factors of CF, feeling able to control outcomes and the ability to generate alternatives. The CFI
notes that certain items are reverse-scored so that a higher overall score represents greater CF.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
9
This instrument was originally designed to be administered via a hard copy and scored manually,
however it was incorporated into an electronic format to record and reflect answers.
Participants also completed the Inventory of Mental Toughness Scale (MTS), which is a
valid (α = .86) measure of MT with a test-retest reliability of r = .90 at a 1-week interval.
Developed by Madrigal, Hamill and Gill in 2013, this 11-item instrument (Appendix C2) utilizes
a 5-point Likert scale where 1 = Strongly Disagree and 5 = Strongly Agree, and is designed to
assess respondent scores in MT. The results of this Likert-scale (minimum score = 11 and
maximum score = 55) are interpreted with higher scores representing higher levels of MT with
no items reverse scored. This instrument was originally designed to be administered via a hard
copy and scored manually, however it was also incorporated into an electronic format to record
and reflect answers. This SurveyMonkey survey shall henceforth be referenced as one single
item, considered to be Appendix C3 of this proposal.
Qualitative. Based upon the results of the quantitative data gathering process, semistructured interviews were conducted with 15 respondents who also consented to further
participation. Open-ended questions intended to target previous efforts that resulted in initial
failures and eventual success were included and further explore to expand upon their individual
experiences (Appendix C4). Questions addressed topics such as the participants’ definition of
MT and CF, what it means in their daily lives to be mentally tough, their perceptions about
failure. Each was also encouraged to share a transformative story from their personal experience
which has helped them become the person they are now. Utilizing a phenomenological approach
to perceive changes in viewpoint and approach which participants applied during subsequent
attempts at goals after an initial failure provided deeper understanding of the process which spurs
personal development and greater resilience. Following a loosely constructed framework as a
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
10
guideline while employing an iterative style of questioning ultimately allowed the research
findings to interleave, building upon previous answers to create a comprehensive landscape of
interconnected experiential data from which we may draw deeper insights about applied CF on
resultant MT.
First-person researcher presence in conducting interviews increased integrity during the
data collection process, ensuring that the participants truly met the requirements for inclusion in
the interviews (e.g. 18 years of age or older, former Spartan participant, etc.) Credibility of this
experiential data was further supported and strengthened by using Facebook Messenger and email exchanges to ensure that no data was missed, mishandled or misinterpreted when reviewing
participant feedback. As the transformative process this research was designed to study is
correlated to enduring hardship or failure, exploring research questions from different angles
provided clarity. Requesting information in the form of a retrospective summary and analysis of
participants’ own experiences elucidated the stimuli which acted as the catalyst for their
metamorphosis, lending greater dependability to the resulting responses.
Procedures
The following sub-section is a step-by-step description of the procedures employed after
receiving approval for the study by the California University of Pennsylvania IRB (Appendix
C5), as a means of gathering data needed for this research on cognitive flexibility (CF) and
mental toughness (MT).
Preliminary Survey. The preliminary survey was taken by twelve participants drawn
from other cohorts in the Doctor of Health Science (DHSc) program. The average time to finish
the survey was recorded as nine minutes. No significant flaws were noted in the functioning of
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
11
the survey itself and only slight cosmetic changes to clarify instructions were suggested and
subsequently incorporated into the final version of the survey. Although no analysis was
performed on data gathered in this pilot study, all answers were recorded by SurveyMonkey© as
anticipated with the gathered data valid for analysis. No malfunctions or unintended instances
occurred, and the survey gathered the intended CF and MT data.
Quantitative. Participants were recruited to participate in an online SurveyMonkey
survey (Appendix C3) via purposive sampling method by targeting Facebook groups which had
a focus on participation in Spartan obstacle course races. Groups included those such as
Spartans of the Northeast, a regional group with 15,000 members, or Spartan 4-0, a national
group for adults age 30 and over. This survey was promoted via Facebook posts within the
groups with reminders posted weekly for the 4-week duration of the data gathering timeframe.
Participants viewed the informed consent (Appendix C6) and clicked the link to continue,
confirming they were both age 18 or over and had previously participated in a Spartan race in
order to continue on and access the survey. Potential participants who did not meet the inclusion
criteria were directed to a page thanking them for their time while informing them that they did
not meet the parameters for participation in the survey. Participants who accepted the informed
consent and proceeded were prompted to complete non-identifying demographic questions
asking for current age (whole number), state of residence and gender (male or female).
Participants had the option to enter their contact information if they consented to
participate in the future qualitative personal interview portion of the study. Participants then
completed the Dennis and Vander Wal (2010) Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI, Appendix
C1) and the Madrigal, Hamill and Gill (2013) Mental Toughness Scale (MTS, Appendix C2),
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
12
both of which were converted to an electronic format (SurveyMonkey) for ease in scoring and
analysis (Appendix C3).
Qualitative. Based upon the results of the quantitative data gathering process, those
participants who consented to volunteer further participation were contacted using the e-mail
address, Facebook profile or phone number provided during the quantitative survey to ensure
interest and secure participation in the qualitative interviews. Subjects’ informed consent
(Appendix C6) would be implied, as an online survey response serves as consent in an adult
population. Also, quantitative data gathering was restricted to an electronic format without
personally identifying information and all results are reported in aggregate form. However,
those who had also consented to proceed further were also sent an informed consent checklist to
complete prior to scheduling an interview.
A total of 15 interviews were conducted to gather qualitative input, where all but one was
conducted via Facebook Messenger with the remaining one completed via e-mail exchange due
to scheduling constraints on the participant’s behalf. The instant transcripts provided by the
Messenger function ensured that no data was missed during analysis, increasing the integrity of
the responses and resultant findings. Also, the propensity for respondent acquiescence bias
decreased, as there was no face-to-face interaction where body language or tone of voice would
unintentionally guide participant responses. Participants were all self-identifying and by the
nature of their interactive communications were deemed to meet inclusion requirements (e.g. 18
years of age, Spartan participant). This identification process increased credibility that the
responses would provide salient findings with resultant insights meaningful and applicable to a
larger, more universal group.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
13
Semi-structured interviews were conducted employing open-ended questions which
pertained to CF and MT, but also extended into inquiry examining how participants’ experiences
with failure may have ultimately contributed to their long-term success. The phenomenological
interviews delved as deeply as possible into participants’ personal experiences while attempting
to identify overlapping elements within the variables being studied. This approach provided a
more thorough picture of how failure functions alongside CF and MT, offering the ability to
apply the knowledge gained here to a broader population. Deeper insights about applied CF and
effects on resultant MT in everyday life provide a broader scope beyond previously studied
venues of sport performance, occupational or educational circumstances. Sample interview
questions appear in Appendix C Additional Methods as Interview Logistics (Appendix C4).
Data Analysis
The following sub-section is an outline of the metrics and techniques used to analyze the
data collected during the quantitative research on cognitive flexibility (CF) and mental toughness
(MT) and the ensuing qualitative interviews which further explored the relationships amongst
CF, MT and instances of hardship and failure, with expectations including:
•
A positive correlation would be demonstrated between measures of CF and MT, meaning
obstacle course racers with high MT scores will also report high measures of CF and that
age is predictive of MT, with older racers consistently reflecting higher MT scores.
•
Mentally tough individuals would identify both previous failures and corresponding shifts
in perspective allowing them to overcome adversity and achieve success.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
•
14
The significance of enduring failure on the journey to greater strength is expected to align
mentally tougher individuals with a greater level of cognitive flexibility in terms of the
ability to re-frame the meaning of success after failure.
Quantitative. The quantitative portion of the study aimed to provide greater insight into
the process of the cultivation of MT, specifically in the context of CF and the ability to re-frame
or re-define the meaning of success. Based upon the findings established in previous research,
there was an expectation that a positive correlation would be demonstrated between measures of
CF and MT, meaning obstacle course racers with high MT scores would also report high
measures of CF. There was also support for MT scores of older participants being higher than
their younger counterparts and it was thought that this trend might be replicated upon analysis of
MTS scores compared to stated age. A significance level of α = p ≤ 0.05 was used for all
quantitative analyses comparing total CFI and MTS scores while considering the variables of
age, gender and number of Spartan races run. Analysis types included Pearson product-moment
correlation coefficient, Spearman rank-order correlation coefficient, linear regression analysis
and the independent-samples t-test.
Qualitative. Designs of this nature may be categorized as qualitative inductive content
analysis in that the outcomes of the research inform the hypothesis formation after the data has
been collected, analyzed and interpreted. More specifically, the aim of this research aligned well
with interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA), a technique which seeks to comprehend not
only the meaning of the data collected in relation to the variables studied, but also the underlying
meaningfulness of the events to participants themselves (Kidd & Eatough, 2017). Individuals
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
15
were expected to identify both previous failures and corresponding shifts in perspective allowing
them to overcome adversity and achieve success.
Systematic content analysis is a method of gaining insight from interview findings by
thoroughly evaluating the data collected via personal interviews and coding the data by
identifying repetitive thematic similarities (Dudovskiy, 2017). Iterative categorization of the
findings in terms of the catalytic events recalled during the development of greater MT allowed
deconstruction and closer inspection of those situations or themes. Creating categories and subcategories to demonstrate the incidence of answers sharing similar content supported validity
across the entirety of the findings. Digital transcripts were utilized to remove recall bias by
serving as a permanent record of the interview content not subject to memory gaps and provided
useful reference documentation during further analysis. Employing methodological triangulation
by comparing conclusions drawn from the analysis of qualitative interviews with the results of
quantitative data provides greater support for findings and lends increased credibility to
outcomes and findings.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
16
Results
This section describes the findings of the study and includes supporting documentation in
the form of tables outlining the findings.
Quantitative. Over a 4-week data collection period, survey responses were collected via
SurveyMonkey® survey distributed via link in Spartan racer Facebook groups.
Demographics & Summary Statistics. The quantitative survey gathered 152 complete
surveys for analysis (25 responses were excluded from analysis due to incomplete surveys). Of
the total participants, 91 were female (average age 40.4) and 61 were male (average age 42.5).
The mean age of all participants was 41.2 years. Respondents also identified state of residence
and a total of 30 different U.S. states and Canada were represented across the 152 participants.
CF & MT. Once all survey data had been gathered and recorded, SAS Studio 3.7
(Enterprise Edition) statistical analysis software (Cody, 2015) was utilized to determine the
strength and direction of the relationship between the two ordinal variables being studied, in this
case, the reported CF and MT scores (Hurley, Denegar, & Hertel, 2011). A significance level of
α = p ≤ 0.05 was used for all quantitative analyses. The average score for the CFI was 117.2 +
10.2. The average score for the MTS was 43.2 + 5.3. In performing a Pearson Correlation of
Coefficients analysis, a moderate positive correlation was shown between CF and MT (r(150) =
.391, p < .0001), indicating a significant linear relationship between the two variables. Based on
these findings, participants with higher CF would be expected to exhibit higher MT. No
significant relationship or weighting was seen when more closely examining the two sub-scales
of the CFI, Ability to Generate Alternatives and the Feeling in Control of Outcomes. Both
instruments demonstrated high internal reliability, with CFI (α = .86) and MTS (α = .84).
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
17
Age. In performing a Pearson Correlation of Coefficients analysis, no significant
correlation was shown between age and either of the variables CF (r(150) = 0.02, p = 0.81) or
MT (r(150) = 0.05, p = 0.58).
Gender. In examining the data through the lens of gender, there was roughly a 3:2 ratio
of women to men who participated in this quantitative survey. Figure 1 shows the three
categories of races broken down by gender with the number of participants shown in each.
Figure 1. Bar chart of total participants split by gender, based upon number of Spartan races run.
When examining the summary statistics for CFI and MTS in relation to gender, males scored
5.4 points higher on average on the CFI than females. Similarly, males scored an average of 3.5
points higher on the MTS than females. Using SAS Studio 3.7 (Executive Edition), the variables
of CF and MT were more closely examined to explore the implication of gender on outcomes.
Results are outlined in Tables 1 and 2.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
18
Independent-sample t-tests examining the CF and MT variables in the context of gender
demonstrated a strong positive correlation in males for both qualities. As shown in Table 1, an
independent-samples t-test comparing mean scores of the female and male groups for the CFI
found a significant difference between the means of the two groups’ CFI scores (t(123) = -3.25, p
= .0015).
Table 1. Independent-samples t-test of CFI by Gender.
Gender
N
M
SD
SE
Females
Males
91
61
115.1
120.5
9.6
10.3
1.01
1.31
t
-3.25
p
.0015
As shown in Table 2, an independent-samples t-test comparing the mean scores of the
female and male groups for the MTS found a significant difference between the means of the two
groups’ MTS scores (t(126) = -4.10, p < .0001). This shows scores are significantly different
between the genders, with men scoring higher than women on both the CFI and the MTS.
Table 2. Independent-samples t-test of MTS by Gender.
Gender
N
M
SD
SE
Females
Males
91
61
41.8
45.2
5.0
5.2
0.53
0.66
t
p
-4.10 < .0001
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
19
Additional Findings. Based upon the summary statistics showing both CFI and MTS
scores when accounting for number of Spartan races run, minimum scores of CF are highest in the
group who ran only one race (M = 118.4, SD = 7.7) versus for two to five races (M = 116.0, SD =
9.4) or for five or more races (M = 117.6, SD = 10.8). However, the highest CFI scores were found
in those reporting the most races run (five or more).
Qualitative. Fifty-six Spartan racers initially volunteered to take part in the qualitative
interview. Of those, one could not be identified as no contact information was provided.
Further, two Spartan racers returned their informed consent checklists but did not schedule
interviews and one racer returned a blank informed consent checklist and did not respond to
follow up requests for a completed form. A further thirty-seven racers did not respond to the
requests made for further participation, making the total of participants in the qualitative data
collection group n = 15.
Demographics & Summary Statistics. Over a 6-week data collection period, interviews
were conducted with 15 participants (6 females, 9 males) ranging in age from 23-67 years (M =
40). Interview duration ranged between 36 minutes to 133 minutes, with a mean duration of 76
minutes. Gender had no bearing on either response length or interview duration. Participants’
CFI scores ranged from a minimum of 94 and a maximum of 140 out of 140 possible points (M =
120). Participants’ MTS scores ranged from a minimum of 29 to a maximum of 52 out of 55
possible points, (M = 42).
Findings. As postulated, all 15 participants related instances of failure or hardship as an
impetus to develop greater MT through the use of CF. Specific instances of this process
included revising definitions of success, generating alternative approaches to previous failures,
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
20
enduring difficult circumstances without giving up and demonstrating the ability to be accept
uncertainty while maintaining a positive attitude. The dynamic approach to difficult problems
advised for CF work beyond the issue instead of halting the growth process by focusing on the
initial failure itself. This finding corresponds to research indicating that fixed mindsets do not
allow room for growth and cause difficulty when pursuing achievement (Dennis & Vander Wal,
2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Mangels et al., 2006; Perlis, 2013; Schroder et al., 2014).
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
21
Discussion
Quantitative
CF and MT. Because there is strong evidence highlighting the usefulness of flexibility
and compassion in combating perfectionist tendencies, a negative correlation between
perfectionism and MT (DiMenichi & Richmond, 2015; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Lucas et al., 2015),
and showing that MT development is supported by the qualities of CF (Dennis & Vander Wal,
2010), findings were expected to reflect a positive correlation between the variables of CF and
MT. This expectation was supported by data analysis outcomes and was clearly reflected in the
significance level of p < .0001 returned when examining the relationship between these two
constructs.
Age. Due to the influence of resilience on MT (Liu et al., 2017) and the demonstrated
increase in resilience over time (Lundman et al., 2007), older participants were expected to
reflect higher MT scores when comparing MTS scores to stated age. However, no significant
results were shown when analyzing either MT or CF in terms of participant age. This finding did
not align with the expectation of findings stated at the outset of the research. Because resilience,
a key component of MT, is shown to increase steadily year-over-year (Lundman et al., 2007), the
finding that no significant relationship existed between age and MT was initially surprising.
However, upon reflection, resilience must be considered as a multi-faceted construct (Liu et al.,
2017) and everyone may have a different "start point" or may experience mitigating factors
which affect resilience levels. Although there is evidence demonstrating that resilience increases
linearly with advancing age (Lundman et al., 2007), not every individual will reflect the same
initial level of resilience nor have the same life experiences or personal support network.
Therefore, the results of a single-instance general population sample will be inconclusive,
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
22
representing current individual measures whereas an individual may show linear progression in
levels of resilience by utilizing a repeated measures methodology of examining their personal
survey results over time.
Spartans. Findings indicate the minimum CF levels of Spartan races who have
completed a single race are higher than those who have completed 2-5 races or 5 or more races.
While initially counter-intuitive on the surface, it is logical to propose that the decision to take on
the challenge of something new and intimidating requires moving into a growth mindset from the
previously held fixed mindset and that levels of CF need to be relatively high to enact this
change. It is also logical to suggest that one’s maximum capacity for CF would continue to grow
over time as experience increases, a conclusion supported by findings indicating the highest
measures of CF were found in the most experienced racers. This suggestion is also supported by
previous findings that point to toughness accumulating over time with increased aptitude (Fieril,
Olsen, Glantz, & Larsson, 2014; Madrigal et al., 2013). It is plausible, then, to suggest that this
process of developing greater CF has no arbitrary end nor limits to advancement except those
which accompany the termination of effort or the denouement of one’s life.
Gender. Findings suggest that male Spartan racers are tougher at a general baseline and
may possess a greater ability to adapt than the females partaking in similar conditions. This
finding initially appears in conflict with research linking females’ GRIT-S scores to greater
academic achievement (Cross, 2014; Zimmerman & Brogan, 2015), increasing toughness
through life experiences such as pregnancy that only women undergo (Fieril et al., 2014) and
results indicating females become tougher as they age in comparison to the corresponding
increase in toughness seen in males (Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2013). However, the implication is
that women achieve the same goals as their male counterparts at lower levels of MT and CF.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
23
Although the age range and mean age is very similar within both groups in this participant pool,
one factor that may provide insight into this variance is a differing perception of change. In
males, once beyond puberty, physical appearance and body functions remain relatively
consistent for decades. However, from the onset of puberty, through menstruation, pregnancy,
menopause and beyond, a woman’s body chemistry changes constantly, even daily (Hoyt &
Falconi, 2015). This inevitability of change is a fact of life for women and may partially explain
why this group had a higher concentration of females than males who demonstrated similar
achievements while reporting lower levels of MT and CF than male participants.
Qualitative
This discussion sub-section outlines the important themes and insights gained from a
thematic and interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) of the data gathered in interviews.
The following sections describe CF and MT in the terms that participants used to identify their
meanings and usefulness in every day applications.
Mental Toughness. In discussions of mental toughness, participants identified the
following three themes in their definitions of MT.
Sense of Agency/Empowerment. The ability to continue functioning at a high level when
things are difficult and/or ambiguous was identified as crucial to maintaining MT, noted by
Participant #14 as “Keeping [one’s] mind in a place to endure stressful or challenging
situations.” Participant #2 defined it as “Pushing past the ‘quit’ in your brain” by acknowledging
the difficulty that is being faced but making the conscious decision to succeed anyway. One
prominent insight included the idea that people have an ability to choose their response to a
situation with Participant #9 saying “...to an extent, misery is a choice....” Another suggestion
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
24
mentioned allowing yourself, in the pursuit of a goal, the ability to decide if it is best to persevere
on your current path or to take a different path instead. These responses support the theory that a
growth mindset versus a fixed mindset is often the only difference between defeat and eventual
success (Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Mangels et al., 2016; Ng, 2018).
Perspective. Responses suggested that when there is a larger perspective available, a
greater comfort level exists to take on challenges and not avoid them. Understanding that similar
goals may hold different meaning to each person also provides a broader viewpoint on a situation
and more empathy towards others. Lastly, working with present abilities without allowing
judgment (either self-imposed or external) to negatively influence your decisions was noted as
important. This insight supports the negative correlation demonstrated between social
desirability bias, where a person is more concerned with outside judgement than their own
priorities and the development of greater MT (Madrigal, Hamill, & Gill, 2013). Logically, this
would explain why those who choose a unique path are often referred to as “the black sheep”.
Perseverance. This quality was described by participants as the ability to stay focused
and motivated over time, having continued dedication or committing to success over time. Other
answers included the ability to overcome adverse circumstances when others may have quit or
pushing harder towards a goal for a longer time than others might. These responses highlighted
the importance of longevity of effort, similarly noted by Duckworth, Eichstaedt, and Ungar
(2015) when describing the impact of work duration on the final outcomes of achievement in
comparison to the variable of raw talent.
Cognitive Flexibility. In discussions of cognitive flexibility, participants identified the
following three themes in their definitions of CF.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
25
Openness to Change. Participants identified the need to remain open to alternatives, both
self-generated or from external sources of input. Participant #8 mentioned this also possibly
meant “…facing uncertain outcomes with an open mind.” The ability to be flexible in approach
when outcomes may be ambiguous is how Flett and Hewitt (2014) propose that perfectionists
may see beyond their fixed mindset towards a growth mindset where they may continue making
progress towards goals. However, Brand et al. (2015b) note that perfectionist tendencies are
related to difficulty in identifying, understanding and regulating emotions, logically creating
difficulty in altering those emotions and pursuant reactions. The presence of openness seems to
be the vehicle allowing for the journey between those two mindsets, a theory supported by
findings of Lin et al. (2017) who noted that MT imbues us with the confidence in our own
psychological resources needed to cope with strong emotions and conditions which cause them.
Adaptability. The concept of adaptability was recognized by Participant #15 as the fact
that different days may require different approaches to similar issues because a previous solution
may no longer work. Others cited using problem solving skills and creativity to learn and
leveraging the ability to improvise in dynamic situations to overcome difficulties. Lastly,
adaptability was defined as working with what you have, even if it is not what was originally
expected or desired. In examining the literature, CF is partially defined as the ability to generate
alternative solutions to challenges (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010). DiMenichi and Richmond
show that revising methodology in the pursuit of mastery leads to measurable improvement in
sport performance (2015) while Martin et al. (2015) demonstrate that adaptability allows for
fulfilling life experiences after sustaining a serious debilitating injury. Flett and Hewitt (2014)
present adaptability as a crucial technique in combating perfectionism and Perlis (2013) links
non-perfectionism to greater toughness. With previous research showing value in the interactive
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
26
functions of CF and MT in real-life applications, the present findings serve to reinforce the
strong link between CF and MT when attempting to achieve success after failure or hardship.
Thinking Differently. When responding to interview questions about how using CF
potentially provided advantages in life, many respondents mentioned the ability to “think
differently” than others. They felt that the ability to see the same question from different angles
offered the capacity to consider options beyond the typical and an ability to derive more elegant
solutions. Thinking differently also was noted to provide a greater respect for alternative points
of view or input from external sources of information. As the ability to generate alternatives is
itself a sub-scale of the CFI instrument, this theme or welcoming and respecting additional
options clearly aligns with Dennis and Vander Wal’s (2010) definition of CF.
Integral Components. The successful measurement of personal experiences hinges on
the careful inspection and the subsequent comparison of the entire range of data collected
through these participant interviews. To ensure that the conclusions derived here possessed
sufficient validity, this IPA analysis employed the double hermeneutic theory which examines
both the meaningfulness assigned by participants to personal experiences and the interpretation
of the meaning of the qualitative data in the larger context of the phenomena studied in the
research (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2012/2014). Thus, the following sub-themes are the roots of the
process, combining to feed into the larger concepts of CF and MT.
Failure/Adversity. During analysis, it was found that all 15 participants mentioned both
navigating circumstances they considered failures or serious hardships and the value of
overcoming adversity or persisting after failure in the process of cultivating greater mental
toughness. Examples include abusive relationships, failed marriages, climbing (literal)
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
27
mountains, violent encounters, unexpected pregnancies, difficult workplace situations, and
physical/mental challenges. These circumstances factored into the cultivation of greater MT and
provided perspective into the participants’ priorities in life. Exploring the significance of
enduring failure on the journey to become stronger aligns mentally tough individuals with a
greater level of CF in terms of the ability to re-frame the meaning of success after failure.
Participants repeatedly mentioned the concepts of flexibility in thinking and approach,
receptivity to different ideas and an overall dynamic attitude towards change. This finding
supports the hypothesis that failure and corresponding shifts in perspective or approach are
integral components of becoming more mentally tough (DiMenichi & Richmond, 2015; Lucas et
al., 2015) and that perfectionism is contra-indicated in cultivating MT (Flett & Hewitt, 2014;
Perlis, 2013).
Support. Participants repeatedly mentioned receiving encouragement and feeling a sense
of community as a crucial element allowing for sustained effort during times of difficulty.
Examples included cultivating support through self-compassion after a personal failure (sporting
loss, failed marriage, unsuccessful attempt at an educational goal) or during a period of hardship
in life (death of a close family member, serious illness or disability). This was also reflected as
receiving support from external sources, such as the instance cited by Participant #1 about
climbing Mt. Kilimanjaro with 28 others where group members encouraged one another along
the way. An extension of these findings was the propensity to pay it forward by encouraging and
supporting others in their pursuit of achievement. These findings support previous research
about teamwork in sport performance. Discovered by Otto Köhler, a psychologist and rowing
coach who realized his athletes worked harder when they worked together, the Köhler motivation
gain effect was found to increase physical output when participants were part of a group versus
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
28
when working alone, even if one’s teammate was virtual in nature (Feltz, Kerr, & Irwin, 2011).
Group dynamics in sport performance require buy-in from both the supporting and supported
parties, ensuring the commitment to excel will flow in both directions to build a mutually
beneficial relationship over time.
Mindfulness. Many participants mentioned the concept of mindfulness as an intrinsic
part of approaching life and responses fell into one or more of three main categories.
Beginner’s Mind. First, the Buddhist concept of Beginner’s Mind, which is to look at
situations with fresh eyes instead of feeling as if you already know how things should or will go.
Interviewees repeatedly reflected the need to be open to different viewpoints outside of
previously held beliefs/approaches and to embracing the unknown instead of fearing or avoiding
what is not possible to predict. This finding correlates with the larger CF definition of being
flexible enough to adapt your mindset (Flett & Hewitt, 2014) and an ability to maintain
equanimity when outcomes are uncertain (Lundman et al, 2007).
Self-awareness. Next, participants pointed to the self-awareness that mindfulness offers
as crucial to success in life. This property was described as digging deep in hard times to find
your “reserves” when you feel tapped out and believing in your own abilities (mental, physical
and emotional) so as not to self-sabotage or quit in cases where you truly are capable of success
if you decide to keep going. These findings support employment of the knowledge of your own
skills as a benchmark to increase personal attributes across various platforms, including sport
performance, work efforts, and interpersonal relationships (Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2013; Jones et
al., 2007; Stonkus, 2011; Stonkus & Royal, 2015; Weinberg, Freysinger, Mellano, &
Brookhouse, 2016).
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
29
Self-respect. Lastly, the concept of self-respect was mentioned many times by
participants. Responses to explain its importance included taking the time to assess and adjust,
being kind to yourself without quitting, forgiving yourself for failing or not meeting
expectations, and knowing when you deserve better. Having the willingness to take time for
introspective reflection allowed participants to view self-care as choosing preservation instead of
exhaustion. Also, accepting your own point of view and version of 100% at any given time was
noted as an empowering practice. These responses about mindfulness draw a close parallel to
the methods suggested to address and dismantle the negative effects of perfectionistic fixed
mindsets by using kindness to transition unrealistic expectations or preconceived rigid notions to
a more flexible and tolerant growth mindset (Flett & Hewitt, 2014).
Gratitude. Although similar to mindfulness, gratitude is a unique concept in that while
mindfulness sees and accepts what is, gratitude goes one step further and move towards what
may be. The repeated sentiment amongst the interviewees was that there is a need to view
challenges as opportunities instead of something to be feared or avoided. Participants expressed
seeing the value in unanticipated or unwanted situations, but still using them for growth purposes
where others may have seen only “hassles” and received no benefit at all because they refused to
engage. This approach allows for dynamic decision-making and the ability to guide outcomes
instead of being subject to uncontrollable outside forces. This mindset aligns well with the
Feeling in Control of Outcomes sub-scale of the CFI instrument (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010).
Gratitude links meaningful actions to increased meaningfulness in one’s own life, (Kleiman et
al., 2013; Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015) and supports the process of becoming autonomous and
unbothered.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
30
Tenacity. A close cousin to perseverance, participants described this quality as
maintaining a positive attitude and “never quit” mentality despite failure or adversity. The
emphasis was put on drawing from inner strength, but unlike perseverance or hardiness (Bartone,
1995), there was no mention of meaningfulness or larger perspective. Simply, this is a patent
refusal to acquiesce. While this may be considered a positive quality in most cases, when
exhibited alone, this characteristic can stray into the territory of being “busy” but working
without meaningful direction (Meriac et al., 2015; Perlis, 2013; Willingham, 2016), or being too
tough for one’s own good (Crust et al., 2016). This difference denotes a lack of the underlying
emotional components and meaning which must be present to inspire the continued effort
associated with persistence (Von Culin et al., 2014). Because this emotional aspect is found
within the greater construct, it is a clear indication that individual elements are not enough on
their own and that multiple sub-components must blend together to sustain a larger successsupporting process.
Creative Control (Transformation). Much like the openness to change identified in
participant definitions of CF, this quality speaks to the presence of possibilities. However,
creative control is more specifically the understanding of a personal ability to envision and guide
outcomes. Interview responses highlighted this method as autodidactic, meaning a learning
process that is both self-driven and self-directed and viewed purposeful change as always
entirely possible. One description provided was an acknowledgement that we all have the
capacity for change and simply need to commit to working to make desired outcomes occur.
The ability to use adversity/failure as the impetus to enact positive change in life also appeared
thematically, reinforcing the advocacy for growth mindsets seen in the research of Flett and
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
31
Hewitt (2014) and Mangels et al. (2016) and demonstrating the value of transformation in the
development and execution of desired outcomes.
Development Process. The following sub-sections describe and illustrate the process of
developing greater CF and MT with visually presentations to support textual references and
research findings.
Intertwined Nature of CF and MT. Many interview participants defined mental
toughness and cognitive flexibility as synergistic and intertwined in nature, citing examples of
how they work together and suggesting they needed to co-exist to function properly. One
participant (#9) specifically referred to strength without flexibility as a “stubbornly static” state
of being, with others providing examples of how being too tough had been detrimental when
they were not able to see multiple avenues to success and refused to alter their methodology.
Conversely, we may point to flexibility which lacks strength as similarly one-sided, without the
substance required to sustain great effort over time or stand up in the face of adversity. Another
participant (#15) highlighted the relationship dynamic by referencing the famously fixed mindset
of the protagonist of the novel Don Quixote, saying “Mental toughness makes sure you keep
trying; cognitive flexibility makes sure you’re not tilting at windmills!”.
DNA of Grit. Grit was originally defined by Duckworth et al. (2007) as “passion and
perseverance for long term goals,” but in considering what the DNA of grit would look like, it
seems that the crucial significance of support (Feltz et al., 2011) empowerment and greater
perspective were not addressed here. Although the word “passion” alludes to personal relevance,
it may be (and often is) misconstrued as “enthusiasm”, which may unfortunately equate to a long
grind for someone else’s dream. Previous literature speaks to the element of meaningfulness as a
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
32
required component, as without it, there is no reason to continue to expend effort (Kleiman et al.,
2013; Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015).
Resilience, an integral part of MT, is a complex construct of dynamic sources of personal
support (Liu et al., 2017) and is itself strengthened by the process of CF. Further, the research
findings of this study show that CF and MT are intertwined in nature, meaning that their function
is enhanced by a synergistic relationship. Processing the original definition of grit through the
lenses of MT and CF may yield a more comprehensive statement such as, “Grit is the mindful
pursuit (CF) of personally relevant (empowerment) long-term goals via purposeful and
sustainable (compassion) perseverance (MT).” Figure 2 identifies the foundational elements
crucial to the success of this process.
Figure 2. What is DNA? Adapted from Genetics Home Reference, U.S. National Library of
Medicine, 2018, Retrieved October 20, 2018 from https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/basics/dna.
Copyright 2018 by U.S. National Library of Medicine. Adapted with permission.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
33
Cultivation Process. Participants pointed to CF and MT as qualities that grow in a
cumulative fashion, requiring both consistent effort and the passage of time. Though they seem
to accumulate with increased life experience, CF and MT may vary according to individual
personal circumstances and fluctuating external support factors (Liu et al., 2017; Stonkus, 2015).
Tree of Life. Figure 3 illustrates the entire system, starting from the roots or underlying
elements shown in this research to support CF and MT (creative control, gratitude, mindfulness,
self-awareness, self-respect, tenacity), proceeding through the trunk where CF and MT work in
concert with support to overcome failure/adversity and concludes with the leaves which
represent the subsequent world-facing outcomes of adaptability, empowerment, equanimity,
openness to change, perseverance, perspective and thinking differently.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Figure 3. Tree of Life – Systematic Illustration
34
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
35
Equanimity. The ability to remain calm amidst chaos, shown in Figure 3 as an outcome
of the cultivation process of CF and MT, was noted by participants as helpful to both self and to
others, making challenging situations easier to navigate while still achieving the most beneficial
outcomes. Findings suggest that approaching tough circumstances calmly provides the power to
thoughtfully direct our responses, a conclusion which reinforces similar findings showing the
ability to maintain a sense of serenity during times of turbulence is directly related to resilience
(Lundman et al., 2007). Participant #6 related a story about becoming a primary caregiver to a
parent as a teenager and stated that difficult situations often help us prioritize that which is
important in life versus becoming upset by the things which are just a distraction. This supports
research findings of Lin et al. (2017) who state that those with high MT know how to remove or
ignore distractions to focus on their goals.
Participants also mentioned believing that one’s attitude determines outcomes, a
statement supportive of the Feeling in Control of Outcomes sub-scale of the CFI instrument
(Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010), where it is understood that uncertainty and adverse situations are
an intrinsic part of life but that options exist because we make our own decisions. This finding
reflects the sense of ease which accompanies greater toughness due to the ability and willingness
to courageously, capably and dynamically address whatever arises (Lundman et al., 2007; Perlis,
2013).
These findings show a relationship more complex than a simple cycle, with MT shown to
be a component of equanimity (Lundman et al., 2007), which is itself both a component and an
output of CF and a component of resilience (Dennis and Vander Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt,
2014). Resilience is shown to be a component of MT (Liu et al., 2017), which requires CF to
function correctly (DiMenichi & Richmond, 2015; Martin et al., 2015; Perlis, 2013). Therefore,
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
36
it is logical to suggest that these elements must blend to create the optimal conditions supporting
personal growth and achievement. Figure 4 illustrates these relationships as a Venn diagram
with supporting explanations of their inter-related nature and convergent functions.
The “sweet spot”
denoting area of CF
Figure 4. Venn Diagram – Convergent Elements of Cognitive Flexibility
Insights. The following sections provide deeper insight into the overall impact that CF
and MT application are shown to have on real-life outcomes and the relevance of these findings
to the existing body of research on these qualities.
Swearing. Roughly two dozen instances of swear words were noted during interviews,
all used in non-derogatory fashion. These terms emphasized extremely difficult situations and
highlight the importance of passion and self-expression when striving for larger-than-life goals.
Research shows using swear words activates a portion of the brain which allows us to withstand
pain longer than using regular words and that they also boost strength and power in sport
performance (Stephens, Atkins & Kingston, 2009; Stephens, Spierer, & Katehis, 2018; Stephens
& Umland, 2011). Effectively, uncomfortable instances become more palatable and our capacity
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
37
for work increases. Because high MT individuals do not avoid difficult circumstances, swearing
may be used as a tactic to persevere when extraordinary levels of effort are required to overcome
adversity. Logically, those with lower MT may never even encounter these types of demanding
situations and may not understand the value in this neurological enhancement strategy.
Inevitability of Change. There were many instances of the word “change” within these
interviews with participant definitions of both CF and MT reflecting an awareness that
uncertainty or adversity is a normal part of life. As such, they were not crippled by fear when
those situations arose. Rather, their outlook empowered them to enthusiastically take on
challenges, knowing they already possessed the qualities needed to navigate them. Participants
also identified a willingness to expand outside their comfort zone and set intentions and
confidence in their ability to achieve great things. This sentiment echoes the previous literature
regarding equanimity (Lundman et al., 2007; Perlis, 2013) and provides context for the
quantitative data showing evidence that females, who encounter biological change at a higher
intensity and frequency than males, also possess both a higher minimum level of MT and a
higher maximum capacity for CF.
Increased Level of Respect. In terms of the value seen in the self, participants identified
increased confidence and self-worth, acknowledgement of effort made without regard to results
and the ability to be self-directed and make decisions which positively affect outcomes. This
aligns with Carol Dweck’s research showing that rewarding students for their level of effort
instead of focusing solely on outcomes is the way to teach empowerment at a young age
(Mangels et al., 2006). In terms of respect for others, responses noted increased empathy and a
greater understanding of other perspectives, enhancing ability to work within groups. This is
explained by employing the understanding that everyone’s 100% looks different and that the
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
38
amount of effort put forth is more important than end results. Lastly, this respect was
demonstrated through displaying compassion to others and “paying it forward” by offering
encouragement and support to others, which supports the research of Feltz et al. (2011) regarding
interpersonal dynamics as it relates to teamwork in a sport performance setting.
Sacrifice. Those displaying high MT are willing to take risks and accept the outcomes
related to their process of “thinking differently”. Participants discussed the willingness to make
sacrifices that others do not understand to achieve their desired outcomes. Participant #15
identified a scenario of running a very long and difficult off-road race and giving up a time
cushion to aid a fellow racer who had collapsed. Although this choice resulted in a time-related
disqualification with the racer receiving a did not finish (DNF), these actions reflected a desire to
help ensure another person’s well-being and were more important than a medal or finish time.
As that collapsed racer had been ignored by others, this is an excellent example of identifying
that which is important enough to make sacrifices for when others do not understand or share our
motivations. This example aligns closely with the findings of Lucas et al. (2015) and Ng (2018)
who noted that those with higher MT were willing to bear the costs of their choices including
those that were interpersonal, monetary or temporal in nature.
Participants also mentioned situations where their support or empathy was misunderstood
with others becoming hostile or alienated because they could not recognize the support they were
receiving. This finding aligns with research about how fixed mindsets may create an inability to
see change as positive or even a possible alternative (Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Mangels et al., 2016).
One caveat mentioned by multiple participants regarding sacrifice is that while working
towards goals requires compromise, purpose must be present to avoid burnout stemming from a
meaningless grind. Repetitive motion without meaning deadens us to the real importance of our
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
39
work and removes our reason for continuation of effort which is inherently necessary for
eventual success. Participant #17 stated that “Living in the grind can be exhausting.” supporting
the observation of Willingham (2016) that, “…sometimes, being the sort of person who does
what’s expected, putting one foot in front of the other, just won’t cut it….” (p. 31) because
neither work ethic nor conscientiousness addresses the underlying meaning of the activity and,
thus, cannot sustain long term positive gains in MT (Meriac et al., 2015; Perlis, 2013).
Contra-Indications. Though CF and MT are clearly valuable qualities, there are
instances where detrimental results may occur. The instances identified below are examples of
ways in which CF and MT are potentially decreased or misused.
Poor Mindset. Having a poor mindset was a definite theme when identifying conditions
which are detrimental to CF and MT. Three distinct types of poor mindsets were discovered
when exploring the transcripts of the qualitative interviews.
Fixed mindset. Expecting others to think the same way you do or to understand your
viewpoint was identified as a drawback which produces a lack of patience with self or others.
Participant #8 referred to this phenomenon as “…[an] old habit of expecting to be immediately
good at [something]…” which needed to be re-framed as unrealistic and non-conducive to
growth. This practice can create misunderstandings and may damage interpersonal relationships
by causing a breakdown in communication. As previously discussed, perfectionism is a
maladaptive pattern of behavior which may cause unrealistic expectations of self (Flett & Hewitt,
2014), leading to anxiety or inaction due to overthinking (known as “analysis paralysis”) (Brand,
Kirov, Kalak, Gerber, Pühse, Lemola et al., 2015b). Holding a fixed mindset leads to binary
thinking such as right/wrong, black/white, all or nothing and tends to be closed off to external
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
40
ideas or better alternatives than ones which have already been considered (Dennis & Vander
Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Mangels et al., 2016).
Flett and Hewitt (2014) suggest that a fixed mindset may cause an individual to feel
trapped in their current situation with no alternatives to explore and warned that unrealistic
expectations may also lead to self-destructive behavior instead of growth after failure when
people engage in self-harm, criticism of self or “beating up” on themselves. Participant #10
mentioned “despondence” and “disgust” with self after a perceived sport performance failure.
This is clearly counter to the development of CF, where generating alternatives is a core element
(Dennis & Vader Wal, 2010) and does not support MT, where there is a balance of maximizing
natural abilities while respecting personal limitations (Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015). In this case,
however, the perceived failure turned out to be a simple misunderstanding and instead of selfdisqualifying, with a little external support and the application of persistence, Participant #10
transformed the circumstance into success and related personal pride in achievement and
gratitude for the opportunity to positively affect the outcome of a challenging situation. This
directly reflects the idea that kindness is intrinsic to flexibility and development when seeking to
move beyond perfectionism towards a beneficial growth mindset (Flett & Hewitt, 2014).
Negative mindset. Related to fixed mindset, though distinct, is having a negative
mindset. This frame of view equates challenges to “struggles” instead of opportunities to be
leveraged for gain. Participants identified the need to not give in to self-doubt or engage in
negative self-talk, as they adversely affect performance beyond simple limits of physiological
capability. Participant #13 stated that “…self-doubt and loathing…are…terrible diseases
spreading through your body.” and related an instance of self-induced failure during sporting
competition due to nothing more than having a negative mindset at the time of the event.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
41
Holding onto emotions such as anger or bitterness can fuel miscommunication and
misunderstandings with others, often making a difficult situation harder than it truly needs to be.
Viewing the world through a lens of negative emotions can make us treat failure as something to
fear or hate instead of a vehicle for growth. Looking back to the discussion of transformation,
negativity can be an impetus for change, but only in instances where the outcome no longer
requires us to hold on to the uncomfortable situation which originally initiated the process.
Lack of perspective. Perspective is generally understood to be a view of the bigger
picture and a broader view of event significance within the scope of a larger system. In this way,
participant responses warned against an inability to relate to or even acknowledge the value of
other viewpoints as a limiting position, essentially blinding them to other possibilities. In the
design of the MTS instrument, authors Madrigal, Hamill and Hill (2013) highlight the initial
recognition of opportunities presented to us and having the gumption, willingness and dedication
to take advantage of them as vital factors of MT.
Other perils in lacking perspective include a lack of empathy for others, suggesting they
“suck it up and deal” or “get over it” when encountering difficulty. Closely related but opposite
in orientation is the lack of objectivity where it is possible to care for others too much, to the
eventual detriment of self. In both instances, the kindness factor necessary in cultivating a
growth mindset (Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Gross-Loh, 2016; Mangels et al., 2016) and the balance
and personal well-being which hallmark the successful application of MT (Lin et al., 2017;
Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015) are obviously absent.
Inappropriate Applications. Applying CF and MT improperly may lead to instances that
are damaging or harmful in nature. The following sections describe examples prevalent upon
examination of the qualitative interviews.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
42
Comparison. Evaluating self-worth or having envy based upon the perceived attributes
of others is a poor application because it spawns needless competition leading to detrimental
personal outcomes. As an example, there is a phenomenon known in social media circles as
“fear of missing out” (FOMO) where the pictures and posts of others cause envy or dejectedness
about one’s own life and achievements, even though what is being shown may not be an accurate
representation of the person who posted them. A comparative poor application called the
“summit or die” mentality (Crust et al., 2016, p. 608), causes a person to push too hard
physically or mentally when pride and a fixed mindset dictate decisions instead of grounding
decisions in a self-compassionate outlook. Outcomes of this negative ideation of maladaptive
perfectionism may include occurrences as serious as injury or death when the lack of perspective
in potentially hazardous circumstances overcomes the ability to make rational alternative
decisions such as waiting to proceed, re-defining success or choosing a different path to make
progress possible (Crust et al., 2016; Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Lucas
et al., 2015).
Avoidance. Learned helplessness and inaction to avoid blame or rationalizing others’
behavior to avoid conflict were cited by participants as manifestations of avoidance. The
practice of being a loner to prove a point versus simply being a capable person was also noted as
a tactic to self-isolate and avoid engaging with others. Though this behavior comes under the
auspices of not needing anyone else’s help, this is also non-engagement with others as a
mechanism to avoid failure and is counter to the previous findings noting that support is a crucial
element of cultivating MT (Feltz et al., 2011; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Gross-Loh, 2016; Liu et al.,
2017).
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
43
Another detrimental application includes being too open to the point of not being able to
make a concrete decision, suggesting a lack of accountability or unwillingness to make tough
decisions. Because the underlying issue in question is never addressed, it is impossible to
remedy the situation and individuals are at peril of repeating non-functional behavioral patterns
indefinitely. This viewpoint is counter to factors inherent to CF and MT such as thinking
differently, taking calculated risks or making sacrifices not well understood by others (Dennis &
Vander Wal, 2010; Lucas et al., 2015; Ng, 2018).
Lack of Support/Stability. Not “fitting in” with others can be difficult to navigate if you
are surrounded by those who do not agree with you or understand you. Interview data suggested
that tumultuous living conditions and/or the lack of a personal support network makes growth a
very challenging prospect compared to when you feel safe and cared for. Personal examples
included being discouraged, harassed or abused by those who were considered close friends and
family including co-workers, roommates and significant others. In many cases, the participant
reached a point where self-respect caused them to leave relationships, living conditions or
workplaces where they did not feel valued or loved. This finding aligns with the Multi-System
Model of Resilience (Liu et al., 2017) which layers immediate surroundings, social standing and
external support factors on top of personal attributes to explain the dynamic nature of resilience.
It also aligns with the observations that MT is negatively correlated with social desirability bias
(Madrigal, Hamill, & Hill, 2013), making those with higher MT less likely to feel the need to
adhere to the norms of larger groups in order to feel accepted or have their viewpoints validated.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
44
Visual Analytics
To demonstrate the meaning of the themes, components and overall process of creating
CF and MT and how they relate to our approach to life, several figures have been included to
express these concepts via graphical representation.
7 Steps to Transformational Change. Figure 5 demonstrates the process of becoming
more cognitively flexible and mentally tough in order to evoke transformative personal change.
Transformational change is engendered by autodidaxy and the internal desire to create change.
This differs from simply doing what you’re told in the case where you have not chosen to
change. Each item noted on the left side of the equation is the result of the additive process
below it, with the item on the right being the contributory work portion which allows an
individual to move from one level to the next in the growth process. The contributions of
introspection, gratitude, time, failure, compassion and flexibility reflect the key aspects of CF
noted by Dennis and Vander Wal (2010) and correspond to the approaches of Flett and Hewitt
(2014) to combat the negative ideations of a perfectionist mindset. This process also aligns with
sentiments of growth mindset researcher Carol Dweck who maintained that a supportive teacher
was the key to initially cultivating the ability to successfully choose one’s own learning path
(Gross-Loh, 2016). To further elucidate each of the seven steps, the text version of the process is
also outlined below.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Figure 5. 7 Steps to Transformational Change
7 Steps to Transformational Change
Step 1 – Support + Guidance = Awareness of Potential
o Teachers demonstrate the paths and encourage growth
Step 2 – Awareness + Introspection = Self-Awareness
o You decide what path is correct for you as a person
Step 3 – Self-Awareness + Gratitude = Mindfulness
o You become grateful for what you learn along the way
Step 4 – Mindfulness + Time = Achievement
o You continue to work to gain knowledge and success
Step 5 – Achievement + Failure/Adversity = Challenge
o You accept challenge along your path as a means to grow
Step 6 – Challenge + Self-Care/Compassion = Self-Respect
o You come to understand your limitations and face your fears to overcome them
Step 7 – Self-Respect + Flexibility = Change
o You respect the journey enough to understand that the approach you take to the
summit requires a different version of you than when you initially began the ascent.
45
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
46
Gardner’s Magic Quadrant. Figure 6 illustrates the takeaway message of how
employing CF and MT in real-life situations can provide advantages over those who do not.
This graphic, adapted from Gartner, Inc. who predict market industry trends, depicts the sense of
agency (also known as empowerment) that this combination provides, supporting the findings of
Ng (2018) who noted the power of recognizing one’s own competency. Resultant outcomes are
displayed as positive manifestations instead of negative ramifications when the focus is on
creating solutions instead of identifying problems (Mangels et al., 2016). This finding is directly
reflective of the recommendations of research which indicates mindfully choosing one’s attitude
towards challenges encountered along the path towards mastery is imperative to successful
outcomes and is clearly meaningful within real life applications (Jones et al., 2007; Madrigal,
Hamill, & Gill, 2013; Ng, 2018; Weinberg et al., 2016).
Figure 6. Gartner’s Magic Quadrant. Adapted from Gartner, Inc., 2018, Retrieved October 20, 2018 from
https://www.gartner.com/en/research/magic-quadrant. Copyright 2018 by Gartner, Inc. Adapted with permission.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
47
Conclusions
This research demonstrates evidence that the psychometric properties of cognitive
flexibility and mental toughness are contributory to positive personal outcomes and may be
utilized to increase a sense of empowerment across all facets of life. Quantitatively, CF and MT
were expected to be positively correlated, with survey data clearly confirming this hypothesis.
Because resilience is a component of MT (Liu et al., 2017) and is shown to increase over
time (Lundman et al., 2007), the second qualitative hypothesis held that older racers would
demonstrate greater MT. Findings did not support this hypothesis, with no significant
relationship found between chronological age and MTS scores. However, internal and
community-based support are factors identified in the Multi-System Model of Resilience (Liu et
al., 2017) as variable in nature, changing according to dynamic life conditions. Logically, a
deficiency of self-compassion or a lack of external support may negatively affect resilience at
any age and may explain why this expectation was not supported. This survey also explored a
single point in time, whereas a repeated-measures examination could yield evidence of the
projected increase.
Additionally, a significant variance was seen in measures of CF and MT between
genders, with males reflecting higher CF and MT scores. The participant pool was derived from
a group of Spartan racers, with female participants demonstrating an equal ability to engage in
similar challenges as their male counterparts while reporting lower CF and MT scores. It is
therefore logical to posit that females may outperform males when examining equally matched
samples.
Because neurological changes are evidenced to be dependent upon one’s mindset (Ng,
2018; Schroder, Fisher, Lin, Lo, Danovitch & Moser, 2017; Schroder et al., 2014), it is logical to
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
48
propose that changing one’s mind would directly affect one’s physiology. The qualitative
findings here highlight the evolutionary and intertwined nature of CF and MT, supporting the
theory that lived experiences follow mindset changes. Research participants used this
understanding to positively affect outcomes across a wide array of real-life applications, create
greater satisfaction with the circumstances of their own lives and demonstrate to others that
achieving similar improvements was entirely within the realm of possibility.
Grit is not a mystical unknown, nor is it a description of constant mindless motion
without purpose sometimes referred to as “the grind”. Rather, grit more viscerally describes the
outcome of persistent application of effort when attempting to overcome an impasse previously
considered insurmountable to achieve a goal above and beyond the norm. In the physical sense,
particulate matter demonstrates an iterative dissolution of a seemingly non-permeable structure
and evokes the understanding that the continued act of perseverance, not initial power, is the
ultimate arbiter of success. A reflection on ancient philosophical directives to regard the fluidity
of water as its true strength is based upon the simple scientific observation of the power found in
nature which only becomes evident over the course of time. This insight mirrors the conclusions
of Duckworth, Eichstaedt, & Ungar (2015) in noting the importance of continued effort as the
most important variable when calculating the equation of human achievement. Therefore,
progress may be made along any purposeful path, (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt,
2014). However, the methodology used to affect that change must be subtle and long-lived
enough to influence an ultimately successful outcome (Duckworth, Eichstaedt, & Ungar, 2015).
Findings support the hypothesis that CF promotes adaptability and engenders constant
improvement for better results without the negativity associated with perfectionistic fixed
mindsets. Additionally, the clear importance of a positive and receptive attitude towards newly
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
49
encountered ideas on outcomes directs practitioners to the crucial importance of fostering a
growth mindset when introducing new skills of any kind. Facilitation of receptivity and a
forward-looking perspective during learning experiences contributes greatly to overcoming fear
of failure and exerts a beneficial influence upon both student effort and eventual outcomes.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
50
Future Research
This research, along with previous literature, positively link CF with MT (Dennis &
Vander Wal, 2010), equanimity (Dennis and Vander Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014) and
resilience (Lundman et al., 2007). Kindness (both intrinsic and external) has been recommended
as a method to combat unrealistic expectations surrounding perfectionism (Dennis & Vander
Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Perlis, 2013) and is also shown in this study to be related to the
cultivation of CF which unites with MT to enhance life outcomes.
These findings may contribute to the unequivocally beneficial further exploration of the
synergistic and creative relationship between CF and MT. Immediately accessible applications
include measuring the efficacy of various mind-body interventions such as bio-feedback,
meditation, yoga and other mindfulness techniques as vehicles to improve the quality of the
underlying components of both complex constructs. Additional qualitative inquiry into
participant lived experiences would provide insight as to the significance of each intervention.
Because teamwork has been shown to enhance sport performance (Feltz, Kerr, & Irwin,
2011), future research comparing CF and MT scores of Spartan racers using the variable of
racing individually versus racing as a part of a team would demonstrate if the Köhler motivation
gain effect produces a differentiating influence between the two groups.
A significant variance was seen in measures of CF and MT between genders, with males
reflecting higher CF and MT scores. Further exploration is suggested as differing gender-based
viewpoints regarding the inevitability of change through the course of life may partially explain
the divergent evidence shown by the data where females are shown to accomplish similar
challenging goals while reporting lower levels of both variables than males. Also relevant is an
inquiry into effects on CF and MT shown when comparing the type(s) of Spartan race attempted.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
51
References
Bartone, P. (1995, July). A short hardiness scale. A paper presented at a meeting of the
American Psychological Society in New York, NY.
Brand, S., Kirov, R., Kalak, N., Gerber, M., Pühse, U., Lemola, S., …& Holsboer-Trachsler, E.
(2015b). Perfectionism related to self-reported insomnia severity, but not when controlled
for stress and emotion regulation. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 11, 263–271.
https://doi.org/10.2147/ndt.s74905
Cody, R. (2015). An introduction to SAS ® university edition. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc.
Crust, L., Swann, C., & Allen-Collinson, J. (2016). The thin line: A phenomenological study of
mental toughness and decision making in elite high-altitude mountaineers. Journal of
Sport & Exercise Psychology, 38, 598 -611. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2016-0109
Dennis, J., & Vander Wal, J. (2010). The cognitive flexibility inventory: Instrument
development and estimates of reliability and validity. Cognitive Therapy and Research,
34, 241–253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-009-9276-4
DiMenichi, B., & Richmond, L. (2015). Reflecting on past failures leads to increased
perseverance and sustained attention. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 27(2), 180-193.
https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2014.995104
Duckworth, A., Eichstaedt, J., & Ungar, L. (2015). The mechanics of human achievement.
Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9(7), 359–369.
https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12178
Duckworth, A., Peterson, C., Matthew, M., & Kelly, D. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion
for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1087–1101.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
52
Dudovskiy, J. (2017). Qualitative data analysis. Research-methodology.net. Retrieved from:
https://researchmethodology.net/research-methods/data-analysis/qualitative-dataanalysis/
Eskreis-Winkler, L., Shulman, E., Beal, S., & Duckworth, A. (2013). The grit effect: Predicting
retention in the military, the workplace, school and marriage. Frontiers in Psychology,
5(36), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00036
Fieril, K., Olsen, M., Glantz, A., & Larsson, M. (2014). Experiences of exercise during
pregnancy among women who perform regular resistance training: A qualitative study.
Physical Therapy, 94(8), 1135-1143. https://doi.org/10.2522/ptj.20120432
Flett, G., & Hewitt, P. (2014). A proposed framework for preventing perfectionism and
promoting resilience and mental health among vulnerable children and adolescents.
Psychology in the Schools, 51(9), 899-912. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21792
Gartner, Inc. (2018). Gartner Magic Quadrant. [Infographic]. Retrieved from
https://www.gartner.com/en/research/methodologies/magic-quadrants-research
Hoyt, L., & Falconi, A. (2015). Puberty and perimenopause: Reproductive transitions and their
implications for women's health. Social Science & Medicine, 132, 103-112.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.03.031
Hurley, W., Denegar, C., & Hertel, J. (2011). Research methods: A framework for evidencebased clinical practice. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Jones, G., Hanton, S., & Connaughton, D. (2007). A framework of mental toughness in the
world’s best performers. The Sport Psychologist, 21(2), 243–264.
https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.21.2.243
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
53
Kidd, M., & Eatough, V. (2017). Yoga, well-being, and transcendence: An interpretative
phenomenological analysis. The Humanistic Psychologist, 45(3), 250-280.
https://doi.org/10.1037/hum0000068
Kleiman, E., Adams, L., Kashdan, T., & Riskind, J. (2013). Gratitude and grit indirectly reduce
risk of suicidal ideations by enhancing meaning in life: Evidence for a mediated
moderation model. Journal of Research in Personality, 47, 539–546.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2013.04.007
Liu, J., Reed, M., & Girard, T. (2017). Advancing resilience: An integrative, multi-system
model of resilience. Personality and Individual Differences, 111, 111-118.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.02.007
Lucas, G., Gratch, J., Cheng, L., & Marsella, S. (2015). When the going gets tough: Grit
predicts costly perseverance. Journal of Research in Personality, 59, 15–22.
https://doi.org//10.1016/j.jrp.2015.08.004
Lundman, B., Strandberg, G., Eisemann, M., Gustafson, Y., & Brulin, C. (2007). Psychometric
properties of the Swedish version of the resilience scale. The Scandinavian Journal of
Caring Sciences, 21, 229–237. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6712.2007.00461.x
Madrigal, L., Hamill, S., & Gill, D. (2013). Mind over matter: The development of the Mental
Toughness Scale (MTS). The Sport Psychologist, 27(1), 62-77.
https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.27.1.62
Martin, J., Byrd, B., Lewis Watts, M., & Dent, M. (2015). Gritty, hardy, and resilient:
Predictors of sport engagement and life satisfaction in wheelchair basketball players.
Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 9, 345-359.
https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2015-0008
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
54
Meriac, J., Slifka, J., & LaBat, L. (2015). Work ethic and grit: An examination of empirical
redundancy. Personality and Individual Differences, 86, 401–405.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.009
Ng, B. (2018). The neuroscience of growth mindset and intrinsic motivation.
Brain Science, 8, 20. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8020020
Perlis, M. (2013). 5 characteristics of grit - how many do you have? Forbes.com.
Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/margaretperlis/2013/10/29/5characteristics
ofgritwhatitiswhyouneeditanddoyouhaveit/#378c201f764b
Pietkiewicz, I., & Smith, J. (2014). A practical guide to using interpretative phenomenological
analysis in qualitative research psychology. Psychological Journal, 18(2), 361-369.
https://doi.org/10.14691/CPPJ.20.1.7 (Original work published 2012)
Robertson, I., Cooper, C., Sarkar, M., & Curran, T. (2015). Resilience training in the
workplace from 2003 to 2014: A systematic review. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, 88, 533–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12120
Salmela, M., & Uusiautti, S. (2015). A positive psychological viewpoint for success at school –
10 characteristic strengths of the Finnish high-achieving students. High Ability Studies,
26(1), 117–137. https://doi.org/10.1080/13598139.2015.1019607
Schroder, H., Fisher, M., Lin, Y., Lo, S., Danovitch, J., & Moser, J. (2017).
Neural evidence for enhanced attention to mistakes among school-aged children with a
growth mindset. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 24, 42–50.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2017.01.004
Schroder, H., Moran, T., Donnellan, M., & Moser. J. (2014). Mindset induction effects on
cognitive control: A neurobehavioral investigation. Biological Psychology, 103, 27–37.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2014.08.004
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
55
Stephens, R., Atkins, J., & Kingston, A. (2009). Swearing as a response to pain. NeuroReport,
20(12), 1056–1060. Doi: 10.1097/WNR.0b013e32832e64b1
Stephens, R., & Umland, C. (2011). Swearing as a response to pain—Effect of daily swearing
frequency. The Journal of Pain, 12(12), 1274-1281.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2011.09.004
Stephens, R., Spierer, D., & Katehis, E. (2018). Effect of swearing on strength and power
performance. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, (35), 111-117.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.11.014
Stonkus, M. (2011). The development and validation of the Inventory of Mental Toughness
Factors in Sport (IMTF-S) (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations
& Theses (Publication number 3463253).
Stonkus, M., & Royal, K. (2015). Further validation of the inventory of mental toughness
factors in sport (IMTF-S). International Journal of Psychological Studies, 7(3), 35-45.
https://doi.org/10.5539/ijps.v7n3p35
U.S. National Library of Medicine. (October 16, 2018). What is DNA? [Infographic].
Retrieved from https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/basics/dna
Von Culin, K., Tsukayama, E., & Duckworth, A. (2014). Unpacking grit: Motivational
correlates of perseverance and passion for long-term goals. The Journal of Positive
Psychology: Dedicated to furthering research and promoting good practice, 9(4), 1-7.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.898320
Weinberg, R., Freysinger, V., Mellano, K., & Brookhouse, E. (2016). Building mental
toughness: Perceptions of sport psychologists. The Sport Psychologist, 30, 231 -241.
https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2015-0090
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Willingham, D. (2016). Ask the cognitive scientist: “Grit” is trendy, but can it be taught?
American Educator, 28-32 & 44. Retrieved from
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1104456.pdf
56
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix A
Review of the Literature
57
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
58
Grit is a term that has seen a surge of popularity in the last decade, its properties equated
with toughness, defying convention and all-around accomplishment. This literature review
originally sought to understand what grit truly is and the relevance it holds on practical daily
applications where it has been shown to be beneficial. However, Angela Duckworth, the preeminent modern researcher of grit, was recently interviewed (Dahl, 2016), and stated that she felt
as though the public’s enthusiasm for the novel concept of grit had far out-paced the scientific
research being performed from which to draw solid, data-backed conclusions about its value as it
relates to success in a wide range of daily situations.
Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, and Kelly described grit as “the propensity to pursue
long-term goals with perseverance and passion” (2007, p. 1100) and it was later postulated that
achievement is a ratio derived from persistence of effort and longevity of interest (Duckworth,
Eichstaedt, & Ungar, 2015). The construct of mental toughness (MT), defined by Stonkus and
Royal as the “…ability to withstand adversity, pressure and stress.” (2015, p. 35) closely
parallels this formula as it alludes to continuation of effort in the face of challenges. Further
review of the existing literature repeatedly revealed that qualities associated with the grit
construct either closely align or directly intersect with components of MT in sport (Jones,
Hanton, & Connaughton, 2007; Madrigal et al., 2013; Perlis, 2013; Stonkus & Royal, 2015).
It is the aim of this review to highlight those shared characteristics and functions, uncover
efficient interventions to best leverage the potential of MT to make a significant positive impact
and to provide direction for future MT research.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
59
Theoretical Construct
MT is widely studied in sport psychology, yet much of the foundational literature has
focused mainly on attempting to define the concept itself. Most people associate MT with a
feeling of not giving up in the pursuit of a difficult task where the goal or is reward not attainable
through half-hearted or less-than-diligent efforts. In the journey towards defining MT, there is a
need to examine how it works and deconstruct it into its foundational components to truly
understand what “being mentally tough” means. Sport psychologists consider MT a mindset
which may be cultivated, reinforced and refined over time (Weinberg, Freysinger, Mellano, &
Brookhouse, 2016). A systematic review of MT research outside of traditional sport
performance highlights the expanded scope of MT with applications in the workplace,
educational forums, fitness-related pursuits or other high-pressure situations (Eskreis-Winkler,
Shulman, Beal, & Duckworth, 2013) and yields evidence that MT “entails positive psychological
resources” with confidence in one’s own abilities factoring heavily into the equation (Lin, Mutz,
Clough, & Papageorgiou, 2017, p. 1).
Like the concept of grit, MT can also be described using alternate words which attempt to
capture the essence of how putting it to use may affect outcomes. Hardiness is described by Dr.
Paul Bartone (1995) as having an inverse correlation to depression and stress-related illness and
a positive correlation to the feeling of control over outcomes. This sense of control, noted as one
of the four central tenets of MT (Madrigal, Hamill, & Gill, 2013), means that individuals
displaying hardiness accept and allow for challenges as a normal and expected part of a fulfilling
life (Bartone, 1995). Related, though distinct, is the concept of resilience, defined as “…the
capability to cope successfully and recover from substantial adversity.” (Xie, Peng, Zuo, & Li,
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
60
2016, p. 1). Other common synonyms include tenacity, intestinal fortitude or stick-to-itiveness,
but do any one of these terms truly encompass what it means to be mentally tough?
In a 2015 study, researchers examined the potential question of work ethic and grit being
one and the same, assessing levels of work ethic, grit, conscientiousness, job satisfaction,
turnover intentions, and stress in employed college students. The research demonstrated a clear
overlap in behaviors and traits in those who had a strong work ethic or a high grit score, with
other variables providing protection against stress and demonstrating a strong relation to
conscientiousness. However, each quality was seen to possess unique core components and
display sufficiently divergent mechanisms such that each of them stands alone, making them
neither identical nor statistically redundant (Meriac, Slifka, & LaBat, 2015).
Perlis (2013) wrote about grit’s five factors, courage, conscientiousness, follow-through,
resilience, and non-perfectionism. When Lundman et al. (2007) tested the reliability of a
Swedish Resilience Scale on a large group meant to represent the general population of Sweden,
researchers identified five similar sub-factors (equanimity, meaningfulness, perseverance,
existential aloneness and self-reliance) confirmed to be supportive of the cultivation of
resilience. This is an important finding because such overlap of crucial characteristics for each
construct demonstrates resilience to be much more closely related to MT than either work ethic
or conscientiousness alone. These findings indicate that work ethic or conscientiousness may be
missing the emotional aspect shown to be essential in the broader picture of MT construct. As
Willingham (2016) states, “…sometimes, being the sort of person who does what’s expected,
putting one foot in front of the other, just won’t cut it….” (p. 31).
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
61
In terms of what combination of qualities must coexist for an individual to be considered
“tough” or to possess a higher than average level of MT, researchers have examined traits
considered well-aligned with the qualities exhibited when it was a variable amongst reasons for
success. There are varied ways to approach life so that individual happiness is an outcome, and
researchers took that into consideration when they examined: (1) perseverance of effort, and (2)
consistency of interests over time in the context of how it affects happiness (Von Culin,
Tsukayama, & Duckworth, 2014). The three types of happiness studied were: (1) pleasure in
immediately hedonistically positive activities, (2) meaning in activities that serve a higher,
altruistic purpose, and, (3) engagement in attention-absorbing activities. In this study, tougher
individuals showed interest in the outcomes of their own long-term efforts and wanted to derive
involvement and engagement in their pursuits, whereas those who sought happiness through
immediate gratification were much less interested in long-term effort and were less tough
overall. Schroder, Moran, Donnellan, and Moser (2014) found that there is a strong neural link
between employing intrinsic motivation and the growth mindset associated with greater MT.
This leads to the question of how much work will mentally tough individuals invest in their longterm pursuits and is that a defining factor when examining the core components of what MT is
made up of?
Persistence and perseverance were studied, along with continuation of interest in the
topic at hand (Credé, Tynan, & Harms, 2016), leading researchers to understand that how long
individuals could continue working made only slight differences in success measures when
measuring for reaching a goal versus not reaching a goal. However, this meta-analysis
demonstrated that small significant differences in additional effort had the potential to equal
much larger effects on outcomes. This finding indicates that MT relates to success by allowing
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
62
us to recognize those individuals who clearly stand out over and above those who had simply
achieved a set standard for what was considered success. The willingness to apply that little
extra bit of effort translated into the difference between only hitting the mark and completely
crushing a goal.
Duckworth, Eichstaedt, and Ungar (2015) had previously demonstrated this very point by
translating theoretical psychological concepts into tangible, physical metrics to produce an
innovative experimentation framework meant to elucidate the actual mechanics of those qualities
which drive people to succeed and how that success is evidenced in terms of the principles of
Newtonian physics. The outcome of this formula-based approach is the equation below.
achievement = (½ x talent x effort2)
The authors postulated that, because the ultimate outcome of the equation includes the
square of the effort (in terms of time spent towards an objective) required to produce that
outcome, any incremental additional effort will produce a significant effect on the level of
achievement that is not similarly reflected in the ratio of talent to final achievement outcomes.
In short, a person possessing raw talent or even developed skills which remain unapplied will
never reach the same level of success over an extended time period than a less-talented or lessskilled person who works steadfastly and unflaggingly towards their goals. Because the passage
of time has been shown to be a precursor of cultivating greater resilience (Lundman, Strandberg,
Eisemann, Gustafson, & Brulin, 2007), it is logical to conclude that, although raw talent and skill
are positive attributes to possess and helpful in short-term situations, neither are required
components when considering the makeup of MT.
Duckworth and Yeager (2015) sought to understand, from an investigation of current
measurement methods and instruments, what personality attributes were most valid to indicate
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
63
potential for success. The researchers wanted to determine if there were certain fixed personality
traits that are not defined by or tied to intelligence levels which are measurable and definitively
comprise the concept of grit. They also sought to examine and understand how best to measure
those traits to understand who used them most effectively to leverage situations to successful
outcomes. Characteristics such as resilience, hardiness, and self-control were examined
(Duckworth & Yeager, 2015), with all traits shown to address a piece of the puzzle, but not
completely produce success by standing alone. The authors concluded that there are multiple
measurable personality traits involved and to measure only one does not illuminate the entire
picture. However, when taken together, these traits contribute to the whole of a person’s
propensity to demonstrate overall toughness.
Supporting this finding, the authors of a systematic analysis of MT suggest support for a
multi-dimensional model of MT to reveal those component elements which allow for specific
identification of deficient areas and customized interventions when bolstering the development
of MT. A limitation of this systematic review, however, was the focus on quantitative research
only, possibly omitting further exploration of those construct qualities (Liu et al., 2017).
If the application of MT can be described as a dynamic equation as suggested by
Duckworth et al. (2015), testing for only one measure of MT cannot demonstrate the full range
of a person’s ability to apply it and can only indicate their strengths in the individual
characteristic being tested at the time of the assessment. This conclusion is important beyond the
question of what MT is made up of and lends itself to a greater understanding of how it works
since personality traits are being measured as opposed to cognitive tests that measure fixed traits.
A logical offshoot of this theory may be that personality traits like resilience are malleable over
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
64
the course of life and may be cultivated or downplayed over time, meaning MT itself is not a
fixed characteristic and can be and acquired through experience and influenced by surroundings.
Applications of MT
Moving beyond the initial, general questions of how we define and measure MT, we
move to the next logical step; identifying the applications of MT. Discussing the instances and
real-life situations in which MT is most widely cited and studied, we can gain insight on how it
is being viewed and utilized in educational settings, workplaces, fitness-related situations and
high-pressure vocations, such as the military, sports and medical fields.
Sports
There is not one absolute definition of mental toughness, so in 2007, Jones, Hanton, and
Connaughton interviewed super-elite Olympic of world champion athletes, along with coaches
and sport psychologists to validate the necessary components of MT as defined at that high level
of athletic performance. After participants took part in a focus group, individual interviews and
follow up phone calls to provide further clarification, the data was analyzed thematically, and 30
characteristics were identified within the four main areas of attitude/mindset, training,
competition and post-competition (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2007). Some of these subthemes are similar in nature to the actions embodied by those who display MT and include the
ability to cope and still stay focused under pressure, the belief that one will continue to perform
at a high level under adverse conditions, the perception that your actions and emotions are under
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
65
your own control and the ability to handle either success or failure. More recently, Madrigal,
Hamill, and Gill (2013) acknowledged the following elements of MT: “control, confidence,
commitment [and] motivation” (p. 63) are ones which repeatedly appear in studies testing for
this characteristic or discussions of the topic. These also align closely with traits shown to
comprise the construct of grit discussed previously (Credé et al., 2016; Duckworth et al., 2015;
Duckworth et al., 2007; Duckworth & Quinn, 2009; Duckworth & Yeager, 2015; Gucciardia, et
al., 2016; Madrigal et al., 2013; Meriac, et al., 2015; Perlis, 2013; Stonkus & Royal, 2015; Von
Culin et al., 2014).
To examine those components in a real-life situation, an assessment of football players
was conducted, seeking a link between mental toughness and the relative influence of the
previously-identified perseverance component (Credé et al., 2016) to ascertain if there was a
correlation between them (Gucciardia, Peeling, Duckera, & Dawson, 2016). To ensure their
findings were valid and could be applied to the intended audience, the researchers performed
their own assessments using physical tasks meant to measure the level of participants’
perseverance. However, instead of simply reporting their results, the researchers incorporated
their data along with the outcomes of other studies to create a higher-validity meta-analysis.
Results were consistent across the analyzed studies and indicated that higher levels of
perseverance demonstrated during demanding physical tasks had a positive correlation to selfreported levels of mental toughness by sport participants (Gucciardia et al., 2016). This finding
indicates a reciprocal link between the degree of mental toughness a person possesses and one’s
ability to decide not to give up when faced with having to withstand difficult physical conditions
over a sustained length of time. These results further support a previous study of collegiate
basketball players whose self-reported level of mental toughness on the Mental Toughness Scale
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
66
(MTS), developed in 2013 by Madrigal, Hamill, and Gill, correlated positively with their
coaches’ assessments of individual athlete ability, thus establishing a solid link between mental
toughness and tangible measures of success in sport (Gucciardia et al., 2016; Madrigal et al.,
2013).
As this correlation needed more thorough exploration and documentation, validity for the
Inventory of Mental Toughness in Sport (IMTF-S), developed by Stonkus in 2011, was
strengthened by utilizing the same sample, but processing the data with a more stringent
calculation. The four indicators tested were motivation to leverage one’s assets to their best
outcomes, identification of one’s own potential, negation of negative thoughts, and determination
to succeed (Stonkus, 2011). In the updated study, all were shown to be valid, reliable measures
of MT, reinforcing the relationship between MT and measurable success in sports (Stonkus &
Royal, 2015).
As discussed earlier, fixed personality traits do not accurately predict success (Lundman
et al., 2007) with this conclusion supported by research of sport performance in both casual and
elite athletes. The Big Five personality traits (neuroticism, extraversion, conscientiousness,
agreeableness, and openness to new experience) which appear on the BFI-10 Scale developed by
Rammstedt and John in 2007 do not correlate to sporting performance, further suggesting that
fixed personality traits are unlikely to influence sport performance or affect one’s level of MT
which is not a fixed attribute but more of a work in progress (Elumaro, 2016; Reed, 2015).
Special populations. To explore a greater breadth of the significance of MT in sports,
we need to examine other populations to understand if the implications on performance extend
beyond the typical study populations of elite or collegiate athletes. Martin, Byrd, Lewis Watts,
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
67
and Dent (2015) conducted a study involving wheelchair basketball players, surveying
participant attitudes towards engagement in sports activities in the context of coping with
hardship and excelling in the face of adversity. It was noted that the positive relationships
demonstrated between measurements of hardiness, satisfaction with life and resilience and the
participants’ continued involvement in basketball might be attributed to a less-common
perspective bestowed upon them as adaptive athletes, which allows them to see opportunities
where others only see limitations. This quality, which can be equated to the concept of
hardiness, denotes the idea of not quitting or stopping because something in life has not gone
according to plan.
Physiological effects of grit. To elucidate why MT positively correlates with all aspects
of sport performance across multiple populations, a study was conducted which examined the
physiological effects of challenges to understand how the human body reacts to situations which
recruit a participant’s toughness to achieve an outcome (Silvia, Eddington, Beaty, Nusbaum, &
Kwapil, 2013). Measured in this study were autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity and
parasympathetic activity (respiratory sinus arrhythmia; RSA). Participants who scored high in
the Perseverance of Effort subscale of the Grit-S demonstrated increases in both the biometric
markers studied. However, those individuals who showed higher scores on the Consistency of
Interest subscale demonstrated lower ANS activity and no change in RSA. These findings could
be explained by understanding that perseverance of effort causes a more efficient and immediate
cardiac output, allowing for greater effort expenditure on a shorter-term and the continuation of
effort in the moment. On the other hand, consistency places more emphasis on completing
things correctly and regularly, leading to a relaxing effect to allow for a longer duration of effort
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
68
with less physical stress on the individual when the need for action is not as immediate and
expected to be sustained for a longer time.
Weinberg, Freysinger, Mellano, and Brookhouse (2016) interviewed 15 sport
psychologists to identify and categorize the concepts that they felt were paramount to
successfully fostering MT. Suggestions which emerged during the interviews were for players to
employ mindful behavior and learn coping mechanisms by practicing in similar conditions as
those which could cause stressed reactions when encountered in competition. The results
reaffirmed existing methods to help athletes develop MT, and these results could be generalized
onto a larger population engaging in sports pursuits or other stressful, toughness-evoking
applications.
Workplace
Stress in the workplace is prevalent in today’s “always-on” society and any method to
decrease or mitigate that stress should be employed. A systematic review of resilience training
methodologies in the workplace (Robertson, Cooper, Sarkar, & Curran, 2015) investigated four
broad categories of dependent variables: (1) mental health and subjective well-being outcomes,
(2) psychosocial outcomes, (3) physical/biological outcomes, and (4) performance outcomes, and
found that techniques such as mindfulness, compassion, and cognitive behavioral interventions
all demonstrated positive outcomes with no noted drawbacks. Meriac et al. (2015) found that
that tougher people may even have extra protection against workplace-related stress. While
work ethic was a strong indicator of how well one performed and predicted turnover more
accurately, hard workers who do not possess the requisite amount of toughness are more
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
69
vulnerable to dissatisfaction. Although findings suggest that both work ethic and toughness
negatively correlate to stress, toughness provides additional protection from the deleterious
effects of stress in the workplace, so tougher workers will potentially be more resilient and
persevere through difficult times. Likewise, a 2013 study by Eskreis-Winkler, Shulman, Beal,
and Duckworth demonstrated similar results, with grittier sales people being less likely to leave
their jobs, even though sales is a demanding and stressful profession. Certainly, workplace
initiatives such as increased employee retention rates and greater job satisfaction make it
worthwhile to pursue these avenues for the desired outcome of a stronger, more stable
workforce.
Military
Although sports and workplace situations can sometimes be stressful, the military
requires a different viewpoint on stress, as there may be much more at stake in terms of number
of individuals or gravity of the situation. The ability to maintain a clear head and make sound
decisions in high-pressure situations is an absolute must for members of our military branches,
and mechanisms to facilitate that mindset should be better understood to leverage situations to
their best outcomes. Since perseverance is typically measured in different ways and at different
times than optimism, military researchers sought a way to measure both simultaneously and
decided to utilize the hormone cortisol as an indicator of a soldier’s state of mind (Binsch, Van
Wietmarschen, & Buick, 2017). In tests using simulated courses, a significant correlation was
found between cortisol levels and how optimistic the participants self-reported on the revised
Life Orientation Test (LOT-R) Scale, with high optimism being linked to greater cortisol levels.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
70
On physical courses, the soldiers who did not give up and leave the course had higher levels of
cortisol and reported optimism than their counterparts who elected to withdraw from the course.
This result points to a clear link between the biometric marker of cortisol levels found in the
participants during activities requiring coping and having an optimistic outlook and persevering
through difficult situations.
These findings build upon the findings of Eskreis-Winkler et al. (2013) who studied
Army Special Forces candidates. Individuals’ grit scores (GRIT-S) were examined in the
context of their willingness to continue in a program that was physically rigorous and mentally
demanding. Grittier participants were more likely to continue and complete the program, which,
once again, positively correlated with the presence of perseverance, and evidence of MT.
As with sports and workplace applications, it seems a beneficial undertaking to cultivate
MT in a military venue as well. Adler et al. (2015) tested the effects of mental skills training on
basic military skills trainees to see if they would increase both their physical skills and ability to
cope with difficult situations which are often encountered in a military setting. Techniques
utilized included self-talk, positive imagery, relaxation techniques, goal setting, and affirmation;
a control group was used to increase the implications of the findings. Upon analysis, researchers
had predicted improvement in both physical skill and the increased ability to successfully
navigate mentally challenging tasks, and both were found to be statistically significant in the
mental skill training group. Results point to the conclusion that teaching coping mechanisms to
those in high-stress occupations can improve their ability to handle physical difficulty or highstress interactions better than someone who is untrained (Adler et al., 2015). The participants’
abilities to improve coping strategies are also linked to the theory that levels of resilience are
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
71
dynamic and can be developed over time (Lundman et al., 2007; Martin et al., 2015; Robertson
et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2017).
Education
Education, at any level, can be rife with unrealistic expectations, inter-cohort competition
and will include subjects not chosen by the learner. These factors inevitably lead to increased
pressure on the students in question and could undoubtedly benefit from supportive factors
provided by MT to ensure a greater propensity for success.
Willingham (2016) reflects on the topic of teaching grit in the context of elementary
school education. He questions the possibility of adding a grit component to education
curriculum and potential benefits to be gained by doing so but admits that the lack of clear and
concise definitions of the subject matter or the desired outcomes makes it somewhat difficult to
distill into teachable subject matter. The author further suggests that grit is not the sole attribute
that educators should develop in students; instead, they should foster multiple positive and
desirable traits throughout a child’s educational career. Further, he concludes that teaching the
ability to achieve success in the face of adversity is more about the role of educators to focus a
student’s intent and facilitate goal setting to propel students in the direction they aspire to go.
When examining applied MT in the educational forum, research shows that higher MT is
positively correlated to the ability to engage in directed forgetting, or the ability to filter out nonrelevant information when working on a task. This capability to remove distractions in the form
of extraneous information allows an individual to focus closely on the task at hand and therefore
derive greater success in their work (Lin, Mutz, Clough, & Papageorgiou, 2017).
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
72
Gerber et al. (2012) polled high-school and college students to assess their levels of
stress, mental toughness and their propensity towards depressive symptoms. Across the samples,
higher levels of mental toughness indicated lower incidence of depressive symptoms or reported
stress levels. This outcome is supported by research conducted by Eskreis-Winkler et al. (2013)
who showed toughness was positively correlated as a predictor of graduation in high-school
students enrolled in Chicago Public Schools, and Li and Yang (2016) who demonstrated across
multiple continents that college-age students consistently encounter similar stressors and employ
similar techniques to cope and achieve success, without regard to global location.
Salmela and Uusiautti (2015) examined the habits and viewpoints of Finnish straight-A
students and thorough analysis of the students’ shared characteristics, viewpoints and attitudes
towards the exams uncovered some common themes. The ability of the students to maximize
their natural abilities yet understand and respect their own limitations in the pursuit of excellence
speaks to the integral relationship between personal well-being and success in the face of a
challenging goal. This picture of success was not limited to the academic forum, but points to
the essential need to recognize and find meaning in all aspects of life, including sport pursuits,
interpersonal relationships and future endeavors, such as career and family. This attitude of
balance is embodied by the practice of thriving in life, defined as having excellent interpersonal
interactions and a positive attitude in the face of difficulty (Lin et al., 2017). Using the same
tactics as they applied to their studies, the students reasoned that they could facilitate growth and
multi-faceted success in many pursuits in life (Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015). Since higher MT is
related to the feeling of having control over outcomes despite challenges, the high MT individual
identifies and remediates an issue via problem-focused coping, successfully tackling it head on
rather than becoming emotional or avoiding it (Lin et al., 2017).
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
73
These results indicate some important findings. Being mentally tough is clearly shown to
assist this age group with coping with difficult or unexpected stressors and lessen the impact of
negative side effects than may be more intensely experienced by less mentally tough peers. The
positive effects of MT extend beyond the academic forum and successful applications are
demonstrated, providing a broader perspective on life (Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015). Finally,
although local variability may somewhat influence application and greater study is warranted in
populations beyond the US, Asia and Western Europe, similar results have been shown to be
common to students in multiple geographic locations and would be generally applicable to a
larger global population (Li & Yang, 2016; Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015).
Studies examining outcomes in higher education settings outside the typical high-schoolto-undergraduate experience provide further insight into the effects of MT on educational
endeavors. Cross (2014) gathered the grit levels of non-traditional doctoral students and
compared those scores to the students’ reported current GPA values to determine if higher grit
scores (GRIT-S) were a predictor of higher scholastic achievement. A positive link and
significant indicator of academic success was shown for females only, with no such direct link
existing for the males in the study. The conclusion postulated that non-traditional doctoral
candidates are already a tougher-than-typical group and may not display significant GPA
variability within their own peer group, however, they may vary greatly from their traditional
undergraduate counterparts.
Zimmerman and Brogan (2015) conducted a similar study attempting to link grit scores
(GRIT-S) to final GPA scores of law school students and found that measure of grit did not
positively correlate to higher GPA scores, with the students’ GPA scores showing very little
variability. Interestingly, ancillary results indicated that, much like the non-traditional doctoral
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
74
students in the study done by Cross in 2014, female law graduates also displayed measurably
larger grit scores than their male counterparts. This interesting, if unexpected, finding leads us
from the discussion of individual measures of grit and situational application into the larger
question of what makes certain groups grittier than others. By examining and understanding
those supportive attributes, might we leverage that knowledge towards cultivating those qualities
for ourselves and employing them within the communities we live in and care about?
Precursors to Cultivating MT
In reviewing the theoretical construct of MT and its applications, there is a clear focusing of
definitions, components and patterns. However, further examination expands upon the role and
meaningfulness of its origins.
Age & Gender
As discussed earlier, gender clearly plays a role in dictating demonstrable evidence and
effects on the application of grit, as measured grit scores (GRIT-S) linearly predict academic
success in females (Cross, 2014; Zimmerman & Brogan, 2015). But, are there similar correlates
shown in other venues and do other factors play a part in those effects? Eskreis-Winkler et al.
(2013) studied various applications including how toughness predicted the likelihood of a
married person to remain married over time. Results indicated that men with higher scores were
more likely to stay married, whereas women with higher scores were not as likely to stay married
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
75
as their male counterparts. Because MT is shown to be an indicator of perseverance over the
course of time and has a component of resilience which offers protective factors against negative
effects of stressful situations, it is unlikely that women end a marriage because they are incapable
of handling the occasional adversity which accompanies such an institution. Other
considerations could include the possibility that tougher women have gained confidence through
age and experience and may be seeking roles beyond the traditional ones of mother and wife,
knowing that they could handle the challenges that an expanded worldview may bring (Fieril et
al., 2014; Madrigal et al., 2013).
In Fieril et al. (2014), researchers explored this topic and found evidence for internal
strength and a sense of control to be strong supporting factors of grit cultivation in pregnant
women. In this qualitative study of Swedish women who were pregnant for the first time,
participants universally cited the ability to engage in behaviors and take actions which increased
their own sense of control in life as one such factor; this sentiment was positively correlated with
higher grit scores (GRIT-S) (Fieril et al., 2014). It was acknowledged that while adversity was a
part of life, the ability to tailor one’s choices to best handle those difficult times was always an
option, even during pregnancy, which may be a confusing time with possible unpleasant
physical, mental, and emotional ramifications.
MT is positively correlated to a sense of controlling one’s own destiny in life, and, in this
case, led to a greater sense of well-being, illuminating the link between self-reliance and the
behavior demonstrated by females in the context of academic achievement and their larger life
choices (Cross, 2014; Fieril et al., 2014; Zimmerman & Brogan, 2015). These traits grow
through navigating challenges, expanding with the knowledge that a woman is capable of
tackling adversity, and are shown to increase with age and continued practice. These factors
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
76
may explain the linear increase of grit with age, and the correlation to women’s grit scores to
their accomplishments across multiple applications (Cross, 2014; Lundman et al., 2007;
Zimmerman & Brogan, 2015).
Speaking to the complex nature of the topic at hand, we examine more closely the
individual qualities that are components of, and closely related to MT in the context of how
gender and age may affect them. Lundman et al. (2007) examined a mixed gender group with
participant ages ranging from 19 to 103 years to determine if resilience scores would be affected
by those demographic markers. While gender had no correlation to levels of resilience, age was
indicated as a predictor of resilience, demonstrating a linear increase in resilience for each
additional year of age, with no limit. This finding indicates that age and accompanying
experience is an accurate predictor of general levels of resilience, with experience playing a
more important role in developing resilience than gender. This result highlights the important
point that, although women are often found to be tougher than their male counterparts, they are
not shown to similarly possess wholesale higher levels of resilience. Since resilience is an
important component of MT, there must be additional elements involved in its cultivation which
would explain the seeming disparity we have uncovered.
Hardship & Failure
Building upon evidence from Fieril et al. (2014), who examined the viewpoints held by
individuals in a temporarily adverse situation, it bears mentioning that the very act of facing and
developing methods and strategies to cope were reported to be at the core of successfully
navigating that situation with a greater sense of well-being and control. It follows that we should
explore that interaction between adversity and a greater ability to cope over the course of time.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
77
DiMenichi and Richmond (2015) studied this relationship when they conducted two
randomized control trials intended to understand the value of failure in predicting future success.
By randomly assigning participants into one of three groups in which subjects either wrote an
essay about a past success, a past failure (experimental groups), or about the most recent movie
they’d seen (control), researchers could set the participants’ frame of mind. After the essay
portion of the research, grit scores were gathered (GRIT-S) and compared among the three
groups with researchers expecting to find that the group who focused on a past success would
correlate to the highest grit scores. However, the opposite was found, leading to the conclusion
that failure is essential to the process, since winning does not require you to try harder or work
longer to attain goals. Armed with this knowledge, researchers conducted a second experiment
almost identical to the first, but which included an additional testing component after the essay
and GRIT-S to gauge participants’ ability to persevere through a boring activity. Results
confirmed the findings of the previous study, showing those who reflected on past failures were
both tougher and demonstrated greater accuracy compared to both the control groups and the
success condition group. The failure group demonstrated slower response rates but fewer errors
indicating that participants learned from past failures to slow down and focus on completing the
task with accuracy instead of rushing through and making avoidable errors. This response
reinforces the role of perseverance as a crucial component of long-haul efforts (Credé et al.,
2016; Lundman et al., 2007).
Reflecting upon the literature discussed thus far, both resilience and persistence are
shown to be integral elements in the construct of MT. As well, instead of a fixed characteristic,
MT has been shown to be a dynamic attribute where it is possible to cultivate greater levels
through focused and consistent effort. These findings certainly support both previous research
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
78
findings and the commonly accepted understanding of MT. However, if this were the extent of
the components which explain MT, every person who dutifully applied themselves to a topic
would both be a subject matter expert as defined by Malcolm Gladwell’s 10,000-hour rule
(Willingham, 2016), and possess high levels of MT. However, as this is clearly not true in all
cases, there must be other facets of MT to explore.
Meaning
Although research indicates that work ethic is not completely redundant to MT (EskreisWinkler et al., 2013) cognitive scientist and author, Willingham (2016) attempts to clarify the
difference, adding some structure to the somewhat ephemeral definition and construct,
suggesting that the notable difference between the two is the ability of grit to assign “direction
and purpose” (p. 28) to work ethic. In this section, we explore the concept of that “purpose”.
In a 2013 study, Kleiman, Adams, Kashdan, and Riskind examined the interaction
between gratitude and grit in college students of both genders and across an age range of 17-50.
By gathering information via online studies one month apart, researchers observed that higher
grit scores (GRIT-S), which indicate perseverance and long-term striving, offers some protection
from suicidal thoughts or actions. Gratitude, which links meaningful actions to increased
meaningfulness in one’s own life, protects against hopelessness, a precursor to suicidal thoughts
or actions. Recognizing the symbiotic relationship between grit and gratitude, researchers
concluded the combination of the two translates into pursuing a goal purposefully, which has a
more powerful impact than either not working consistently towards something meaningful or
pursuing a goal without meaning. This component of purpose speaks to the element of “passion”
put forth by Duckworth et al. in 2007 and aligns well with the concept of “thriving” (Lin et al.,
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
79
2017) and the approach of the Finnish students who felt empowered to chart their own path in
life (Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015) and separates those who are making choices based upon what is
expected of them versus those who pursue those things that light the fire in their soul.
Salmela and Uusiautti (2015) sought to identify and examine themes in the personalities
and attitudes of high-achieving Finnish secondary school graduates. Secondary school
examinations in Finland are the culmination of three to four years of self-guided education
beginning at approximately age 16 and are considered very difficult in the context of global
viewpoints on education. Out of approximately 30,000 students testing annually, only 5%
(between 40-104 persons per year) of the students who attempt any given matriculation exam
will achieve the highest ranking. This study focused on only those students who achieved the
highest ranking on at least six such examinations, which is high achievement indeed. Narrative
analyzing methods of qualitative data produced ten common characteristic strengths that were
further categorized into three key areas shared amongst all the students interviewed: (1) the thirst
of knowledge and passion for learning, (2) fortitude and authenticity, and (3) love. These results
demonstrate that for students to enjoy great success, they must find meaning in their academic
pursuits which warrant greater efforts in terms of time or effort for the subject in question, and
further strengthen the argument for meaningfulness as a component of the grit construct.
Liu, Reed, and Girard (2017) conducted a systematic analysis of literature and
subsequently proposed that resilience is a dynamic trait. They introduced a predictive model
which explained the ebb and flow of the characteristic. The noted flaw of previous research was
that resilience was considered solely attributable to the individual and did not consider influences
across multiple facets of life and their ability to either foster or detract from its development.
The suggested model, called the Multi-System Model of Resilience (MSMR), speaks to the
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
80
varied influences on resilience as: (1) internal or core resilience factors or a person’s individual
baseline, including personal lifestyle choices and health metrics, right down to their DNA, (2)
internal resilience, which is interpersonal in nature, such as family, education or skills and
experience in the workplace, and, (3) external resilience, which is even larger in scale and
includes factors such as your geographic location, groups to which you belong, and your socioeconomic status.
As resilience is not a steady-state characteristic (Lundman et al., 2007; Martin et al.,
2015; Robertson et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2017), and because the influence that any one factor may
exert is constantly changing, our ability to be resilient would logically be affected as the gravity
of each factor expands or diminishes according to the individuals’ concerns at the time.
Unfortunate events are impossible to predict, other than to say it is statistically inevitable that
they will eventually occur. Reflecting upon this more comprehensive model of which variables
factor into our ability to cultivate and maintain resilience provides us with both greater insight
and a sense of empowerment to improve resilience at an individual level.
Teamwork
Examining the expanded framework for resilience estimation (MSMR) proposed by Liu
et al. (2017) provides insight into the role of MT on a larger scale. Activities which include
interactions beyond the individual highlight the mechanics of MT precursors in the context of
teamwork. If the presence of others and the process of interacting with them has appreciable
effects on individual displays of MT, the hypothesis that resilience is dynamic and affected by
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
81
factors outside the self will be shown to be valid and a point to consider in future research as
well as program development.
A very important concept in the domain of teamwork research is the Köhler motivation
gain effect, which is the effect on physical output noted when comparing effort expended when
working alone versus the amount of work performed when participating in a group. This effect
was discovered by Otto Köhler, a psychologist and rowing coach who realized his athletes
worked harder when they worked together (Feltz, Kerr, & Irwin, 2011).
Researchers Feltz, Kerr, and Irwin (2011) examined this concept by engaging participants
in a health game setting using virtual partners to see if someone with a lower expected output
would improve their level of effort to keep up with a superior partner. College-aged students of
both genders performed a series of isometric plank exercises within an exercise game, first
holding planks as individuals and then, in the intervention conditions, engaging with a same-sex
virtual partner who was programmed to always be superior to the participant. Across three
different experimental conditions, coaction – the team works in close proximity but is not codependent, additive – the team averages the efforts of both participants, and conjunctive – the
team is reliant on the weaker member, participants derived a greater level of effort than in the
individual control condition. Because all intervention conditions demonstrated equal evidence
of greater motivation compared to the control condition of doing a plank individually, results
suggest that when introducing a moderate challenge and another participant, the Köhler effect
comes into play and participants display greater perseverance of effort, even though the team
member they work with may be virtual in nature.
Building upon the previous study, Irwin, Scorniaenchi, Kerr, Eisenmann, and Feltz
(2012) conducted an experiment to ascertain whether the Köhler effect would have similar
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
82
effects on participants performing aerobic exercise with superior virtual partners. Participant
motivation levels were measurable in terms of length of effort during aerobic exercise, where
they exercised on a stationary bike at 65% of heart rate reserve on six separate days. This study
tested only females using two intervention conditions: a coactive condition or a conjunctive
condition. The control group was assigned to an individual condition. It was noted that the
conjunctive condition participants exercised significantly longer (M = 21.89 min, SD = + 10.08
min) than those in either the coactive (M = 19.77 min, SD = + 9.00 min) or individual (M = 10.6
min, SD = + 5.84 min) conditions. Therefore, exercising with a virtually-present partner can
improve performance in terms of persistence of effort in aerobic activity as well as strength.
To demonstrate this mechanism in action with live, in-person teamwork, Osborn, Irwin,
Skogsburg, and Feltz (2012) investigated the Köhler effect in terms of how motivational levels
are affected by the teamwork aspect of sports participation. Although Köhler motivation gains
have been documented in additive and coactive tasks, previous findings suggest that conjunctive
group tasks, performed with moderately superior partners, will result in the largest motivation
gain for the weakest performing group member, with less improvement shown for the superiorly
skilled individuals. In the first study, 68 college-aged swimming athletes (44 women, 24 men)
had their performance data on preliminary and final swim times recorded. The second study
observed 156 high school-aged track and field athletes (87 boys and 69 girls), competing in track
meets in the State of Washington, made up of 52 teams of three. In both cases, the athletes
participated in group training sessions with at least one superior athlete and one athlete with
lower capabilities. In all cases, the least-capable athlete in the group gained the most
performance improvement over the course of the training, which is directly attributable to the
Köhler motivation gain effect. This finding indicates that the Köhler effect is demonstrated over
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
83
a breadth of various activities and is not limited by the nature of activity, the age of the
participants, or by the type of the superior training partner or team mate.
One ancillary finding of these studies is that women display greater initiative during
conjunctive tasks than men. This result may be explained by the greater emphasis that women
place on the importance of teamwork and relationship investment when working in groups than
men, who are more affected by social comparisons, such as learning of a superior competitor in
the workplace or in a sporting situation (Feltz et al., 2011; Irwin et al., 2012; Osborn et al.,
2012). Combined, the results also indicate that working with someone else who is relying on
you in some capacity increases the ability of an individual to persevere through a difficult
situation and increase their total work output, thus validating the earlier suggestion that resilience
as a trait is also changeable and influenced by factors outside one’s own internal mechanisms
(Liu et al., 2017). As this has been shown to be true, we may now theorize that teamwork
provides opportunities to improve MT construct metrics, and by association, assist in the
development of MT itself.
Caveats of MT
Lack of Support
Though the benefits of MT are multiple and varied, it is wise to examine all facets of the
construct to fully understand its mechanisms. In a 2014 article, author Zakrzewski addressed
what she referred to as the “dark side of grit” and The Dark Triad is a term which refers to
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
84
Machiavellianism, narcissism and psychopathology, all which may also be linked to high MT.
Although MT is typically seen as a pro-social characteristic (Lin et al., 2017) and the underlying
components may be linked to self-discipline and self-control in students and athletes (Brand et
al., 2015b; Meriac et al., 2015; Perlis, 2013; Willingham, 2016), if there is no additional
consideration given to the emotions and wishes of an individual when choosing areas of
academic focus, adding it to curriculum or grading on it may have harmful effects on the
development of a child. Willingham (2016) mentions that forcing a child into the maladaptive
application towards a topic which holds no interest or meaning for them can elicit fear and anger
or provoke undesirable reactionary behaviors. However, without receiving the compassionate
guidance required to recognize, understand and re-focus those emotions towards a positive end,
negative coping mechanisms may be developed, inhibiting a child’s ability to correctly process
and handle unpleasant emotions and situations as they enter adulthood (Zakrzewski, 2014).
This research clearly points to the critical need to identify and support the emotions
underlying displays of academically rebellious behavior in children in order to facilitate proper
attitudes and approaches to those topics which truly pique their interest. However, there
currently exists a systemic lack of methodological training among educators to facilitate the
process of children identifying and selecting their favorite activities and topics. In a recent
interview, growth mindset researcher Carol Dweck stated, “…as educators, it is our
responsibility to create a context in which a growth mindset can flourish.” (Gross-Loh, 2016,
para. 15). This point was supported by author Betsy Ng (2018) who articulated the neurological
evidence which demonstrates that nurturing autodidactic pursuits empowers children to make
appropriate self-directed educational decisions and provides a springboard for increased intrinsic
motivation. By supporting that essential fundament, educators avoid forcing subject matter onto
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
85
students who are capable of great volumes of work but may suffer from lack of interest
throughout the learning process due to a dearth of emotional support or guidance on the part of
the educator. This point is supported by the Multi-System Model of Resilience (Liu et al., 2017)
which articulates the various factors which effect an individual’s level resilience, highlighting its
variable nature, and can affect a child’s ability to enthusiastically pursue greater knowledge.
Perfectionism
Related to the potential for developing dysfunctional coping mechanisms is the
propensity for perfectionist behavior in children. Perfectionism is a learned trait typically taken
on in childhood due to dysfunctional approaches and extreme pressure from influential authority
figures such as parents, teachers or coaches and may lead to anxiety, unrealistic or unattainable
expectations and a limited understanding of one’s own ability to revise goals or influence
outcomes in a positive manner (Brand, Kirov, Kalak, Gerber, Pühse, Lemola et al., 2015b).
Although striving for excellence is a lofty ideal, when the notion that anything less than perfect
is unacceptable, expectations of self cannot possibly be achieved through realistic effort, that
ideal becomes a self-imposed limitation and a barrier to self-acceptance and happiness.
Flett and Hewitt (2014) conducted a systematic analysis of qualitative studies to
understand perfectionism and best address its negative ideations among children and adolescents.
Their study explored five types of “maladaptive” perfectionists: (1) the driven “Academic
Achiever,” who must achieve 110%, (2) the “Risk Evader,” with the all-or-nothing approach
who lacks the confidence to try new things, (3) the “Aggravated Accuracy Assessor,” who must
achieve exactness and is fixated on “re-do’s”, (4) the “Procrastinating Perfectionist,” paralyzed
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
86
by fears and self-doubts that impair the ability to start or finish work, and (5) the “Controlling
Image Manager,” who wants to be perfect and be regarded as perfect (p. 900).
Lin et al. (2017) cited the work of Crust and Swann (2013) and Madrigal et al. (2013) to
reinforce the finding that high MT does not signal over-ambition or over-reaching. Rather, high
MT supports realistic yet flexible goal-setting and repeated achievement of progressively
challenging objectives. While those with high MT set large goals and have high ambitions,
perfectionists tend to set goals which are unrealistic or not attainable without significant or
unjustified risks. Flett and Hewitt (2014) concluded that fixed mindsets in young children are
barriers to taking the risks required to gain skills and improve knowledge (Gross-Loh, 2016).
Research by Schroder et al. (2014) found evidence that fixed mindsets inhibit improvement at a
task because the expectation exists that no action will make a difference to an unchangeable
situation and no further work is done to alter the outcome.
Further exploration into the neural reactions of children to errors in an educational setting
found that what transpired immediately following an error determined future success in
subsequent activities (Schroder, Fisher, Lin, Lo, Danovitch, & Moser, 2017). Children with
fixed mindsets about their abilities diverted their attention away from the failure, engaged in selfdeprecating statements about their lack of control and registered different patterns of brain
activity than children who expected that they could learn and do better the next time and paid
even closer attention to the explanation of the correct answer (Schroder et al., 2017). Ng (2018)
points to evidence that intrinsic motivation (versus external rewards) produce brain activity
which correlates to “a sense of agency” (p. 6), or the feeling that a person may control their own
outcomes by adapting their behavior. This evidence shows a clear link between the perspective
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
87
one holds about themselves and the varying patterns of brain activity produced by those thoughts
and predicts the participants’ pursuant behaviors.
Brand et al. (2015b) stated that traits associated with perfectionism “… were significantly
associated with lower scores for Perception and acknowledgement of own emotion, and the
Regulation and control of own emotions” (p. 266). This finding indicates that perfectionists may
not fully recognize or understand their own feelings, nor may they know how to alter their
perception of a situation to revise their response to it. This implication is reinforced by Lin et al.
(2017) who refer to the work of Crust (2009) and Cowden et al. (2014) in examining the
emotional responses of those with high MT. Although MT provides protections against
stressors, emotions are felt just as strongly by high MT individuals as in those with lower MT.
The only difference is the understanding that they have sufficient psychological resources to
cope with the source of such strong emotion. Because perfectionists often engage in selfdeprecation, misperceptions may exist in the perfectionist’s understanding of the terms selfcontrol or emotional regulation with a mistaken belief that they prescribe “stuffing” or denying
their feelings. By employing a technique called cognitive re-appraisal, a perfectionist may make
the acknowledgement that self-compassion is warranted, engage in an objective examination of
the source of negativity, and revise their initially elicited emotional response to one which is
more conducive to progress (Brand et al., 2015b).
Flett and Hewitt (2014) concluded that there are multiple types of perfectionist
viewpoints and emphasized that the potential negative ramifications of perfectionism including
anxiety, depression, self-harm and suicide must all be addressed proactively using both
appropriate goal-setting and self-compassion techniques to integrate the dichotomous nature of
the perfectionist. Encouraging progress over perfection and highlighting mistakes as a crucial
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
88
and desired part of the learning process facilitates the development of resilience required for
goal-oriented yet emotionally vulnerable individuals to exude more confidence in the pursuit of
their goals. These sentiments are echoed by Perlis (2013) who lists courage, described as facing
one’s fear of failure, and striving for excellence (versus perfection) as two major indicators of
resilient behavior. These behaviors allow for failure and imperfect results but still align with
progress, achievement and the desired successful outcomes.
To encourage this mindful transition, Dennis and Vander Wal (2010) developed the
Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI) as a measure of the ability to adapt one’s thought patterns
away from fixation on a single definition of success towards a less rigid viewpoint which
accommodates varied avenues towards stated goals and intentions. Because cognitive flexibility
(CF) is the ability to adapt one’s perspective and revise expectations by challenging fixed
thought patterns (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010) and a dynamic approach to progress has been
shown to align with successfully employing MT (Weinberg et al., 2016), the role and function of
CF in the context of its relationship to MT warrants closer examination.
Growth mindset. This ability to shift perspective, referred to as a growth mindset, is
shown to positively affect outcomes when people believe they can improve their own abilities
and their results in a learning environment (Mangels, Butterfield, Lamb, Good, & Dweck, 2006).
Mangels et al. (2006) showed a measurable difference in neural activity between students who
perceived intellectual qualities to be unchangeable versus those who expected to improve, with
much greater frontotemporal brain activation shown in those who simply believed they were
capable of improvement. In a review of the research comparing neural activity with motivation
and growth mindset, Ng (2018) found that the adaptive behaviors demonstrated by dynamic
individuals are linked to dopamine, the brain chemical associated with a feeling of reward. The
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
89
derived conclusion indicates that those who perceive personal growth as a possible outcome are
more willing to both make and examine their mistakes. Because they approach learning as a
process and not a fixed point of failure or success, they bounce back from failure better and
achieve more in comparison to those who shun failure and do not benefit from that introspection.
Studying applications of growth mindset beyond the context of education and intelligence
reveals similar findings. In individuals with anxiety, holding a fixed mindset about perceived
levels of anxiety evidences more negative coping behaviors such as self-harm, drug abuse and
depressive symptoms and feeling less capable of change than those who adopted a growth
mindset instead (Schroder, Yalch, Dawood, Callahan, Donnellan, & Moser, 2017). These
findings support the previous conclusions that employing a growth mindset offers protections
against negative ramifications of stressful life events and may encourage development of MT.
In the context of well-being, those with higher MT display “harmonious passion” for a
subject, which is well-adjusted desire to achieve goals over time and through continued effort
and contrasts with “obsession”, which is a maladaptive need to achieve unrealistic outcomes and
is driven by the fear of failure (Gucciardi et al., 2015b, as cited in Lin et al., 2017). Maladaptive
perfectionism is related to many negative outcomes, such as anxiety, depressive symptoms,
insomnia and non-achievement (Brand et al, 2015b; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Lin et al., 2017), but it
is the underlying construct and function of the negative and counterproductive behavior patterns
which set us up for harm and, ironically, failure. Comparatively, higher levels of MT are linked
to higher resilience, lower overall levels of stress and the mitigation of anxiety and depressive
symptoms when dealing with stressful situations (Lin et al., 2017). Because sleep quality is
better in those with high MT and those who report insomnia frequently also report the anxiety
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
90
and depressive symptoms common to perfectionists (Brand et al., 2015b), there is a clear link
between higher MT and constructive stress coping behaviors.
Because Flett and Hewitt (2014) demonstrated that the pursuit of perfection is associated
with both stress and suicidal ideations and that growth mindsets and MT have been shown to
provide protection against those harmful ramifications of perfectionism (Brand et al, 2015b;
Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Lin et al., 2017; Schroder et al., 2016), we
must conclude that pursuing perfection is negatively correlated to MT and should be avoided
when attempting to leverage it to its highest efficacy. We may also further conclude that fixed
mindsets, which are the cause of maladaptive perfectionism, are also contra-indicated in the
pursuit of cultivating MT, but that maintaining a growth mindset will assist in developing MT.
Costs of Perseverance
Another consideration regarding outcomes of employing MT is that perseverance may
require trade-offs, ranging from monetary to social to time-related. Lucas, Gratch, Cheng, and
Marsella (2015) studied those trade-offs in monetary terms by investigating how some
individuals might incur some costs by not giving up when others would. Researchers postulated
that tougher individuals would continue to seek a solution on a difficult task when others might
have already given up and gone on to the next task.
Three related studies conducted by Lucas et al. (2015) examined the costs of
perseverance. In all cases, participants took the Short Grit Scale (GRIT-S) then were given tasks
designed to test their propensity to either give up or persevere. The first group was given 37
anagrams to solve within a 20-minute time frame. Among those 37 puzzles, 21 anagrams were
considered difficult for college-age individuals, while 16 were unsolvable red herrings. In the
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
91
second study, participants were placed in scenarios of playing a game that was based on mouse
clicks and given rigged feedback about their status in the game to simulate a situation in which
they were losing to see how grit affected their level and persistence of effort. In the third study,
participants engaged in a MouseWars game that included math problems and offered participants
multiple options to quit the game.
In all three studies, researchers noted tougher participants were found to be less willing to
give up when they encountered scenarios engineered to ensure there was an element of failure,
even though they were likely to incur a cost (time-based, monetary, etc.) for their persistence.
Further, tougher participants were more willing to risk failing to complete a task overall because
they choose to persist on individual difficult items such as anagrams without solutions. Another
finding was that when tougher individuals were told that they were losing or failing, instead of
withdrawing, they tried harder (persistence) and for a longer duration (perseverance) than their
less-tough counterparts. Researchers attributed these findings to tough participants possessing a
more positive outlook and higher expectations of success during difficult tasks, which makes
working hard in the face of adversity a better prospect than when one views potential outcomes
as out of reach or the journey more negative or fraught with difficulty than it needs to be (Lucas
et al., 2015). These findings correlate to Adler’s 2015 research about persistence and optimism.
Lucas et al. (2015) concluded from their examination of perseverance and its effects,
which sometimes include monetary or time trade-offs, that perhaps tough individuals should
learn “the value in knowing when to quit” (p. 22), but it may be more valuable, instead, to
understand the divergent opinions surrounding the concept of quitting itself. When value is
assigned to a situation, these authors assume the locus of that value must center on metrics such
as monetary gain, social equity (as examined in terms of the Köhler effect) or other such self-
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
92
serving measures as opposed to those goals which seek to improve the greater good. If the value
to the individual is found to be in the process of participation itself, as noted in the happiness
research by Von Culin, Tsukayama, and Duckworth (2014), tangible rewards will necessarily be
secondary to the experience, a point completely dependent on the level of toughness and intrinsic
motivators of the participants (Ng, 2018), potentially skewing the results of any inquiry not
accounting for this variable.
In a study of 14 high-altitude mountaineers, Crust, Swann, and Allen-Collinson (2014)
interviewed individuals with noteworthy amounts of extreme mountaineering experience and
gathered their feedback about how mental toughness (MT) translated in the context of harsh
conditions, extreme situations, and difficult decisions. Participants were from around the globe,
represented both genders, had an average age of 44.4 years, and each had a minimum of six years
climbing experience in the Himalayas. Freeform interviews allowed researchers to gather
unscripted answers to their inquiries about what the climbers had experienced in respect to MT
and its effect on outcomes during high-altitude climbing. Answers were transcribed verbatim
and then analyzed, with three common themes identified: (1) interactions with risk, (2) decision
making (DM) processes, and (3) dangers of mental toughness (MT). The climbers specifically
noted that risk in these environments was inevitable, and a higher level of MT allowed them to
both anticipate and quickly move to mitigate risks, instead of being caught unaware. When
making decisions, higher MT equated to better decision making because those decisions were
based on the analysis of facts available and divorced from emotional reactions. It was noted that
greater climbing experience led to less impulsive decisions.
In exploring the potential dangers of MT, the interviews revealed the unpleasant nature of
allowing MT to drive illogical, obsessive, or emotionally-based decisions. Dangers mentioned
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
93
were pushing through physical limitations from which one cannot recover, ignoring one’s own
sense and intuition, and losing grip on reality outside of the goal, called the “summit or die”
mindset (Crust et al., 2016, p. 608). These observations highlight that the forced application of
MT for the sake of accomplishing a goal, without consideration for alternative interpretations of
success, can have disastrous outcomes. Comparing the work of Flett and Hewitt (2014) who
examined the fixed mindsets of perfectionists to the negative corporeal ramifications evidenced
via first-hand interviews in Crust et al. (2016) when mountaineers allowed themselves to be “too
tough” (p. 598), one could surmise that maintaining a more flexible outlook on what constitutes
success would assist to avoid these limited mindsets and, instead, support and promote MT.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
94
Conclusion
The examined literature identifies several major component parts of MT including
perseverance, resilience, meaningfulness, and growth mindset, delving into the inter-related and
sometimes inter-dependent nature of those elements. Real-world applications of instances where
MT is advantageous and useful including education, sport performance and in the workplace
were explored. Further, this literature review validates attributes such as age and gender or
situations like teamwork and conditions involving failure which facilitate the cultivation of MT.
In terms of the more specific question of the implications on demonstrated outcomes when
employing MT, we have described how it “works” to recognize potential pitfalls. For example,
perfectionist tendencies, pushing too hard without regard to risk versus gain or the improper
unilateral application of MT in an academic setting. With this knowledge, the next endeavor
would be to most effectively harness the power of MT for best outcomes.
In his 2016 article about the value of toughness in academic achievement, author Dr.
Daniel Willingham stated that those who perceive the tasks they are performing as a step towards
a larger, externally-beneficial goal (i.e. the greater good) were more likely to maintain their
efforts as opposed to those who linked their motivations to goals which could be described as
self-directed but less meaningful overall. In the context of the literature which has been
reviewed, it seems that the deciding factor which determines whether an individual who
encounters adversity in the pursuit of a lofty goal should discontinue their efforts or double down
to overcome temporary obstacles may simply be the meaningfulness of that goal to that
individual. Since the judicious application of MT has demonstrated benefits in long-term
success across varied situations and the elements of hardship and failure have been shown to be
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
95
integral components in the process of developing MT, in the absence of a perilous obstacle to
progress, discontinuation of effort would generally not be an indicated technique supportive of
cultivating greater levels of MT, and, therefore, success in life.
With that said, we must inquire how, in less mentally tough individuals, the prevalent
happenstance of quitting when faced with adverse conditions has become an acceptable response
to handling difficult situations? Pursuant to that question, further inquiry arises; how can we
reverse that trend in those who currently do not already possess high levels of MT and foster a
growth mindset to cultivate it in an organic, natural, balanced way, promoting autonomy and
achievement and increasing the ability to succeed?
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix B
Problem Statement
96
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
97
Problem Statement
In the context of sport performance, mindfulness is routinely encouraged as a method for
athletes to understand that progress is not always linear, and that setbacks can be performanceenhancing learning experiences if they can revise their expectations and persevere through
adversity (Weinberg, Freysinger, Mellano, & Brookhouse, 2016). Mental toughness (MT),
defined as the “…ability to withstand adversity, pressure and stress.” (Stonkus & Royal, 2015, p.
35) is linked to this process of iterative revisions when making goals and defining success.
Cognitive flexibility (CF) is a perspective which allows an individual to circumvent maladaptive
perfectionist tendencies such as fixed mindset where only one definition of success may be
accepted to dynamically work around perceived barriers to success (Dennis & Vander Wal,
2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Perlis, 2013). It would seem, then, that MT and CF are related in the
cultivation of that ability to persevere through failure for eventual accomplishment.
Although the literature links a growth mindset to both increased resilience against
hardship and greater personal achievement, there is currently little research to reference in terms
of facilitating and maintaining such a viewpoint outside of highly specialized forums. Sport
psychologists delve deeply into the topic of building MT and collegiate and professional athletes
have resources to draw upon and frameworks to reference on topics such as rehabilitation,
progressions and return to play after an injury. In contrast, the emphasis in popular everyday
sport and fitness pursuits has historically been placed largely upon the physical nature of activity
versus the psychological benefits imparted. Therefore, reliable information regarding the effects
of mindset upon human physiology has only recently begun to permeate the forum of casual
sports and recreational athletes.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
98
This research explores the link between mental toughness (MT) and cognitive flexibility
(CF), and seeks to elucidate their intertwined nature during the process of facilitating progress
after failure in those who demonstrate a high level of MT. Empowering individuals to take
control of their own outlook and overall satisfaction with life will contribute towards healthier
communities by demonstrating that the power to change for the better lies within the individual.
A potential limitation of this study is that we are drawing a purposive sample from a population
that may be more mentally tough than an average member of the general population, because
these participants have already chosen to test themselves by participating in an obstacle course
race known for a formidable level of challenge. On the other hand, Spartan races are inclusive of
multiple fitness levels, ages, locations and cultures, so the limitations to application noted above
may be somewhat mitigated by the wide range of participants who are attracted to this race
series.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix C
Additional Methods
99
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix C1
Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI)
100
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI)
101
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
102
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix C2
Mental Toughness Scale (MTS)
103
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Inventory of Mental Toughness in Sport (MTS)
104
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix C3
SurveyMonkey Survey
105
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
106
Hello, fellow Spartan racer! My name is Melody Gardner and I’m a doctoral candidate at
California University of PA pursuing the degree of Doctor of Health Science (DHSc) in Health
Science and Exercise Leadership. Thank you for participating in my research exploring the
relationship between cognitive flexibility and mental toughness in obstacle course racers! The
aim of this research is to gain a better understanding of how mental toughness functions so we
can apply that knowledge to help people overcome obstacles in everyday life.
This study has been approved by the Internal Review Board of California University of PA from
XXX to XXX and this survey should take less than 30 minutes to complete. By completing this
study, you acknowledge that you are an adult over the age of 18 who has previously participated
in a Spartan Race. You do not need to have finished a Spartan Race to take part. Further, by
completing the survey, you consent to your answers being used in the analysis of this study.
If you do not meet those criteria or do not wish to participate, please exit the study now. You
may also withdraw from the study at any time for any reason without penalty. Any unfinished
surveys will be discarded, and those partial answers will not be included.
To participate, you will be asked to answer demographic questions (age, state of residence and
gender) and to complete survey questions regarding cognitive flexibility and mental toughness.
You may also choose to provide contact information if you would like to participate in a future
confidential interview about your personal experiences with cognitive flexibility and mental
toughness. No personally identifiable information will be collected through the quantitative
research (surveys) and any names or other identifying information collected during the
qualitative research (interviews) will not be linked to published results. Survey data will only be
reported in aggregate form and all personal interview participant identities shall be kept
confidential, with no identifying information published.
If you have any questions about this survey you may either contact me (Melody Gardner/primary
investigator), at gar90603@calu.edu or my faculty advisor, Dr. Ellen West, at west_e@calu.edu.
By continuing, you are indicating that you are 18 years of age or older and have previously
participated in a Spartan race. You further agree that you have read the above text in its entirety
and voluntarily consent to participate in the survey. Please click Continue to begin the survey.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Demographic Questions
1. What was your age on your last birthday?
(Please use whole numbers.)
2. What state do you live in?
(Choose from drop-down menu)
3. What is the gender you identify most closely with?
Male
Female
Other
Prefer not to answer
4. How many Spartan races have you previously participated in?
(Note: you need not have finished a race to count it in your total.)
1 race
2-5 races
More than 5 races
107
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
108
Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI)
Using the scale provided in the questions below, please indicate the extent to which you agree or
disagree with each statement.
1. I am good at “sizing up” situations.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
2. I have a hard time making decisions when faced with difficult situations.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
3. I consider multiple options before making a decision.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
4. When I encounter difficult situations, I feel like I am losing control.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
109
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
5. I like to look at difficult situations from many different angles.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
6. I seek additional information not immediately available before attributing causes to
behavior.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
110
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
7. When encountering difficult situations, I become so stressed that I cannot think of a
way to resolve the situation.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
8. I try to think about things from another person’s point of view.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
111
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
9. I find it troublesome that there are so many different ways to deal with difficult
situations.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
10. I am good at putting myself in others’ shoes.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
112
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
11. When I encounter difficult situations, I just don’t know what to do.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
12. It is important to look at difficult situations from many angles.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
113
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
13. When in difficult situations, I consider multiple options before deciding how to
behave.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
14. I often look at a situation from different viewpoints.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
114
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
15. I am capable of overcoming the difficulties in life that I face.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
16. I consider all the available facts and information when attributing causes to behavior.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
115
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
17. I feel I have no power to change things in difficult situations.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
18. When I encounter difficult situations, I stop and try to think of several ways to
resolve it.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
116
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
19. I can think of more than one way to resolve a difficult situation I’m confronted with.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
20. I consider multiple options before responding to difficult situations.
7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Somewhat agree
4 - Neutral
3 – Somewhat disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
117
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Mental Toughness Scale (MTS)
Listed below are a series of statements regarding your views on being an athlete. Please think
about how you usually feel and rate each of the statements.
1.
I have an inner arrogance that makes me believe I can achieve anything I set my mind to.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
2.
I know when to celebrate success but also know when to stop and focus on the next
challenge.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
118
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
119
3. I have a killer instinct to capitalize on the moment when I know I can win.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
4. I know what needs to be done in order to achieve a level of performance required to win.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
5.
I have the patience and discipline to control my efforts to achieve each goal along the ladder
of success.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
6. Even though I am tired, I continue to train to achieve my goal.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
7.
I use all aspects of a very difficult training environment to my advantage.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
8. I am able to increase my effort if it is required to win.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
120
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
121
9. When an obstacle is in my way I find a way to overcome it.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
10. I accept, embrace, and even welcome the elements of training that are considered painful.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
11. I have total commitment to my performance goal until every possible opportunity of success
has passed.
5 - Strongly agree
4 - Agree
3 - Neutral
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
122
Qualitative Consent to be Contacted for a Personal Interview
If you would be interested in volunteering to participate in a brief personal interview to be held
in the second phase of this research, please provide your contact info below. This information
will not be linked to your survey results, which may only be published in aggregate form, nor
will it ever be published or sold, as this academic research is completely confidential and will
never be made public.
Name: _________________________________________________________________
Phone Number: __________________________________________________________
E-mail or Facebook profile: _________________________________________________
Thank you for your participation in this research about the link between cognitive flexibility and
mental toughness. Your input is very much appreciated!
All comments, questions, or requests for results may be directed to the primary investigator,
Melody Gardner, at gar9603@calu.edu or the study’s faculty advisor, Dr. Ellen West at
west_e@calu.edu. Study results will be available upon request after January 1, 2019.
Thank you again for participating in this study and best wishes on your adventures in obstacle
course racing and a fit lifestyle!
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix C4
Interview Logistics
123
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
124
Interview Logistics
Semi-structured interviews will have the same starting point but rely upon iterative exploration
to reach the most detailed and poignantly evocative themes of the narrative.
Sample Interview Questions
1. How would you define the concepts of mental toughness and cognitive flexibility?
2. Please provide examples of how you employ the concepts of mental toughness and/or
cognitive flexibility in everyday life?
3. Do you feel that your personal thoughts and practices about mental toughness and cognitive
flexibility set you apart from others, and, if so, in what way(s)?
4a. Do you feel that being mentally tough and/or having cognitive flexibility offers you any
advantages in life?
4b. Can you recount specific times or situations in which this mindset has been detrimental
instead?
5. Can you identify a specific experience in your life which caused you to develop greater
mental toughness? If yes, what do you think contributed to that process?
Interview Techniques
Virtual chat (Facebook Messenger providing textual documentation)
E-mail (paper trail documentation)
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix C5
IRB Approval Form
125
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
IRB Approval Form
126
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix C6
Informed Consent Form
127
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
128
Informed Consent Form
Correlating Cognitive Flexibility and Mental Toughness While
Identifying Patterns in the Mechanics of Change Within Mentally Tough Individuals
Please read this informed consent form thoroughly to be certain you completely understand the
implications of agreeing to participate in this research study.
Introduction
You are invited to participate in a research study of obstacle course racers to understand the
correlation between levels of cognitive flexibility (CF) and mental toughness (MT) with
viewpoints on real-life applications. You are eligible to take part if you are an adult (age 18 or
older) who has previously participated in a Spartan Race. Please note that you need not have
finished a Spartan Race to be eligible to take part in any portion of the study.
This study is being conducted by Melody Gardner, a doctoral student at California University of
Pennsylvania, to complete the dissertation in partial fulfillment of the DHSc degree program.
Purpose
This research study is being undertaken to determine the correlation between cognitive flexibility
(CF) and mental toughness (MT). Through subsequent qualitative analysis of personal
interviews, the study will interpret and draw credible conclusions about the relationship between
maintaining a growth mindset and fostering the process of becoming mentally tough.
Procedures
Quantitative Study
Because you are an adult, participation in electronic survey formats is considered implied
consent. However, you have rights as a participant and you may discontinue
participation in this study at any time without penalty. Foreseeable risks are minimal and
may include feelings of frustration with current fitness levels leading to the potential to
over train in the pursuit of fitness goals. Benefits may include a feeling of
accomplishment in your obstacle course race participation or pride in contributing to a
growing body of research about the psychological aspects of mental toughness.
If you elect to participate in this research, you must agree to two pre-screening questions
confirming that you are age 18 or older and have participated in a Spartan Race in order
to continue.
After responding in the affirmative to both pre-screening questions, eligible participants
will continue to electronically complete the Likert type questionnaires Cognitive
Flexibility Inventory (CFI) (Appendix C1) and the Inventory of Mental Toughness in
Sport (MTS) (Appendix C2), combined into one online survey (Appendix C3) which
should take no more than 20-30 minutes.
Upon completing the CFI and MTS, you will be asked if you consent to be contacted for
future participation in the qualitative portion of the research study. This consent would
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
129
be provided by indicating contact information for the purpose of scheduling a qualitative
interview. This interview would last no longer than one (1) hour.
Qualitative Study
Based upon the results of the quantitative data gathering process, those participants who
have consented to volunteer for further participation will be contacted to ensure they are
still interested and able to participate in the qualitative interviews.
Appointments will be scheduled with the location of the interview to be determined by
physical logistics. All interview methods will allow for recording the interactions
between researcher and participant.
Prior to beginning an interview, you will be provided a copy of this informed consent
form that you must sign. This form is a reminder that you have rights as a participant and
you may discontinue participation in this study at any time without penalty. Foreseeable
risks are minor and may include feelings of frustration with current fitness levels leading
to the potential to over train in the pursuit of fitness goals or cognitive discomfort when
recalling and discussing previous difficult personal circumstances. Benefits may include
a feeling of accomplishment in your obstacle course race participation or pride in
contributing to a growing body of research about the psychological aspects of mental
toughness.
Semi-structured interviews lasting no more than one hour each will be conducted,
employing open-ended questions which pertain to CF and MT, but also extend into
inquiry examining how study participants’ experiences with failure may ultimately
contribute to their long-term success.
Risks and Benefits
No physical interventions are included in this research. Therefore, any risks that accompany
participation in this study are minimal, limited to possible temporary feelings of frustration and
discontentment in participants when reviewing personal health and mindsets or increased
motivation to do more in the context of physical fitness, which, although largely unforeseen, may
lead to overtraining and/or injury.
The benefit of this study is the deeper understanding of the mechanisms that affect the
development of cognitive flexibility and mental toughness. Better insight into this relationship
could provide greater support in their cultivation and more efficiency in application of these
properties, leading to a better ability to withstand hardship and ultimately achieve success,
particularly in physical tasks or during competition.
Costs
There are no tangible costs associated to participation in this research study. For quantitative
participants, there is a 30-minute maximum time investment. For those who also participate in
the qualitative portion of the study, there will be an additional hour maximum, for a total of
approximately 90 minutes total required for participation in this research study.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
130
Remuneration
There will be no remuneration provided for taking part in this research.
Confidentiality
Those participants who choose to take part in the quantitative portion of the study will access the
inventories electronically with information reported in aggregate form, and will see the message,
“No names or identifying information were requested in the course of this survey, and therefore,
all study results will be kept completely anonymous.” as part of the welcome cover letter they
read prior to participating in the quantitative research.
On the page requesting contact information to volunteer to participate in the qualitative research,
all participants will see the message, “No names or identifying information will be linked with
your responses to this survey and all study results will be kept completely confidential.”
In all cases, these quantitative results will be kept in a password-protected digital format housed
on a secure server accessible only to the primary researcher and will not be printed out or
distributed at any time for any purpose. The recordings, transcripts, notes or observations
pursuant to the qualitative interviews will be stored in a locked file cabinet housed in a secure
location, accessible only to the primary researcher and will never be publicly distributed.
Voluntary Participation
Participation in any aspect of this research study is completely voluntary and withdrawal at any
time is permissible without penalty. No negative ramifications will occur due to discontinuation
of participation. Upon the request of the participant to withdraw and not participate further, all
data gathered during the qualitative interviews will be discarded in a confidential manner with
electronic records deleted and any physical notes shredded. Quantitative data cannot be matched
to any particular participant unless the participant chooses to self-identify, but incomplete
surveys may be either disregarded in part or in their entirety. In the event that a participant
refuses to answer the qualitative questions or begins to answer in an inappropriate manner or in
ways which do not further the aims of this research study, they may be dismissed from the study
without indicating that they no longer wish to participate, and their data will be discarded and
destroyed to protect participant privacy and will not be considered within the scope of the study.
Contact Information
The researcher conducting this study is Melody Gardner. Please feel free to ask questions at any
time, either during or after participation or after the study has concluded by contacting:
Melody Gardner, MS, CPT, CAPM
Primary Researcher
Department of Exercise Science and Sport Studies
Gar9603@calu.edu
610-390-1907
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
131
Ellen J. West, EdD, LAT, ATC
Research Advisor
Department of Exercise Science and Sport Studies
west_e@calu.edu
724-938-4356
This study has been approved by the California University Institutional Review Board. Any
questions you may have regarding this study or that you feel have not been sufficiently addressed
or you would prefer not to pose to the research team may be directed to the California University
Institutional Review Board at instreviewboard@calu.edu.
Statement of Consent (Qualitative)
I have read and understood the informed consent form, asking for clarification wherever
necessary, and I consent to participate in this study.
Name of Participant (Please Print)
Signature of Participant
Date
Name of Authorized Researcher Obtaining Informed Consent
Date
This study has been approved by the California University of Pennsylvania Institutional Review
Board. This approval is effective Month/Day/Year and expires Month/Date/Year.
Please keep the copy of this informed consent form which has been provided to you.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
132
Title: Correlating Cognitive Flexibility and Mental Toughness While Elucidating the Connection
Between Failure, Flexibility and Change Within Mentally Tough Individuals
Consent Checklist for Interviews: a Qualitative Sub-study
Thank you for reading the information sheet about the interview sub-study. If you are happy to
participate then please complete and sign the form below. Please initial the boxes below to confirm that
you agree with each statement:
Please Initial
box:
I confirm that I have read and understood the information sheet and have had the opportunity to ask
questions.
I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time without giving
any reason and without there being any negative consequences. In addition, should I not wish to answer
any particular question or questions, I am free to decline.
I understand that my responses will be kept strictly confidential. I understand that my name will not be
linked with the research materials, and will not be identified or identifiable in the report or reports that
result from the research.
I agree for this interview to be recorded. I understand that the audio or text recording of this interview will
be used only for analysis and that extracts from the interview, from which I would not be personally
identified, may be used in any conference presentation, report or journal article developed as a result of
the research. I understand that no other use will be made of the recording without my written permission,
and that no one outside the research team will be allowed access to the original recording.
I agree that my anonymised data will be kept for future research purposes such as publications related to
this study after the completion of the study.
I agree to take part in this interview.
___________________________________________________________________________
Participant Electronic Signature
Date
___________________________________________________________________________
Principal Investigator Electronic Signature
Date
To be counter-signed and dated electronically for telephone or text-based interviews or in the presence of
the participant for face to face interviews
Security and Retention: Once this has been signed by all parties, the participant shall receive a copy of
the signed and dated participant consent form, and the information sheet. A copy of the signed and dated
consent form will be kept in a secure location.
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Appendix C7
Certification of IRB (Citi Forms)
133
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Certification of IRB (Citi Forms)
134
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
135
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
136
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
137
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
138
References
Adler, A., Bliese, P., Csoka, V., Hammermeister, J., Harada, C., Holliday, B., ...& Williams J.
(2015). Mental skills training with basic combat training soldiers: A group-randomized
trial. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(6), 1752–1764.
https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000021
Bartone, P. (1995, July). A short hardiness scale. A paper presented at a meeting of the
American Psychological Society in New York, NY.
Binsch, O., Van Wietmarschen, H., & Buick, F. (2017). Relationships between
cortisol, optimism, and perseverance measured in two military settings.
Military Psychology, 29(2), 99-116. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000146
Brand, S., Kirov, R., Kalak, N., Gerber, M., Pühse, U., Lemola, S., …& Holsboer-Trachsler, E.
(2015b). Perfectionism related to self-reported insomnia severity, but not when controlled
for stress and emotion regulation. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 11, 263–271.
https://doi.org/10.2147/ndt.s74905
Credé, M., Tynan, M., & Harms, P. (2016). Much ado about grit: A meta-analytic
synthesis of the grit literature. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1-20.
Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000102
Cross, T. (2014). The gritty: Grit and non-traditional doctoral student success. Journal of
Educators Online, 11(3). Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1033306.pdf
Crust, L., Swann, C., & Allen-Collinson, J. (2016). The thin line: A phenomenological study of
mental toughness and decision making in elite high-altitude mountaineers. Journal of
Sport & Exercise Psychology, 38, 598 -611. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2016-0109
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
139
Dahl, M. (2016). Don’t believe the hype about grit, pleads the scientist behind the concept.
NYMag.com. Retrieved from http://nymag.com/scienceofus/2016/05/dont-believe-thehype-about-grit-pleads-the-scientist-behind-the-concept.html
Dennis, J., & Vander Wal, J. (2010). The cognitive flexibility inventory: Instrument
development and estimates of reliability and validity. Cognitive Therapy and Research,
34, 241–253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-009-9276-4
DiMenichi, B., & Richmond, L. (2015). Reflecting on past failures leads to increased
perseverance and sustained attention. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 27(2), 180-193.
https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2014.995104
Duckworth, A., Eichstaedt, J., & Ungar, L. (2015). The mechanics of human achievement.
Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9(7), 359–369.
https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12178
Duckworth, A., Peterson, C., Matthew, M., & Kelly, D. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion
for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1087–1101.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087
Duckworth, A., & Quinn, P. (2009). Development and validation of the short grit scale
(Grit-S). Journal of Personality Assessment, 91, 166–174.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890802634290
Duckworth, A., & Yeager, D. (2016). Measurement matters: Assessing personal qualities other
than cognitive ability for educational purposes. Educational Researcher, 4(4), 237–251.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X15584327
Elumaro, A. (2016). Personality, grit and sporting achievement. IOSR Journal of Sports and
Physical Education, 3(1), 14-17. https://doi.org/10.9790/6737-0311417
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
140
Eskreis-Winkler, L., Shulman, E., Beal, S., & Duckworth, A. (2013). The grit effect: Predicting
retention in the military, the workplace, school and marriage. Frontiers in Psychology,
5(36), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00036
Feltz, D., Kerr, N., & Irwin, B. (2011). Buddy up: The Köhler effect applied to health games.
Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 33, 506-526.
https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.33.4.506
Fieril, K., Olsen, M., Glantz, A., & Larsson, M. (2014). Experiences of exercise during
pregnancy among women who perform regular resistance training: A qualitative study.
Physical Therapy, 94(8), 1135-1143. https://doi.org/10.2522/ptj.20120432
Flett, G., & Hewitt, P. (2014). A proposed framework for preventing perfectionism and
promoting resilience and mental health among vulnerable children and adolescents.
Psychology in the Schools, 51(9), 899-912. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21792
Gartner, Inc. (2018). Gartner Magic Quadrant. [Infographic]. Retrieved from
https://www.gartner.com/en/research/methodologies/magic-quadrants-research
Gerber, M., Kalak, N., Lemola, S., Clough, P., Perry, J., Pühse1, U., … & Brand, S. (2012). Are
adolescents with high mental toughness levels more resilient against stress? Stress &
Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress, 29, 164–171.
https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2447
Gross-Loh, C. (2016). How praise became a consolation prize. TheAtlantic.com.
Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2016/12/how-praisebecame-a-consolation-prize/510845/
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
141
Gucciardia, D., Peeling, P., Duckera, K., & Dawson, B. (2016). When the going gets tough:
Mental toughness and its relationship with behavioural perseverance. Journal of Science
and Medicine in Sport, 19, 81–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2014.12.005
Hoyt, L., & Falconi, A. (2015). Puberty and perimenopause: Reproductive transitions and their
implications for women's health. Social Science & Medicine, 132, 103-112.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.03.031
Hurley, W., Denegar, C., & Hertel, J. (2011). Research methods: A framework for evidencebased clinical practice. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Irwin, B., Scorniaenchi, J., Kerr, N., Eisenmann, J., & Feltz, D. (2012). Aerobic exercise is
promoted when individual performance affects the group: A test of the Köhler
motivation gain effect. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 44(2), 151-159.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-012-9367-4
Jones, G., Hanton, S., & Connaughton, D. (2007). A framework of mental toughness in the
world’s best performers. The Sport Psychologist, 21(2), 243–264.
https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.21.2.243
Kidd, M., & Eatough, V. (2017). Yoga, well-being, and transcendence: An interpretative
phenomenological analysis. The Humanistic Psychologist, 45(3), 250-280.
https://doi.org/10.1037/hum0000068
Kleiman, E., Adams, L., Kashdan, T., & Riskind, J. (2013). Gratitude and grit indirectly reduce
risk of suicidal ideations by enhancing meaning in life: Evidence for a mediated
moderation model. Journal of Research in Personality, 47, 539–546.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2013.04.007
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
142
Li, M., & Yang, Y. (2016). A cross-cultural study on a resilience–stress path model for college
students. Journal of Counseling & Development, 94, 319-332.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12088
Lin, Y., Mutz, J., Clough, P., & Papageorgiou, K. (2017). Mental toughness and individual
differences in learning, educational and work performance, psychological well-being,
and personality: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1-15.
Liu, J., Reed, M., & Girard, T. (2017). Advancing resilience: An integrative, multi-system
model of resilience. Personality and Individual Differences, 111, 111-118.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.02.007
Lucas, G., Gratch, J., Cheng, L., & Marsella, S. (2015). When the going gets tough: Grit
predicts costly perseverance. Journal of Research in Personality, 59, 15–22.
https://doi.org//10.1016/j.jrp.2015.08.004
Lundman, B., Strandberg, G., Eisemann, M., Gustafson, Y., & Brulin, C. (2007). Psychometric
properties of the Swedish version of the resilience scale. The Scandinavian Journal of
Caring Sciences, 21, 229–237. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6712.2007.00461.x
Madrigal, L., Hamill, S., & Gill, D. (2013). Mind over matter: The development of the Mental
Toughness Scale (MTS). The Sport Psychologist, 27(1), 62-77.
https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.27.1.62
Mangels, J., Butterfield, B., Lamb, J., Good, C., & Dweck, C. (2006). Why do beliefs about
intelligence influence learning success? A social cognitive neuroscience model.
Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 1(2), 75–86.
https://dpi.org/10.1093/scan/nsl013
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
143
Martin, J., Byrd, B., Lewis Watts, M., & Dent, M. (2015). Gritty, hardy, and resilient:
Predictors of sport engagement and life satisfaction in wheelchair basketball players.
Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 9, 345-359.
https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2015-0008
Meriac, J., Slifka, J., & LaBat, L. (2015). Work ethic and grit: An examination of empirical
redundancy. Personality and Individual Differences, 86, 401–405.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.009
Ng, B. (2018). The neuroscience of growth mindset and intrinsic motivation.
Brain Science, 8, 20. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8020020
Osborn, K., Irwin, B., Skogsburg, N., & Feltz, D. (2012). The Köhler effect: Motivation gains
and losses in real sports groups. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 1-12.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026887
Perlis, M. (2013). 5 characteristics of grit - how many do you have? Forbes.com.
Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/margaretperlis/2013/10/29/5characteristics
ofgritwhatitiswhyouneeditanddoyouhaveit/#378c201f764b
Pietkiewicz, I., & Smith, J. (2014). A practical guide to using interpretative phenomenological
analysis in qualitative research psychology. Psychological Journal, 18(2), 361-369.
https://doi.org/10.14691/CPPJ.20.1.7 (Original work published 2012)
Reed, J. (2015). A survey of grit and exercise behavior. Journal of Sport Behavior, 37(4), 390406. Retrieved from http://proxycalu.klnpa.org/login?qurl=http%3a%2f%2fsearch.ebscohost.com%2flogin.aspx%3fdirect
%3dtrue%26db%3dccm%26AN%3d107837023%26site%3deds-live%26scope%3dsite
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
144
Robertson, I., Cooper, C., Sarkar, M., & Curran, T. (2015). Resilience training in the
workplace from 2003 to 2014: A systematic review. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, 88, 533–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12120
Salmela, M., & Uusiautti, S. (2015). A positive psychological viewpoint for success at school –
10 characteristic strengths of the Finnish high-achieving students. High Ability Studies,
26(1), 117–137. https://doi.org/10.1080/13598139.2015.1019607
Schroder, H., Fisher, M., Lin, Y., Lo, S., Danovitch, J., & Moser, J. (2017).
Neural evidence for enhanced attention to mistakes among school-aged children with a
growth mindset. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 24, 42–50.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2017.01.004
Schroder, H., Yalch, M., Dawood, S., Callahan, C., Donnellan, M., & Moser, J. (2017).
Growth mindset of anxiety buffers the link between stressful life events and
psychological distress and coping strategies. Personality and Individual Differences,
110, 23–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.01.016
Schroder, H., Moran, T., Donnellan, M., & Moser. J. (2014). Mindset induction effects on
cognitive control: A neurobehavioral investigation. Biological Psychology, 103, 27–37.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2014.08.004
Stephens, R., Atkins, J., & Kingston, A. (2009). Swearing as a response to pain. NeuroReport,
20(12), 1056–1060. Doi: 10.1097/WNR.0b013e32832e64b1
Stephens, R., & Umland, C. (2011). Swearing as a response to pain—Effect of daily swearing
frequency. The Journal of Pain, 12(12), 1274-1281.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2011.09.004
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
145
Stephens, R., Spierer, D., & Katehis, E. (2018). Effect of swearing on strength and power
performance. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, (35), 111-117.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.11.014
Stonkus, M. (2011). The development and validation of the Inventory of Mental Toughness
Factors in Sport (IMTF-S) (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations
& Theses (Publication number 3463253).
Stonkus, M., & Royal, K. (2015). Further validation of the inventory of mental toughness
factors in sport (IMTF-S). International Journal of Psychological Studies, 7(3), 35-45.
https://doi.org/10.5539/ijps.v7n3p35
Silvia, P., Eddington, K., Beaty, R., Nusbaum, E., & Kwapil, T. (2013). Gritty people try
harder: Grit and effort-related cardiac autonomic activity during an active coping
challenge. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 88, 200–205.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2013.04.007
U.S. National Library of Medicine. (October 16, 2018). What is DNA? [Infographic].
Retrieved from https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/basics/dna
Von Culin, K., Tsukayama, E., & Duckworth, A. (2014). Unpacking grit: Motivational
correlates of perseverance and passion for long-term goals. The Journal of Positive
Psychology: Dedicated to furthering research and promoting good practice, 9(4), 1-7.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.898320
Xie, Y., Peng, L., Zuo, X., & Li., M. (2016). The psychometric evaluation of the ConnorDavidson resilience scale using a Chinese military sample. PLoS ONE 11(2): e0148843.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0148843
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
Weinberg, R., Freysinger, V., Mellano, K., & Brookhouse, E. (2016). Building mental
toughness: Perceptions of sport psychologists. The Sport Psychologist, 30, 231 -241.
https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2015-0090
Willingham, D. (2016). Ask the cognitive scientist: “Grit” is trendy, but can it be taught?
American Educator, 28-32 & 44. Retrieved from
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1104456.pdf
Zakrzewski, V. (2014.) What’s wrong with grit? Greater Good.com. Retrieved from
http://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/whats_wrong_with_grit
Zimmerman, E., & Brogan, L. (2015). Grit and law education. Pace Law Review, 36(1),
112-157. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.pace.edu/plr/vol36/iss1/4
146
CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH
147
Supporting Materials – Preliminary Study Invitation Letter
Hello fellow Doctoral candidate,
Thank you for being a part of the preliminary study for my doctoral dissertation. The objective of this
study is to explore the relationship between cognitive flexibility and mental toughness. In order to ensure
that the participants in this study understand the survey as it is currently designed, I would ask for you to
participate and provide critical feedback to improve the experience.
Due to your current affiliation with the Doctoral program and ability to provide crucial insight into the
process from a participant perspective, I would appreciate your participation in this preliminary version of
the study. The feedback you provide about this survey is valued and important for the success of this
study, with revisions to be made in reference to the information obtained from this preliminary study.
Below, you will find the link to SurveyMonkey where the survey, including the Cognitive Flexibility
Inventory (CFI) and Mental Toughness Scale (MTS) will be located. Clicking on the link will
automatically open the survey and from there you may begin.
Upon completing the survey, please inform me of the following items:
1.
The time it took to complete the survey
2.
Questions (outside of instrumentation) suggested to add or remove
3.
Grammatical corrections required
4.
Clarity of the questions asked
5.
General feedback regarding improvements or recommendations
In order to move forward with this research, your completion of this survey and feedback within the next
week would be greatly appreciated. Please contact me if you have any questions at gar9603@calu.edu.
Thank you for taking the time to participate as a member of this panel of experts. Your contribution is
greatly appreciated!
(link to survey)
Have a great day,
Melody Gardner