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THE PREVALENCE OF EATING DISORDERS AMONG FEMALE
COLLEGIATE EQUESTRIAN ATHLETES
A THESIS
Submitted to the Faculty of the School of Graduate Studies and
Research
of
California University of Pennsylvania in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science
By
Alexandra Marie Houck
Research Advisor, Dr. Carol Biddington
California, Pennsylvania
2009
ii
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are so many people who have helped me this year
and through-out my life that deserve my recognition and
gratitude.
First, I would like to thank everyone who goes
unmentioned here as there are so many people who have
guided and changed my path in life for the better that it
is impossible to name them all.
As always, my whole family has always been a strong
guiding light in my life and without them I would not have
ever had the confidence or drive to even get my Masters
degree.
Being apart from them this year has been one of
the most difficult challenges of my life and thanks to
their constant encouragement, I now have the strength and
confidence to make it on my own no matter how far or near I
am to them.
My family was also the beginning of my
obsession with horseback riding; they sacrificed countless
hours of going to horse shows, riding lessons, and rodeos
in order to strengthen me as an equestrian and make me
happy.
Little did they know that they were helping me to
build a sound foundation on which I would base this thesis
study off of.
All of the riding coaches that I had through-out my
life (Linda, Andrea, and the endless fountain of knowledge
iv
and patience who is Holly Gilmore) helped to feed my
obsession with horses and give it a purpose.
They also
taught me many important life lessons that have helped lead
me to where I am today and for that I am forever thankful.
I would also like to thank my previous professors and
accredited certified instructors that I had through my
undergraduate career.
Without them I would not be half the
athletic trainer I am today, nor would I be nearly as
passionate about my profession.
Also, if it weren’t for
them I would have never ended up at Cal to get my Masters
degree in the first place.
To all of the friends that I have made in this past
year…I would like to thank you all for all the good times
and memories that I now have thanks to you.
I would
especially like to thank my classmates for inspiring me to
explore the topic that I chose for my thesis.
More
importantly I would like to thank Dr. Carol Biddington. You
once said to me “You will probably hate me by the end of
this year because I push you so hard,” but believe me Carol
I most definitely do not.
Without your constant guidance
and encouragement I would have probably rushed to finish my
thesis instead of being comfortably happy to have finished
v
with time to spare.
I must also thank my committee
members, Dr. Margaret Marcinek and Ellen West.
I would also like to thank all of the coaches, staff,
and athletes at McGuffey High School.
You all made what
could have been a very scary experience of my first year as
a practicing certified athletic trainer very delightful and
encouraging.
You have given more than you will ever know.
Without you all I would have never met that man who I
believe to be the love of my life.
Jed, I love you and
without you always telling me to work on my thesis I
probably would have procrastinated until the end.
Lastly, but most importantly, I would like to thank
the equestrian athletes, coaches, and board of the
Intercollegiate Horse Show Association.
Without your
involvement in this study, there would not have been a
study at all.
I hope the results of this thesis only help
to improve the sport of horseback riding and make it more
safe and enjoyable for everyone.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
SIGNATURE PAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iv
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vii
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
METHODS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
Research Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
Subjects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
Procedures
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
Hypotheses
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
Data Analysis
RESULTS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
Demographic Data .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
Hypotheses Testing .
12
. . . . . . . . . . .
15
Additional Findings . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
vii
DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discussion of Results .
23
. . . . . . . . . .
23
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
REFERENCES
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
APPENDICES
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
A. Review of the Literature . . . . . . . . . .
37
Equestrian Sports . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
Conclusions .
Recommendations
Intercollegiate Horse Show Association
. .
39
. . . . . .
40
Disordered Eating . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
Types of Disordered Eating . . . . . . .
42
Causes of Disordered Eating . . . . . . .
48
Menstrual Irregularities . . . . . . . . .
52
Types of Menstrual Irregularities . . . .
52
Causes of Menstrual Irregularities . . . .
55
Riding for Form and Function
Summary
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
B. The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
viii
Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . .
61
Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . .
62
Basic Assumptions
. . . . . . . . . . .
65
Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . .
65
Significance of the Study
. . . . . . . .
66
. . . . . . . . . . . .
67
C. Additional Methods
Eating Behaviors and
Demographics Questionnaire (C1) . . . . . .
68
Institutional Review Board(C2)
. . . . . .
74
. . . . . . .
81
Cover Letter Sent to Participants(C4) . . . .
83
Email Sent to IHSA Board(C3)
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
1
Characteristics of Participants . . . . . .
12
2
Participants’ Class Rank . . . . . . . . .
12
3
Participants’ Oral Contraceptives
Usage
4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
Participants’ Responses for
Menstrual Regulation
. . . . . . . . . .
13
5
Participants’ Main Event . . . . . . . . .
13
6
Participants’ Responses for
Eating Binges
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
7
Participants’ Responses for Vomiting . . . .
14
8
Participants’ Responses for Weight Control . .
14
9
Participants’ Eating Disorder Treatment . . .
15
10
Eating Disorder Issues . . . . . . . . . .
15
11
Pearson-Product Moment Correlation
Between The Equestrians Age and
Total Score . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
16
A One-Way ANOVA for Eating Disorders
among Riding Events . . . . . . . . . . .
17
x
13
Pearson-Product Moment Correlation
between The Equestrians BMI Scores
and Total Score
14
. . . . . . . . . . . .
18
T Test Comparison between
Binge Eating Responses for
the EAT-26 Score . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
19
T Test Comparison between
Weight Control Substance Use
(WCSU) for the EAT-26. . . . . . . . . . .
16
20
T Test Comparison of Responses
for the Eating Disorder Issues
for EAT-26. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
22
Coaches’ Ratings of the Seriousness
of Eating/Dieting Behaviors for the
Athlete’s Health and Performance . . . . . .
51
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1
2
Binge Eating Responses for EAT-26
Page
. . . . .
19
Substance Use Responses for EAT-26 . . . . .
20
3
Eating Disorder Issues for EAT-26
. . . . .
21
4
Proper Riding Position . . . . . . . . . .
41
1
INTRODUCTION
For years females have been participating in athletics
for both leisure and competition.
There is no limit to the
type of sports in which women may participate.
From field
hockey to softball, from motor bike racing to track, women
can do it all.
But one sport that is often overlooked when
discussing female participants in sports is horseback
riding (or equestrian sports).
While equestrian sports have been in existence for
years, and have continued to grow rapidly, the amount of
research on equestrians is sparse.
The few studies found
by the researcher on equestrian sports mainly examined the
different types of injuries that could be sustained by
horseback riding.
There is little research that pertains
to potential psychological disorders of equestrians and the
physiological effect.
Female equestrians are at the same, if not greater,
risk of sustaining injuries as athletes in other sports. It
could even be hypothesized that equestrians are at a higher
risk of injury since they are dealing with an animal that
can at times be unpredictable, uncontrollable, and
dangerous.
However, it has yet to be determined if female
equestrians have the same risk level or if they are even at
2
risk for developing psychological disorders that affect
other female athletes.
Eating disorders and the possibility of developing
menstrual irregularities are among the major psychological
concerns for female athletes.
It has been demonstrated
that 32% of female collegiate athletes practice pathogenic
weight-control behaviors that could be associated with
eating disorders.1 Furthermore, menstrual irregularities,
like amenorrhea and oligomenorrhea, may be related to
eating disorders.
The potential for female riders to develop eating
disorders as well as associated menstrual irregularities is
present in equestrian sports.
In the past, when horses
were used as beasts of burden instead of a form of
entertainment, it was important for riders to be lean,
flexible, and strong so that they could move and work with
the horse more efficiently.
It is still important for
modern day equestrians to be flexible and strong to be an
efficient rider. While a lean physique may not be necessary
for success in equitation, it is an important aspect in
competition judging. In equestrian sports where riders are
judged on their equitation(or riding position), pressure
can be put on equestrian athletes to have a lean figure.
3
It is often unspoken knowledge that overweight riders are
less likely to experience success in competitions than
riders who have a lean build.
Equestrians can feel the pressure to stay lean through
many different outlets.
Parents, coaches, teammates, and
competition can all put unnecessary pressure upon
equestrians to do whatever it takes to win in their
division.
It is also important to recognize that some
equestrians could feel pressure to be lean from their
coaches.
Equestrians, like other female athletes, may
avoid reporting symptoms of eating disorders for fear that
their coaches would remove them from competition.2
Previous
research has demonstrated that collegiate coaches consider
behaviors that can be associated with eating disorders to
be a serious matter as both the athlete’s health and
performance are placed at risk.3 Thus if equestrian athletes
are aware that their coaches feel strongly against
behaviors associated with eating disorders, they will be
less likely to report them.
Although no evidence could be found in the literature
that listed equestrian sports as being a lean or non-lean
sport, research has been done to evaluate whether or not
the type of sport (lean or non-lean) has an effect on the
4
prevalence of eating disorders.
It has been found that 25%
of lean sport athletes had more disordered eating symptoms
and were at greater risk of developing an eating disorder
compared to 2.9% in non-lean sports.4 Thus, if equestrians
consider themselves to be in a lean sport, they may also be
at a higher risk for developing an eating disorder and
developing menstrual irregularities.
Menstrual irregularities are a result of eating
disorders and are often used as a criterion for detecting
them.5
The commonly observed interval between menstrual
cycles is 26-32 days, which represent a “normal” menstrual
status.5 Therefore, cycles that are either shorter or longer
than the “normal” range indicate eating disorders among
female athletes.5
It has also been reported that athletes
had more significantly long cycles (79%) than non-athletes
(45%).6
This “normal” range is used in determining the
presence or absence of both amenorrhea and
oligomenorrhea.6,7
It has been stated that amenorrhea occurs almost 20
times more frequently in female athletes when compared to
the general population, and it can exist in up to 50% of
female athletes.6 Amenorrhea can also occur in normal weight
females that have a low percentage of body fat.8 Thus,
5
female equestrians are also at risk for developing
menstrual irregularities.
When female equestrians go to the extremes to be lean
in order to be competitive in their sport, they put
themselves at risk.
Whether they knowingly or unknowingly
engage in disordered eating behavior, they must be made
aware of it in order to encourage healthy training habits.
Thus, it is most important for athletic trainers and those
working with female equestrians to realize that these
athletes may be risk for developing eating disorders and
associated menstrual irregularities and help to guide them
in a more appropriate path.
This study will attempt to answer the following
questions: 1)What is the relationship between age and
eating disorders in collegiate female equestrians? 2)What
are the differences between eating disorders and riding
events among female equestrians? 3)What is the relationship
between body mass index and eating disorders among female
equestrians?
6
METHODS
The purpose of this study is to discover whether or
not
there
female
the
is
a
prevalence
collegiate
following
of
equestrians.
subsections:
eating
This
disorders
section
research
will
design,
amongst
include
subjects,
instruments, procedures, hypotheses, and data analysis.
Research Design
A descriptive design was used for this study.
The
independent variables were age, body mass index, and the
type of riding event. The dependent variable was the scores
on the eating disorders survey, the Eating Attitudes Test
(EAT-26), and the results of the demographics survey.
The strengths of this study are that a national survey
was distributed and the instrument used by the researcher
has demonstrated reliability9.
One limitation of the study
is that the population is limited to only female collegiate
equestrians.
Subjects
The number of subjects that were included in this
study was determined by how many surveys were returned from
7
a population of 6500, as long as they met the set criteria.
Subjects (N=127) were female collegiate equestrian
athletes, who competed in six different divisions: 1)
hunter/jumper, 2) equitation, 3) dressage, 4) reining, 5)
western pleasure, and 6) barrel racing/speed events.
The
sampling of this study was done by using all surveys that
were returned from the collegiate female athletes of the
Intercollegiate Horse Show Association (IHSA). Informed
consent was not necessary as it was an electronic survey
and consent was implied by the completion and return of the
survey.
Instrumentation
The instrument that was used for this study was the
Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26), as well as a demographics
section that has additional specific questions. The
specific questions in the demographics portion pertained to
the participant’s length of menarche, their usage of
hormonal contraceptives to regulate menstruation, and the
type of equestrian sport. The combination of the EAT-26,
demographics section, and specific questions was titled the
Eating Behaviors and Demographics Questionnaire (Appendix
C1).
Internal consistency reliability for the score of the
Eating Attitudes Test have ranged between .70 and .88.9
8
Demographics include age, height, weight, and class
rank. The athlete’s length of menarche, their usage of
hormonal contraceptives to regulate menstruation, and the
type of equestrian sport they participated in was analyzed
through specific questions.
Length of menarche was
assessed by asking the participants, “On average, how long
is your normal menstrual cycle (from the start of one
period to the beginning of the next period)?”
Use of
hormonal contraceptives and their use to regulate
menstruation as well as what riding event they participate
in were also asked.
The Eating Attitudes Test included 26 questions with
an optional answer of either “always”, “usually”, “often”,
“sometimes”, rarely”, or “never”.
There are also four
additional questions that asked about 1)binge eating, 2)
self induced vomiting, 3) the use of weight controlling
substances, and 4) past eating disorder treatment.
For all
questions (excluding #25) each of the responses were given
the following value: 3 points for “always”, 2 points for
“usually”, 1 point for “often”, and 0 points for
“sometimes”, “rarely”, and “never”.
For item #25 the
responses were given the following values: 0 points for
“always”, “usually”, and “often”, 1 point for “sometimes”,
9
2 points for “rarely”, and “3 points for “never”.
After
scoring the items the scores were added together.
If the
sum was greater than 20 then the participant was considered
to have an eating disorder issue. Also if the participant
answers “yes” to any of the four additional questions, they
should also be considered to have an eating disorder issue.
Procedures
The California University Institutional Review Board
for Protection of Human Subject Form (Appendix C2) was
completed and approved.
Upon receiving approval for the
study from the Institutional Review Board, an email
(Appendix C3) including a cover letter (Appendix C4) was
sent out to the chairperson of the Intercollegiate Horse
Show Association.
The IHSA chairperson was then notified
by the primary researcher of his/her willingness to
participate in the study.
Once clearance was allowed by
the IHSA, a link to an electronic survey was sent out to
all participants in the IHSA. The participants were also
emailed a copy of the cover letter which described the
study, indicated that they are not required to participate,
confirm that their identities would remain unknown, and
remind them that they have to be at least 18 years old to
10
participate.
All surveys that were completed and returned
to the researcher were then analyzed in the study.
Hypotheses
The level of significance used for testing the
hypothesis was set at an alpha level of .05.
Hypothesis 1: There will be a relationship between age
and eating disorders.
Hypothesis 2: There will be a difference between the
different types of riding events for eating disorders.
Hypothesis 3: There will be a negative relationship
between BMI and eating disorders.
Data Analysis
The level of significance used for testing the
hypothesis was set at an alpha level of .05.
1: A Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used to
determine if there would be a significant relationship
between age and eating disorders.
11
2: An ANOVA was used to determine if there would be a
significant difference between riding events for eating
disorders.
3: A Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used to
determine if there would be a significant negative
relationship between BMI and eating disorders.
12
RESULTS
Demographic Data
The sample consisted of female equestrians from the
Intercollegiate Horse Show Association (n=127). Table 1
depicts the characteristics of the participants from this
study.
Table 1. Characteristics of Participants
Characteristic
Range
Mean ± SD
Age
18-29
20.08 ± 2.01
Height (inches)
60-72
65.30 ± 2.59
Weight (pounds)
100-230
BMI
16.95-33.67
22.33 ± 3.26
Menstrual Cycle
Length (days)
18-70
29.34 ± 5.85
136.15 ± 22.85
Table 2 displays the class rank responses of the
subjects.
Table 2. Participants’ Class Rank
Class Rank
Frequency
Percent
Freshman
37
28.9%
Sophomore
37
28.9%
Junior
26
20.3%
Senior
22
17.2%
5
3.9%
Graduate Student
13
Table 3 displays the oral contraceptive use responses
of the subjects.
Table 3. Participants’ Oral Contraceptives Usage
Oral
Frequency
Percentage
Contraceptive
Use
Yes
65
50.8%
No
62
48.4%
Table 4 displays the oral contraception use for
regulating menstruation.
Table 4. Participants’ Responses for Menstrual Regulation
Menstrual
Frequency
Percentage
Regulation
Yes
34
26.6%
No
32
25.0%
Table 5 displays the main equestrian event responses
of the subjects.
Table 5. Participants’ Main Event
Event
Frequency
Percent
Hunter/ Jumper
60
46.9%
Equitation
42
32.8%
Dressage
8
6.2%
Reining
3
2.4%
13
10.2%
1
0.8%
Western Pleasure
Barrel Racing/
Speed Events
14
Table 6 displays the eating binge responses of the
subjects. The range was between 1 and 20 with a mean score
of 6.52 ± 6.72.
Table 6. Participants’ Responses for Eating Binges
Eating Binges
Frequency
Percentage
Yes
30
23.4%
No
96
75%
Table 7 displays the vomiting (purging) responses of
the subjects.
The range was between 1 and 30 with a mean
score of 5.56 ± 9.46.
Table 7. Participants’ Responses for Vomiting
Vomiting
Frequency
Percentage
Yes
9
7%
No
116
90.6%
Table 8 displays the use of weight control substances
(laxatives, diet pills, or diuretics) responses of the
subjects.
The range was between 1 and 180 with a mean
score of 10.45 ± 39.96.
Table 8. Participants’ Responses for Weight Control
Weight Control
Frequency
Percentage
Substances
Yes
21
16.4%
No
105
82%
15
Table 9 displays the past treatment for eating
disorders history responses of the subjects.
The range was
between 2000 and 2006 with a mean score of 2003 ± 2.45.
Table 9. Participants’ Eating Disorder Treatment
Eating
Frequency
Percentage
Disorder
Treatment
Yes
7
5.5%
No
118
92.2%
Table 10 displays the frequency of participants with
an eating disorder issue based upon their responses.
Table 10. Eating Disorder Issues
Eating
Frequency
Disorder
Issue
Yes
48
No
79
Percentage
37.79%
62.2%
Hypotheses Testing
The level of significance used for testing the
hypotheses was set at an alpha level of .05.
Hypothesis 1: There will be a relationship between age
and eating disorders.
A Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated for
the relationship between the participants’ age and the
16
total scores on the EAT-26 survey. A weak correlation that
was not significant was found (r125= .026, p > .05),
indicating that age is not related to the total scores on
the EAT-26. The results of this analysis are presented
below in Table 11.
Table 11. Pearson-Product Moment Correlation Between The
Equestrians Age and Total Score
Variable
N
r
P
Age &
125
.026
.779
Total Scores
Hypothesis 2: There will be a difference between the
different types of riding events for eating disorders.
The mean scores on the EAT-26 for each equestrian who
participated in one of four events were compared using a
one-way ANOVA.
No significant difference was found (F3,118
= .211, p > .05).
The equestrians’ scores on the survey
did not differ significantly based on event.
Equestrians
who participated in hunter/jumper events had a mean score
of 7.43 ± 8.46. Equestrians who participated in equitation
events had a mean score of 7.43 ± 7.12. Equestrians who
participated in dressage events had a score of 9.25 ±
8.45. Equestrians who participated in western pleasure
17
events had a mean score of 8.83 ± 9.60.
The results of
this analysis are presented below in Table 12.
Table 12. A One-Way ANOVA for Eating Disorders among
Riding Events
Eating
Sum of
Df
MS
F
P
Disorders Squares
Between
Groups
41.98
3
13.99
Within
Groups
7818.19
118
66.26
Total
7860.16
121
.211
.888
Hypothesis 3: There will be a negative relationship
between BMI and eating disorders.
A Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated to
evaluate the existence of a negative relationship between
the participants’ BMI and the total scores on the EAT-26
survey. A weak positive correlation that was significant
was found (r115 = .114, p > .05), indicating that BMI is not
negatively related to the total scores on the EAT-26. The
results of this analysis are presented below in Table 13.
18
Table 13. Pearson-Product Moment Correlation between The
Equestrians BMI Scores and Total Score
Variable
n
r
P
BMI Scores &
115
.114
.225
Total Score
Additional Findings
Several tests were conducted using the total eating
disorder scores and the responses to the last four
questions on the EAT-26 survey in an attempt to discover
additional findings.
An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare
the mean scores of the groups that answered “yes” and “no”
to the question, “Have you gone on eating binges where you
feel that you may not be able to stop?” for their
disordered eating total scores.
A significant difference
was found between the two groups (t114 = -5.29, p < .05).
The mean of the group that answered “no” was significantly
lower (5.68 ± 6.68) than the mean of the group that
answered “yes” (14.08 ± 8.22).
The results of the analysis
are presented below in Table 14 and Figure 1.
19
Table 14. T Test Comparison between Binge Eating Responses
for the EAT-26 Score
Binge
n
M
SD
t
P
Eating
No
91
5.68
6.68
-5.29
Yes
25
14.08
.023
8.22
Figure 1. Binge Eating Responses for EAT-26
Another independent samples t-test was conducted to
compare the mean scores of the groups that answered “yes”
and “no” to the question, “Have you ever used laxatives,
20
diet pills, or diuretics (water pills) to control your
weight or shape?” for their disordered eating total scores.
A significant difference was found between the two groups
(t113 = -5.82, p < .01).
The mean of the group that
answered “no” was significantly lower (5.74 ± 6.22) than
the mean of the group that answered “yes” (15.74 ± 9.49).
The results of this analysis are presented below in Table
15 and Figure 2.
Table 15. T Test Comparison between Weight Control
Substance Use (WCSU)Responses for the EAT-26
WCSU
n
M
SD
t
No
96
5.74
6.22
-5.82
Yes
19
15.74
9.49
P
.001
21
Figure 2. Substance Use Responses for EAT-26
A final independent samples t-test was conducted to
compare the mean scores of the equestrians who had an
eating disorder issue to those who did not, based on their
scores on the EAT-26 survey.
A significant difference was
found between the two groups (t115 = 8.81, p < .001).
The
mean of the group that had an eating disorder issue was
significantly higher (14.05 ± 8.85) than the group that did
22
not have an issue (3.80 ± 3.64).
The results of this
analysis are presented below in Table 16 and Figure 3.
Table 16. T Test Comparison of Responses for the Eating
Disorder Issues for EAT-26
EDI
n
M
SD
t
P
Yes
42
14.05
8.85
8.81
No
75
3.80
3.64
Figure 3. Eating Disorder Issues for EAT-26
.000
23
DISCUSSION
Discussion of Results
The focus of this study was to discover the prevalence
of eating disorders among female collegiate equestrian
athletes.
The researcher evaluated whether or not age,
type of riding event, and BMI had an effect on the
prevalence of eating disorders.
Hypothesis 1 stated that age would be significantly
related to the prevalence of eating disorders.
The
researcher proposed that age would have an effect on the
number of equestrians with eating disorders.
There was no
significant data showing that age was a predictor of eating
disorders.
Even though there is no significance in the data, age
can still be a predictor of important signs of eating
disorders.
In previous research it was determined that
subjects felt that their weight became a problem around the
mean age of 22.2 years.10 Since having weight issues can be
a predictor of eating disorders and 22.2 years old is well
within the range found for the ages of collegiate
equestrians in this study; age should still be considered
when evaluating female equestrians for eating disorders.
24
Hypothesis 2 stated that there would be a difference
between the riding events and eating disorders.
The
researcher proposed that events that put additional
pressure on the equestrian to be lean (equitation,
dressage, and western pleasure) would have a higher
prevalence of eating disorders opposed to other events
(hunter/jumper, reining, and barrel racing/speed events).
Due to the lack of data, reining and barrel racing/speed
events were not included in the analysis.
There was no significant data showing that any one
event would lead to a higher prevalence of eating disorders
than another.
Findings showed that there was only a 1.82
difference in mean scores for the EAT-26 between events.
Although there is no significance in the data, this
researcher still believes that this is an area that should
continue to be evaluated due to the small number of
responses for the survey.
Although there was no significance found; athletic
trainers, coaches, parents, and team mates should be aware
that there may still be pressure to be thin put on
equestrians based on the events that they participate in.
Those working with equestrians should be educated on eating
disorders and their prevalence in other female sports.
25
Attempts should be made to recognize and seek treatment for
those equestrians who may have eating disorders or related
issues.
Hypothesis 3 stated that there would be a negative
relationship between BMI and eating disorders.
The
researcher proposed that as BMI scores got lower the scores
on the EAT-26 would increase and that BMI was a predictor
of eating disorders in among female equestrians.
The
results showed that BMI and eating disorders were not
significantly related.
Although this data does not support the hypothesis
that BMI and eating disorders are related, there has been
previous research that does support this hypothesis.
A
study done by Reinking and Alexander4 showed that 25% of
lean sport athletes had more disordered eating symptoms and
were at greater risk of developing an eating disorder
compared to 2.9% in non-lean sports.
Also, lean sport
athletes are more likely to have lower BMI values.
Thus,
if an athlete were to have a low BMI value, they would be
at a higher risk of developing an eating disorder.
Despite the fact that equestrian sports have yet to be
defined as lean or non-lean, equestrians could still be at
26
risk for developing an eating disorder based on Reinking
and Alexander’s research.
If equestrians consider
themselves to be in a lean sport and have lower BMI values
because of this, they are placing themselves at risk.
More research needs to be conducted to discover
whether or not equestrian sports are considered to be lean
or non-lean.
Until then, athletic trainers, coaches,
parents, and teammates need to be aware that participants
with low BMI values are at risk for developing an eating
disorder.
These participants should be further evaluated
and referred to a physician for treatment.
In addition to hypothesis testing, analysis was also
done on the total eating disorder scores and the responses
to the last four questions on the EAT-26 survey.
First, a
comparison of the mean scores was conducted for the two
groups who answered “no” and “yes”, to the question “Have
you gone on eating binges where you feel that you may not
be able to stop?”, for their total disordered eating
scores.
A significant difference was found between the two
groups and mean of the group that answered “yes” was
significantly higher than that of the group that answered
“no”.
27
These results mean that female collegiate equestrians
who use binge eating for weight control are at risk for
eating disorders.
Professionals who work with collegiate
equestrians should be aware that binge eating is prevalent
among them.
They should thus be vigilant in recognizing
the signs and symptoms of binge eating before it leads to
more serious health issues related to binge eating and
eating disorders.
A second comparison that was conducted was between the
mean scores of the groups that answered “yes” and “no” to
the question, “Have you ever used laxatives, diet pills, or
diuretics (water pills) to control your weight or shape?”
for their disordered eating total scores.
A significant
difference was found between the two groups and the mean of
the group that answered “yes” was significantly higher than
the mean of the group that answered “no”.
These results mean that female collegiate equestrians
are, in some cases, not only using binge eating for weight
control but also substances in attempt to ease their eating
disorder issues.
Both binge eating and the use of
substances for weight control are used as diagnostic
criteria for bulimia nervosa.11 In a study by Johnson et
al12, 1.1% of the female athletes met the diagnostic
28
criteria for bulimia nervosa, 9.2% were diagnosed with sub
clinical bulimia, and 38% could be considered at risk for
developing bulimia.
This study is comparable to Johnson’s
research as 23.4% of participants said that they had used
binge eating and 16.4% had said that they used substances
as a form of weight control.
Professionals who work with collegiate equestrians,
then must also, be aware that the use of substances is
prevalent among them.
Like binge eating, the use of
substances could lead to more serious health issues and
eating disorders.
The results from this study for binge
eating and substance use compare to a study done by Rosen
et al1, who found that 32% of a female collegiate athlete
sample practiced pathogenic weight-control behaviors.
In some cases, respondents who answered “yes” to these
questions also had a score of more than 20 on the EAT-26
survey.
Thus, these participants are not only dealing with
an eating disorder issue, but are also currently performing
eating disorder practices (like binge eating and substance
abuse).
The results from this analysis tell those who work
with female collegiate equestrians that those who are
practicing weight control behaviors are also most likely
dealing with an eating disorder.
Professionals must be
29
educated and work hard to recognize sign and symptoms of
binge eating, substance abuse, and other eating disorder
symptoms in order to prevent additional harm and get
treatment from those who are already suffering.
The final additional analysis that was conducted
compared the mean scores of the equestrians who had an
eating disorder issue to those who did not, based on their
scores on the EAT-26 survey.
A significant difference was
found between the two groups; the mean of the group that
had an eating disorder issue was significantly higher than
the group that did not have an issue.
This analysis showed that 37.79% of the female
collegiate equestrians who participated in this survey are
currently dealing with eating disorder issues.
Of these
equestrians who are dealing with eating disorder issues,
nine answered “yes” to one or more of the four questions at
the end of the EAT-26.
Consequently, putting them at an
even greater risk of developing or even currently having an
eating disorder.
This information correlates to multiple studies that
found that 39.2% of female athletes met diagnostic criteria
for bulimia nervosa (BN), 4.2% of female athletes met
30
diagnostic criteria for anorexia nervosa (AN), and 22.1% of
ballet dancers and 18% of gymnasts had been diagnosed with
eating disorders not otherwise specified (EDNOS).13,14
Although this study did not determine the presence of
eating disorders or distinguish between them, it is still
necessary to note and compare the percentage of eating
disorder issues to the percentage of other female athletes
who have been diagnosed with eating disorders.
A descriptive analysis was also done which found the
average menstrual cycle length among female collegiate
equestrians.
The mean and standard deviation was found to
be 29.34 ± 5.85, which is a “normal” menstrual cycle length
(26-32 days).5 This information does not correspond with the
Williams et al5 study which reported that athletes had more
significantly long cycles (79%) than non-athletes (45%).
Although, it should be noted that of the 65 equestrians
(50.8%) who are using oral contraceptives, 34 (26.0%) of
them are using it for menstrual cycle regulation.
So it is
possible that the mean menstrual cycle length could be
affected by the use of hormonal oral contraceptives for
menstrual regulation.
Further research needs to be
conducted in order to distinguish how much the menstrual
31
cycle length in collegiate female equestrians is affected
by oral contraceptive use.
Conclusions
Based on the results from Table 10 and Figure 3, of
the 127 female collegiate equestrians that were surveyed 48
(37.79%) are dealing with an eating disorder issue.
Despite the small sample size, this information shows that
eating disorder issues and behaviors are present among
female collegiate equestrians.
These results reiterate
previous research that shows the predominance of eating
disorder issues among female collegiate athletes.
The
results also show that despite the lack-of-popularity of
equestrian sports as a varsity collegiate sport,
equestrians still suffer from the same eating disorder
issues as other varsity level collegiate athletes.
It should also be noted that since there was no
difference found between events for the scores on the EAT26, the event that the rider participates in is not a valid
predictor of whether or not the participant is at risk of
having an eating disorder.
Thus, athletic trainers,
coaches, parents, and teammates must not be biased towards
certain events and must treat all equestrians, no matter
32
what event they are in, as if they could develop an eating
disorder.
The demands being put on female equestrians to be lean
combined with a negative body image mentality is driving
female collegiate equestrians towards poor eating habits
and behaviors associated with eating disorders.
These
equestrians continue to get away with practicing unhealthy
weight control behaviors without being treated or even
recognizing that they have a problem.
Recommendations
The results of this study are most definitely
significant to equestrian sports and those who participate
in the sport.
This should lead those who work with
equestrians to be more aware of the prevalence of eating
disorders among female collegiate equestrians.
Coaches
and parents should be educated on the signs, symptoms, and
health issues associated with eating disorders.
Teammates
should also be educated as they often spend more time
together and may notice any eating disorder behaviors
sooner than coaches or parents.
This information is invaluable to athletic trainers
and team physicians who work with female collegiate
33
equestrians as they are the ones who are most likely to
recognize eating disorder symptoms in their athletes.
Professionals must then be made aware of the prevalence of
eating disorder issues among this population and include
eating disorder screenings in their pre-participation
exams.
If equestrians are attending a college that does
not provide athletic trainers for their sport, coaches
should encourage their athletes to get physically cleared
to participate in events by a physician prior to the
beginning of the season.
Perhaps then equestrians who are
suffering from an eating disorder could be recognized and
treated leading to a safer competitive setting.
34
REFERENCES
1.
Rosen LW, McKeag DB, Hough DO, Curley V. Pathogenic
weight control behaviors in female athletes. Physician
Sportsmed. 1986;14:79-86.
2.
Torstveit M, Rosenvinge J, Sundgot-Borgen J. Prevalence
of eating disorders and the predictive power of risk
models in female elite athletes: a controlled study.
Scandinavian J Med Sci Sports. 2008;18:108-118.
3.
Trattner R, Thompson R. NCAA Coaches Survey: The role of
the coach in identifying and managing athletes with
disordered eating. Eating Disorders. 2005;13:447-466.
4.
Reinking M, Alexander L. Prevalence of disordered-eating
behaviors in undergraduate female collegiate athletes
and nonathletes. J Athletic Training. 2005; 40(1):47-51.
5.
Williams N, Leidy H, Flecker K, Galucci A. Food
attitudes in female athletes: Association with menstrual
cycle length. J Sports Science. 2006;24(9):979-986.
6.
Volk E. Female athletes and menstrual irregularities.
Anabolic Pharmacology. 2002. Available at:
http://www.anabolicpharamcology.com. Accessed September
15, 2008.
7.
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2006. Oligomenorrhea.
Available at:
http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/symptoms/menstrual_irregul
arities/book-causes-8e.htm. Accessed October 6, 2008.
8.
Pinheiro A, Thorton L, Plotonicov K, et al. Patterns of
menstrual disturbance in eating disorders. Int J Eat
Disord. 2007;40:424-434.
9.
Burnett K, Doninger G, Enders C. Validity evidence
for eating attitudes test scores in a sample of
female college athletes. Measurement Physical
Education Exercise Science. 2005;9:35-49.
10. McAllister R, Caltabiano M. Self-esteem, body image and
weight in noneating-disordered women. Psychological
Reports. 1994;75:1339-1343.
35
11. Nordqvist C. What is an eating disorder? Types of eating
disorders. 2008. Available at:
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/105102.php.
Accessed October 6, 2008.
12. Johnson C, Powers PS, Dick RW. Athletes and eating
disorders: the natural collegiate athletic association
study. Int J Eat Disord. 1999;26:179-188.
13. Burckes-Miller M, Black D. Male and female college
athletes: Prevalence of anorexia nervosa and bulimia
nervosa. Athletic Training. 1988;23:137-140.
14. Ravaldi C. Body image and eating disorders among nonelite athletes. Eating Disorders Review. 2003;14:8.
36
APPENDICES
37
APPENDIX A
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
38
Review of the Literature
The prevalence of eating disorders and menstrual
irregularities is a topic that has been studied extensively
over the past years, but there is a lack of literature to
be found about the prevalence of these conditions among
equestrian sports participants.
Despite the lack of
literature to be found on eating disorders and menstrual
irregularities in equestrian sports, pressure is put on
these athletes to have a lean and athletic build (in terms
of both form and function)in order to place and win
competitions.
This pressure may put equestrians at risk
for eating disorders.
As important as it is to be lean in
equestrian sports it is more necessary that these athletes
be strong enough to work around and control horses at all
levels and disciplines of competition…a task that is not
easily done if the athlete is underweight or underdeveloped
due to eating disorders.
Recognition of potential eating disorders may help
shed light on this in equestrian sports that often goes
unnoticed or ignored.
The topics that will be discussed in
this literature review include: equestrian sports, eating
disorders, and menstrual irregularities.
A brief summary
will also be included at the end of the literature review.
39
Equestrian Sports
Equestrian sports range from many levels from
amateur to Olympian and include many different events from
fox hunting to barrel racing.
Although equestrian sports
may not be a varsity level sport in many colleges, it is
still a fairly common club sport and has its own collegiate
governing body.
Intercollegiate Horse Show Association
Established in April of 1967, the Intercollegiate
Horse Show Association (IHSA)is the governing body that
collegiate riding teams compete under in the United States.
The goal of the IHSA is to promote competition between
equestrians at all levels regardless of financial status.1
There are 300 member colleges in the IHSA with more than
6500 riders who compete at the regional and national levels
as either an individual or team.
The three major
competitive events are hunter seat equitation, western
horsemanship, and reining.
One of the goals of the IHSA is
to eliminate the costs of owning a horse so teams travel to
surrounding schools and are randomly assigned a horse to
ride.
The riders are not allowed to use their own tack
(saddle and bridle) and are not allowed warm-up time on
their horse, so they are truly judged on their horsemanship
40
skills and riding ability since they generally have never
ridden the horse that they are competing on before.1
Riding for Form and Function
In competitive equestrian sports where the rider is
judged on their equitation (riding form) there is often
pressure put upon them by coaches, peers, and themselves to
be lean.
It is an unspoken but common idea that riders who
are thin are often more likely to place then riders who are
overweight or heavy set since a thin or lean build looks
more ascetically pleasing while riding.
Being lean also
enables the rider to be more flexible and capable of moving
with the horse in order to do certain tasks. But it is also
important for riders to be strong enough to control a
horse, weighting anywhere from 500-2000 lbs, while looking
controlled and organized, and keeping their own body in
proper riding position. The proper riding position enables
the rider to be perfectly balanced on top of the horse and
to move in sync with the animal without putting the horse
off balance.
In order to do this the rider must sit in the
middle of the saddle, with the balls of their feet resting
on the stirrups, their toes pointing forward, and their
heels down.
If the rider were to be seen from the side it
would look like a line could be drawn from the rider’s
41
heels, to their hips, to their shoulders, and through the
center of their head.
It is also important that the rider
keep their head up and looking forward towards where they
are traveling, and that they keep their back straight.2
Figure 4 provides an example of the proper riding position.3
Figure 4: Proper Riding Position
42
Disordered Eating
Types of Disordered Eating
There are many different types of disordered eating
that can affect both the general public and athletes.
For
the purpose of this study anorexia nervosa, bulimia
nervosa, and eating disorders not otherwise specified
(EDNOS) will be described.
Anorexia nervosa (AN) can be defined as a
psychological disorder where the patient has a distorted
body image with an irrational fear of being overweight.4
Seventy six percent of reported cases of AN list onset to
be between the ages of 11 and 20; the later ages being that
of many college aged undergraduate athletes.4 In a study
done by Johnson et al5 on collegiate athletes, 9.2% of
surveyed athletes had behaviors that were consistent with
anorexia and 35% were at risk for developing anorexia.
Furthermore, Burckes-Miller and Black6 reported that 4.2% of
female athletes in their sample met diagnostic criteria for
AN. Thus it is important to recognize that athletes are at
risk for developing AN, and coaches, teammates, and the
medical staff should be able to recognize signs and
symptoms of it.
43
A person with AN generally weighs much less than they
should (at least 15% or more below their ideal body weight
based on age and height), has a BMI of 17.5% or less, has
missed three consecutive menstrual periods, has a
preoccupation with body shape and weight, and has a severe
fear of putting on weight, according to DSM-IV-TR®
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.4 The
physiological signs and symptoms of AN include but are not
limited to: thin appearance, fatigue, abnormal blood
counts, dizziness, brittle nails, thin hair, menstrual
irregularities, constipation, dry skin, irregular heart
rhythms, low blood pressure, dehydration, and low bone
mineral density.7
Several emotional symptoms can also be
present in patients with AN, like refusing to eat, denial
of hunger, excessive exercise, difficulty concentrating,
and a preoccupation with food.7
Recognition of these
symptoms is most important, in order to diagnose and treat
AN before it can lead to further health problems.
Bulimia Nervosa (BN) is another type of eating
disorder that can affect collegiate athletes.
It is
defined as a psychological disorder where the patient goes
through regular bouts of over-eating which leads to guilt
that causes them to purge (self-induced vomiting),
44
excessively exercise, or crash diet.4 In a study performed
by Johnson et al5 that was mentioned before, 1.1% of the
female athletes met the diagnostic criteria for bulimia
nervosa, 9.2% were diagnosed with sub clinical bulimia,
and 38% could be considered at risk for developing
bulimia. Also, Burckes-Miller and Black6 reported that
39.2% of female athletes in their sample met diagnostic
criteria for BN. Based off of these two studies, BN has a
higher rate of occurrence in female athletes than AN.
Female athletes that compete in lean sports also have a
higher percentage of meeting diagnostic criterion for
developing BN than non-lean sports.8
Thus making it all
the more important that those surrounding female athletes
at risk for developing BN be able to recognize the signs
and symptoms.
According to DSM-IV-TR® Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders a patient must meet the
following four criterions to be diagnosed with BN.
The
patient must: repeatedly binge-eat while feeling that they
can’t stop or control their eating, repeatedly and
inappropriately try to compensate for their over-eating
(for example through use of laxative, excessive
exercising, fasting, and purging), been binge-eating and
45
compensating at least twice a week for a consecutive 3
months, and over judge their weight and body shape.4
Physiological signs and symptoms of BN include: abnormal
bowel functioning, damaged teeth and gums (due to
excessive purging), swollen salivary glands in the cheeks
(due to excessive purging), sores in the throat and mouth,
bloating, dehydration, fatigue, dry skin, irregular
heartbeat, sores, scars or calluses on the knuckles or
hands, and either menstrual irregularities or loss of
menstruation (amenorrhea).7
Behavioral and emotional
symptoms of BN include: constant dieting, a feeling that
they can't control their eating behavior, eating until the
point of discomfort or pain, self-induced vomiting,
laxative use, excessive exercise, unhealthy focus on body
shape and weight, having a distorted, excessively negative
body image, going to the bathroom after eating or during
meals, hoarding food, and depression or anxiety.7
In a study done by Katzman and Wolchik9 a sample of
female undergraduates were evaluated for bulimia, binge
eating, or normal eating habits.
It was found that
bulimics had higher levels of the pathology based upon
behavioral and personality variables (depression, selfesteem, and body attitudes) as well as a higher
46
preoccupation with dieting.9 Therefore, as well as bulimia
being more prevalent among female athletes, bulimics also
tend to have more emotional and behavioral symptoms.
The final type of eating disorder (or disorders) that
will be discussed is Eating Disorders Not Otherwise
Specified (EDNOS). In a study done by Ravaldi10 that
evaluated eating disorders among ballet dancers, gymnasts,
and female controls, it was found that 22.1% of ballet
dancers had EDNOS; which was significantly higher than AN
at 1.8% and BN at 2.7%. Also, 18% of gymnasts in this
study were diagnosed with EDNOS, while only 2.6% had AN.10
Based off of this information, it can be suggested that
EDNOS is more prevalent among collegiate female lean-sport
athletes. Thus making it all the more important that
coaches, peers, and sports medicine staff are able to
recognize it.
Patients who suffer from EDNOS are classified into
this type of disorder because although they may have
symptoms of AN or BN, they do not meet the criteria for
them.11 Female patients with an EDNOS must meet the
following criteria: all the criteria for AN must be met
except they have a regular menses, and despite a
significant weight loss, the patient still maintains a
47
normal range BMI.12 Also, all criteria is met for BN except
that the inappropriate compensating behavior (laxative
use, excessive exercising, fasting, and purging) occurs
less than twice a week for less than three months, the
regular use of inappropriate compensating behaviors even
with small amounts of food, and the repeated chewing and
spitting out (not swallowing) of food.12 Additionally,
patients with EDNOS often switch between different types
of eating disorders, making it difficult to diagnose
them.12
Female athletes with EDNOS can use techniques like
excessive dieting, crash diets, fasting, excessive
exercising, purging, or taking diuretics and laxatives.
It was found in a study done by McAllister and Caltabiano,
that 65.15% of women in their study used dieting as a form
of weight loss.13 Also, Petrie14 concluded in his study
that 18% of gymnasts reported using excessive exercise as
their sole mean of weight-loss, and of 33 gymnasts who
were classified as dieter/restrictors 18.2% reported only
using dieting (without exercise) as their form of weight
loss.
Petrie’s finding were consistent with Burckes-
Miller and Black6 who found that over half of the female
college athletes in their sample used exercising
48
excessively as a form of weight control. Furthermore 15%
of female athletes engaged in day-long fasts or fad
diets.6 Based off of this information it can be concluded
that exercise may be more frequently use by female
collegiate athletes, as opposed to dieting and fasting, as
a weight-loss method.
Although there are many types of eating disorders with
differing signs and symptoms for each, the causes of
eating disorders can overlap between different types.
Causes of Disordered Eating
Disordered eating (DE) is a term to describe a
spectrum of attitudes and behaviors like a preoccupation
with body weight and shape, food restriction, and dieting
as well as bingeing, vomiting, and the abuse of diuretics,
laxatives and diet pills.8
Disordered eating in women can
be caused by a combination of psychological, social, and
physiological factors.15 Dissatisfaction with body shape in
the stomach, hips, and thighs has been reported by 80% of
women from ages 19-29 in a study done by McAllister et al.13
In athletes the pressures to be thin can also be influenced
by pressures to lose weight to satisfy personal or coaches
goals, peer pressure from teammates, the focus to have a
49
thin physique, personality characteristics like poor selfesteem, family dysfunction, sexual abuse, dieting, the
types of sport they participate in, and the belief in the
inverse relationship between body size and performance.8,15
In collegiate athletes, the mean age when subjects
felt that their weight became a problem was 22.2 years old,
as seen in a study performed by McAllister et al.13 In fact,
according to Rosen et al,16 32% of a female collegiate
athlete sample practiced pathogenic weight-control
behaviors.
Even more surprisingly, 70% of these athletes
felt that these practices were harmless.
The type of sport can also have an influence on
whether or not the athlete is at risk for developing an
eating disorder.
In previous studies differences have been
found between lean and non-lean sports in regards to DE.
Lean sports consist of gymnastics, swimming/diving, track,
cross-country, dance, and cheerleading, while non-lean
sports consist of softball, volleyball, basketball, rugby,
soccer, and field hockey.
No evidence was found in the
literature that lists equestrian sports as lean or non-lean
sports.
When comparing the risk of developing an eating
disorder in lean to non-lean sports, Reinking and
50
Alexander15 found that 25% of lean sport athletes had more
disordered eating symptoms and were at greater risk of
developing an eating disorder compared to 2.9% in non-lean
sports.
This could be due to the fact that female athletes
in non-lean sports feel that the positive effects of
participating in sports outweigh the pressure of
competitive collegiate athletics in regards to eating
behaviors.15
Some athletes avoid reporting DE because they feel that
if they do, it could lead to problems that might cause them
to be ejected from the team or kept from playing.8 This is a
thought that can be validated by Trattner and Thompson17
that identified the coaches rating of seriousness of eating
disorders/ eating behaviors (see Table 17).
If athletes
are aware of how their coaches feel about eating disorders,
they may be less likely to report such incidences. On the
other hand, athletes in non-lean sports are more prone to
self-report their experiences with eating disorders because
they do not feel that it is a “natural” part of their
sport.8
51
TABLE 17: Coaches’ Ratings of the Seriousness of
Eating/Dieting Behaviors for the Athlete’s Health and
Performance
Behaviors
Health
SD
Performance SD
Greater
Impact
Self-induced 3.90*
.41
3.85*
.46
H*
vomiting
Laxative
3.83*
.50
3.79*
.53
H*
abuse
Diuretic
3.77
.55
3.75
.57
H
abuse
Fasting
3.39*
.85
3.68*
.66
P*
Binge eating 3.24
.78
3.21
.80
H
Skipping 2
2.15*
.74
3.42*
.70
P*
meals/day
Under eating 3.15*
.79
3.35*
.73
P*
Weighing
3.08*
.86
2.61
1.06 H*
multiple
times
Excessive
3.05*
.82
3.10*
.85
P*
exercise
Eating fast
2.58*
.79
2.82*
.86
P*
food
frequently
Skipping 1
2.05*
.78
2.42*
.87
P*
meal/day
Eating fast
1.55*
.71
1.87*
.87
P*
food
occasionally
Note: Mean scores reflect ratings on a 4-point scale (1 = “not at all serious”
to 4 = “very serious”). The symbol H indicates that the behavior was rated as
more serious for the athlete’s health. The symbol P indicates the behavior was
rated as more serious for the athlete’s performance. All behaviors noted with
an * had paired samples t scores significant at <.0001.
In conclusion, there are many different causes of
eating disorders among collegiate female athletes.
It is
important that sports medicine personnel, coaches, and
peers are aware of these causes so that persons at risk can
be easily identified and treated before their disorders
lead to further health problems.
52
Menstrual Irregularities
Often menstrual irregularities are a result of eating
disorders and are used as a criterion for detecting them.18
The median age at menarche is 12.9 years of age.19 The
commonly observed interval between menstrual cycles is 2632 days, which was chosen by Williams et al18 to represent a
“normal” menstrual status.
As a result of their study of
collegiate female athletes, Williams et al18 reported that
cycles that are either shorter or longer than the “normal”
range indicated eating disorders among female athletes.
Williams et al18 also reported that athletes had more
significantly long cycles (79%) than non-athletes (45%).
Types of Menstrual Irregularities
There are many types of menstrual irregularities that
can affect both the general public and athletes alike.
Menstrual disorders can include: amenorrhea,
oligomenorrhea, luteal phase defects, dysmenorrhea,
anovulation, abnormal or excessive uterine bleeding, and
premenstrual syndrome.20,
21
For the purpose of this study
amenorrhea (the primary menstrual irregularity) and
oligomenorrhea will be described.
53
Amenorrhea can be defined as a lack of menstruation,
although there is an inconsistency among the literature in
defining the term.22 Volk explained the criteria for
amenorrhea to be as follows: one menstrual period during
the last ten months, less than three menstrual cycles per
year, and the absence of periods from 3-12 months.22
In her
review of literature, Volk also stated that amenorrhea
occurs almost 20 times more frequently in female athletes
when compared to the general population, and it can exist
in up to 50% of female athletes.22 Besides the absence of
menstruation, amenorrhea can also have symptoms like milky
nipple discharge, headaches, vision changes, and excessive
hair growth on the face and torso (hirsutism).23 Pinheiro et
al24 explained in a review of the literature that women with
amenorrhea also had a significantly lower BMI than those
without amenorrhea.
Amenorrhea can also present itself in different forms,
primary and secondary amenorrhea.
Primary amenorrhea is
the absence of a menstrual period by age 16 with the
presence of secondary sexual characteristics or by the age
of 14 when there are also a lack or secondary sexual
characteristics.21 Secondary amenorrhea is the absence of
menstruation for three to six months after previously going
54
through menstruation.23 Since menarche occurs when body fat
makes up 17% of body weight, secondary amenorrhea then
occurs when body fat falls below 22% of body weight.25
Pinheiro et al24 stated that within patients with BN,
7-40% of patients presented with amenorrhea, 35.6%
presented with secondary amenorrhea, and BN patients with a
history of AN reported the highest frequency of secondary
amenorrhea (77.1%).
A study by Griffith et al26 also found
that 60.6% of gymnasts and 59.8% of cross-country runners
presented with amenorrhea. Among the participants of this
study, 70% of amenorrheic athletes also had eating
disorders.
Lastly, amenorrhea can also occur in normal
weight females that have a low percentage of body fat both
prior to significant weight loss and can continue in AN
patients after weight restoration.24
The second type of menstrual disorder to be discussed
is oligomenorrhea. Oligomenorrhea can be defined as
abnormal infrequent menstruation characterized by only 3 to
6 menstrual cycles per year.27 When menstruation does occur
it is generally profuse, prolonged (up to 10 days), and
loaded with clots and tissue; occasional spotting is also
associated with oligomenorrhea.27 Oligomenorrhea is also
55
more frequent in BN patients, occurring in 37-64% of
patients.24
Causes of Menstrual Irregularities
The causes of menstrual irregularities can vary from
patient to patient depending on the type or menstrual
irregularity, the patient’s age, weight, sport, emotional
stress, psychological factors, or a combination of factors.
For example, Harlow and Matanoski28 reported that there was
an association between life stressors and changes in weight
and long menstrual cycles in college-aged women.
Although several causes for menstrual irregularities
exist most authors agree that hypothalamic dysfunction is
the major cause.
Since the hypothalamus releases
gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH)which regulates the
release of gonadotrophins, like luteinizing hormone (LH)
and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), if it is not
functioning properly these hormones would not be released.
If LH and FSH aren’t released into the body, important sex
hormones like estrogen and progesterone fail to be
released.
Without these hormones normal menstruation will
not occur.22,25
56
Dietary choices can also lead to amenorrhea.
When
dietary sources (calories from fats and carbohydrates) are
limited or restricted metabolic fuels are shunted and
metabolic pathways are blocked.
Without the proper
metabolic balance the hypothalamus will malfunction and
GnRH will not be properly released.22 Correlations have been
found in athletes with diets low in fat and carbohydrates
and menstrual irregularities.22
Poor diet choices as well as sport type can also lead
to a low percentage of body fat, which in turn can also
lead to amenorrhea for the same reason.22,23 As mentioned
before menarche occurs when body fat makes up 17% of body
weight, so when body fat falls below 22% of body weight
amenorrhea may occur.25 Female athletes who practice
restrictive eating habits because it is believed that lower
body weight will result in greater performance levels are
put themselves at high risk for menstrual irregularities.29
For example in a study done by Stokic et al19 that evaluated
ballet dancers, it was reported that the ballet dancers had
lower body weights and BMIs than the control group. Because
of this, the ballet dancers also had a higher prevalence of
amenorrhea (20%) and oligomenorrhea (10%) than the control
group.19
57
It should also be noted that training volume and
intensity can have an effect on the prevalence of menstrual
irregularities.
The term exercise-related menstrual
irregularities (ERMI) has been given to menstrual
irregularities that are caused by prolonged and extreme
endurance exercises.22
These extended exercise sessions can
lead to significant changes in gonadotrophin plasma levels,
lower ovarian blood circulation, and an increase in
metabolism causing changes in metabolic clearances of
endogenous hormones.22 Athletes may also create a negative
energy balance by burning more calories than they consume,
causing dysfuncioning of the hypothalamus.25
Lastly, causes of menstrual irregularities can also
differ depending on the type of eating disorder the patient
has. For example Pinheiro et al24 explain that amenorrhea
occurs in AN patients as a result of malnutrition-induced
impairments in gonadotropin (principally luteininzing
hormone (LH) secretory pattern). In BN patients as a result
of low LH concentrations and reduced LH pulse frequency and
low levels of estradiol and noradrenalin.24
58
Summary
By participating in equestrian sports female athletes
put themselves at risk for sustaining athletic injuries and
illnesses.
It is possible that they are also then at risk
for developing eating disorders and menstrual
irregularities.
Thus the types and causes of eating
disorders and menstrual irregularities were the main focus
of this literature review.
Eating disorders can include anorexia nervosa, bulimia
nervosa, and eating disorders not otherwise specified.
Researchers have attempted to find links between possible
causes of eating disorders and situation factors that might
predispose female athletes to them.
Menstrual irregularities can sometimes be a symptom of
eating disorders that are experienced by female athletes.
Although research has shown that menstrual irregularities
have a link to lean vs. non-lean sports, it still lacks in
what factors can predispose female athletes to them.
It is obvious that eating disorders and menstrual
irregularities are related.
The causes of these conditions
in female athletes can range from sport type, body
dissatisfaction, and physiological and psychological
59
disturbances.
Thus it is important for the sports medicine
staff surrounding female athletes to be aware of them, and
be able to properly diagnose them.
60
APPENIDX B
THE PROBLEM
61
The Problem
Statement of the Problem
Extensive research has been done that has evaluated
the prevalence of eating disorders and menstrual
irregularities among female athletes.
Studies have
attempted to find common variables among female sports that
may cause an athlete to be more predisposed to developing
an eating disorder. Researchers have even gone far enough
to study the effects that these issues have on the female
body in terms of the resulting health issues.
Although
research has been done to discover what sports or types of
sports (lean vs. non-lean) could predispose an athlete, no
research could be found as to whether or not female
equestrian athletes are at risk for developing eating
disorders and menstrual irregularities.
Thus, the purpose of this study is to discover whether
or not there is a prevalence of eating disorders amongst
female collegiate equestrians. A secondary purpose of this
study is to determine the average length of female
collegiate equestrian’s menstrual cycle.
The goal is to
see if there are any significant variables that may
increase the prevalence of eating disorders.
62
Definition of Terms:
The following terms have been defined for the purposes
of this study:
1) Amenorrhea- a lack of or abnormal cessation of
menstruation, either: one menstrual period during
the last ten months, less than three menstrual
cycles per year, and the absence of periods from
3-12 months, can be either primary or secondary22
i.
Primary Amenorrhea- the absence of a
menstrual period by age 16 with the presence
of secondary sexual characteristics or by
the age of 14 when there are also a lack or
secondary sexual characteristics
ii.
Secondary Amenorrhea- the absence of
menstruation for three to six months after
previously going through menstruation
2) Anorexia Nervosa (AN) - a psychological disorder
where the patient has a distorted body image with
an irrational fear of being overweight, according
to DSM-IV-TR® Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders,4 an AN patient:
63
a. weights much less than they should (at least
15% or more below their ideal body weight
based on age and height)
b. has a BMI of 17.5% or less
c. has missed three consecutive menstrual
periods
d. has a preoccupation with body shape and
weight
e. has a severe fear of putting on weight
3) Body Mass Index- an index of a person’s weight in
relation to height, calculated by multiplying the
person’s weight in pounds by 705 and dividing by
the square root of the height in inches
4) Bulimia Nervosa (BN)- according to DSM-IV-TR®
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders,4 a patient with BN:
a. repeatedly binge-eats while feeling that
they can’t stop or control their eating
b. repeatedly and inappropriately tries to
compensate for their over-eating through use
64
of laxative, excessive exercising, fasting,
or purging
c. has been binge-eating and compensating at
least twice a week for a consecutive 3
months
d. over judges their weight and body shape
5) Disordered Eating- a spectrum of attitudes and
behaviors like a preoccupation with body weight
and shape, food restriction, and dieting as well
as bingeing, vomiting, and the abuse of
diuretics, laxatives and diet pills8
6) Eating Disorder- a psychological disorder where
the patient has a distorted body image which
leads them to consume an insufficient amount of
nutrients to maintain normal, healthy life
7) Equestrian Sports- sporting events where an
athlete participates as a team with a horse
8) Normal Menstrual Cycle- the functioning of
reproductive organs and glands that prepare a
women’s body for pregnancy and child birth, made
up of three phases within 26-32 days17
65
9) Oligomenorrhea- abnormal infrequent menstruation
characterized by only 3 to 6 menstrual cycles per
year
Basic Assumptions
There were several basic assumptions that were made
for the purpose of this study.
1) The subjects will answer all questions honestly and to
the best of their knowledge.
2) The subjects will not receive assistance from any
outside individual or source on any of the questions.
3) The sample is a representative of the population of
female collegiate equestrians.
Limitations of the Study:
The following are possible limitations of the study:
1. The study only consisted of female collegiate
athletes from the Intercollegiate Horse Show
Association.
2. The study only consisted of subjects who are 18
years or older.
66
Significance of the Study:
Professionals working around female equestrians should
possess adequate knowledge of eating disorders.
Since many
equestrian sports teams do not have a sports medicine
person on staff, it is even more important that coaches are
able to recognize signs and symptoms in athletes that may
be at risk.
The timely identification of these topics is
essential to decrease the risk of an athlete developing the
adverse effects that result from eating disorders.
Those
surrounding female equestrians should also be able to
recognize and refer at risk patients to the proper health
care professionals.
This study examined eating disorders among collegiate
female equestrian athletes.
Thus, this study provided
results on this topic for female equestrian athletes and
those who work with them.
Furthering their education on
eating disorders could potentially lead to increased health
in the female equestrian population.
67
APPENDIX C
ADDITIONAL METHODS
68
APPENDIX C1
Eating Behaviors and Demographics Questionnaire
69
EATING BEHAVIORS AND DEMOGRAPHICS QUESTIONNAIRE
Please answer all questions honestly and to the best of
your knowledge, without any assistance. Please understand
that this questionnaire is voluntary. If you feel
uncomfortable answering any question, please feel free to
leave it blank.
Age:
Height:
Weight:
Class Rank: Freshman
Senior
Sophomore
Junior
Graduate Student
•
On average, how long is your normal menstrual cycle in
days (from the start of one period to the beginning of
the next period)?
•
Do you use a form of female hormonal contraceptive (ex.
birth control pills, the patch, the shot)?
Yes:________ No:________
•
If you answered “yes” to the previous question, please
answer the next question.
Do you use this contraceptive to regulate your
menstrual cycle?
Yes:________ No:________
•
Please place a check mark next to the ONE riding event
that you consider to be your MAIN event from the
following list.
hunter/jumper
reining
Equitation
western pleasure
dressage
barrel racing/speed events
70
Please circle a response for each of the following
statements:
1. Am terrified about being overweight
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
2. Avoid eating when I am hungry
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
3. Find myself preoccupied with food
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
4. Have gone on eating binges where I feel that I may not
be able to stop
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
5. Cut my food into small pieces
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
6. Aware of the calorie content of foods that I eat
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
7. Particularly avoid foods with high carbohydrate content
(i.e. bread, rice, potatoes ,etc.)
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
8. Feel that others would prefer if I ate more
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
9. Vomit after I have eaten
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
10. Feel extremely guilty after eating
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
11. Am preoccupied with a desire to be thinner
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
12. Think about burning up calories when I exercise
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
13. Other people think that I am too thin
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
14. Am preoccupied with the thought of having fat on my
body
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
71
15. Take longer than others to eat my meals
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
16. Avoid foods with sugar in them
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
17. Eat diet foods
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
18. Feel that food controls my life
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
19. Display self-control around food
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
20. Feel that others pressure me to eat
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
21. Give too much time and thought to food
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
22. Feel uncomfortable after eating sweets
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
23. Engage in dieting behavior
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
24. I like my stomach to be empty
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
25. Enjoy trying new rich foods
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
26. Have the impulse to vomit after meals
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
Total Score_________
72
Please respond to the following questions:
1) Have you gone on eating binges where you feel that you
may not be able to stop? (Eating much more than most people
would eat under the same circumstances)
No______ Yes______
If yes, how many times in the last 6 months?______
2) Have you ever made yourself sick (vomited) to control
your weight or shape?
No______ Yes______
If yes, how many times in the last 6 months?______
3) Have you ever used laxatives, diet pills, or diuretics
(water pills) to control your weight or shape?
No______ Yes______
If yes, how many times in the last 6 months?______
4) Have you ever been treated for an eating disorder?
No______ Yes______
If yes, when?
73
Scoring the Eating Attitudes Test:
For all items (except #25), each of the responses
receives the following value:
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
=
=
=
=
=
=
3
2
1
0
0
0
For item #25, the responses receive these values:
Always
= 0
Usually
= 0
Often
= 0
Sometimes = 1
Rarely
= 2
Never
= 3
After scoring each item, add the scores for a total.
If your total score is greater than 20, the participant has
a disordered eating issue, and realistically should be seen
by a counselor. If the participant answered “yes” to any of
the last four yes/no questions, they are also considered to
have a disordered eating issue.
74
APPENDIX C2
INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD
75
Date of Previous IRB Protocol
76
77
78
79
80
APPENDIX C3
EMAIL SENT TO IHSA BOARD
81
Naomi Blumenthal
Hello, my name is Alexandra Houck and I am a graduate athletic training student at
California University of Pennsylvania. As part of my graduate studies I am required to
complete a thesis. The topic that I have chosen for my thesis is “The prevalence of eating
disorders and menstrual irregularities in collegiate equestrian sports.” Being an
equestrian myself I have felt the pressures to be thin and have been able to recognize a
need for a study such as this. By completing this study I hope to shed a light on the
prevalence of eating disorders and menstrual irregularities in equestrian sports (if there is
a notable number to be found) so that healthy eating habits can be developed and
encouraged among any suffering equestrians to promote a safer, healthier competitive
environment.
I had previously consulted with Robert Cacchione to inquire about getting the survey
distributed to the equestrian participants in the IHSA. I spoke with him on the phone
about my thesis and he was very excited and informed me that you were the lady to email
about getting my survey sent out. We spoke about how the survey will remain
anonymous and that I will not have any contact or way of knowing who participated in
the survey, all I will receive back from the participants are the results of the survey. He
also mentioned that the distribution of the survey may have to be approved by the IHSA
board which meets in January, but time constraints on my thesis mean that I have to have
the survey distributed in January. Thus this is something we may have to talk about and
brainstorm over the phone.
In order to complete this study though I am in need of subjects to complete a survey that
is composed of questions concerning eating disorders and menstrual irregularities. The
identity of the subjects will remain anonymous as it is important to legally protect their
rights. The survey has not yet been set up or completed (and probably won’t be up and
running until January of 2009) as I wanted to be sure that I had a subject basis first. I am
hoping that the IHSA will see the importance of this study and will be willing to help out.
Please contact me with any questions you may have about the survey and whether or not
the IHSA will be able to help me complete my thesis study. My email address is
hou1486@cup.edu and my personal cell phone # is (410) 428-6807. Please provide
information I will need to conduct the study (i.e. contact person’s name, email, and
phone). Thank you very much for the time you are taking to read and respond to my
email, it is greatly appreciated.
82
APPENDIX C4
COVER LETTER TO PARTICIPANTS
83
Dear Participants:
I am a master’s degree candidate at California University
of Pennsylvania, requesting your help to complete part of
my degree requirements. As a fellow equestrian, the
researcher feels an honest concern that there may be a
connection between equestrian sports and eating disorders
(and the possible menstrual irregularities that can result
from them). Thus I am conducting this study to see if any
connection does exist. The results of this study (not
including individual information) will be published in
medical journals to inform the medical community if there
is a possible connection between equestrian sports and
eating disorders. The female equestrians of the IHSA have
been chosen as the subjects for this study because the
researcher feels that this group is the best representation
of female collegiate equestrians across the nation. Please
follow the link at the end of this letter to an online
survey titled: Eating Behaviors and Demographics
Questionnaire.
The questionnaire consists of 38 questions, which will take
about 5 to 10 minutes to complete. Due to this being a
survey there is minimal risk involved as confidentiality
will be maintained.
All equestrians in the Intercollegiate Horse Show
Association are being asked to complete this questionnaire,
although you do have the right to choose not to participate
or to discontinue participation at any time. If the
participant chooses to discontinue the survey (by clicking
the EXIT THIS SURVEY button on the top of the webpage) then
all information will be discarded. Participants of this
survey must be 18 years of age or older. The California
University of Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board has
approved this study for the Protection of Human Subjects.
This approval is effective 02/04/2009 and expires
02/03/2010.
This is an anonymous questionnaire and upon submission,
neither your name nor email address will be attached to
your answers. Your information will be kept strictly
confidential and it will only be accessible to the primary
researcher. All individual survey information will be
stored on a password protected online database that only
the primary researcher will have access to. Upon
completion of the study all individual survey results will
be deleted. By completion of the survey, you are giving
84
consent for me to use the results of your survey in the
study.
As an equestrian in the IHSA, your information and opinions
regarding this topic makes your input invaluable. Please
take a few minutes to fill out the anonymous questionnaire
you will find by clicking on this link…
http://www.surveymonkey.com/s.aspx?sm=AtE_2fHkisSgVpImZMZ_2
fr1eg_3d_3d
If you have any concerns or questions please feel free to
contact me through email at hou1486@cup.edu or by phone at
(410)428-6807. Thank you for your time and consideration.
Sincerely,
Alexandra Houck, ATC
California University of Pennsylvania
250 University Avenue
California, PA 15419
Hou1486@cup.edu
(410)428-6807
Carol Biddington, EdD
Faculty Advisor
Health Science and Sport Studies
Biddington@cup.edu
724-938-4562
85
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at:
http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/symptoms/menstrual_irregul
arities/book-causes-8e.htm. Accessed October 6, 2008.
28. Harlow S, Matanoski G. The association between weight,
physical activity, and stress and variation in the
length of the menstrual cycle. American J Epidemiology.
1991;133:38-49.
29. Wolf AS, Marx K, Ulrich U. Athletic amenorrhea. Ann N Y
Acad Sci. 1997;816:295-304.
88
ABSTRACT
Title:
THE PREVALENCE OF EATING DISORDERS AMONG
FEMALE COLLEGIATE EQUESTRIAN ATHLETES
Researcher:
Alexandra M. Houck
Advisor:
Dr. Carol Biddington
Date:
May 2009
Research Type: Master’s Thesis
Purpose:
The purpose of this study was to determine a
prevalence of eating disorders among female
collegiate equestrian athletes.
Problem:
No research could be found as to whether or
not female equestrian athletes are at risk
for developing eating disorders and
menstrual irregularities. It must be
determined if this population is at risk so
that they can be treated accordingly.
Methods:
A descriptive type of research was
conducted. One hundred and twenty seven
female collegiate equestrians from the
Intercollegiate Horse Show Association
volunteered for the study. The instrument
used was the Eating Behaviors and
Demographics Questionnaire.
Findings:
Equestrians who practice binge eating or
purging have significantly higher eating
disorder than those who do not. Equestrians
who use substances for weight control have
significantly higher eating disorders than
those who do not. A significant number of
female collegiate equestrian athletes have
eating disorder issues.
Conclusions:
Eating disorders are prevalent in the female
collegiate equestrian sport population.
COLLEGIATE EQUESTRIAN ATHLETES
A THESIS
Submitted to the Faculty of the School of Graduate Studies and
Research
of
California University of Pennsylvania in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science
By
Alexandra Marie Houck
Research Advisor, Dr. Carol Biddington
California, Pennsylvania
2009
ii
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are so many people who have helped me this year
and through-out my life that deserve my recognition and
gratitude.
First, I would like to thank everyone who goes
unmentioned here as there are so many people who have
guided and changed my path in life for the better that it
is impossible to name them all.
As always, my whole family has always been a strong
guiding light in my life and without them I would not have
ever had the confidence or drive to even get my Masters
degree.
Being apart from them this year has been one of
the most difficult challenges of my life and thanks to
their constant encouragement, I now have the strength and
confidence to make it on my own no matter how far or near I
am to them.
My family was also the beginning of my
obsession with horseback riding; they sacrificed countless
hours of going to horse shows, riding lessons, and rodeos
in order to strengthen me as an equestrian and make me
happy.
Little did they know that they were helping me to
build a sound foundation on which I would base this thesis
study off of.
All of the riding coaches that I had through-out my
life (Linda, Andrea, and the endless fountain of knowledge
iv
and patience who is Holly Gilmore) helped to feed my
obsession with horses and give it a purpose.
They also
taught me many important life lessons that have helped lead
me to where I am today and for that I am forever thankful.
I would also like to thank my previous professors and
accredited certified instructors that I had through my
undergraduate career.
Without them I would not be half the
athletic trainer I am today, nor would I be nearly as
passionate about my profession.
Also, if it weren’t for
them I would have never ended up at Cal to get my Masters
degree in the first place.
To all of the friends that I have made in this past
year…I would like to thank you all for all the good times
and memories that I now have thanks to you.
I would
especially like to thank my classmates for inspiring me to
explore the topic that I chose for my thesis.
More
importantly I would like to thank Dr. Carol Biddington. You
once said to me “You will probably hate me by the end of
this year because I push you so hard,” but believe me Carol
I most definitely do not.
Without your constant guidance
and encouragement I would have probably rushed to finish my
thesis instead of being comfortably happy to have finished
v
with time to spare.
I must also thank my committee
members, Dr. Margaret Marcinek and Ellen West.
I would also like to thank all of the coaches, staff,
and athletes at McGuffey High School.
You all made what
could have been a very scary experience of my first year as
a practicing certified athletic trainer very delightful and
encouraging.
You have given more than you will ever know.
Without you all I would have never met that man who I
believe to be the love of my life.
Jed, I love you and
without you always telling me to work on my thesis I
probably would have procrastinated until the end.
Lastly, but most importantly, I would like to thank
the equestrian athletes, coaches, and board of the
Intercollegiate Horse Show Association.
Without your
involvement in this study, there would not have been a
study at all.
I hope the results of this thesis only help
to improve the sport of horseback riding and make it more
safe and enjoyable for everyone.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
SIGNATURE PAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iv
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vii
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
METHODS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
Research Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
Subjects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
Procedures
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
Hypotheses
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
Data Analysis
RESULTS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
Demographic Data .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
Hypotheses Testing .
12
. . . . . . . . . . .
15
Additional Findings . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
vii
DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discussion of Results .
23
. . . . . . . . . .
23
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
REFERENCES
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
APPENDICES
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
A. Review of the Literature . . . . . . . . . .
37
Equestrian Sports . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
Conclusions .
Recommendations
Intercollegiate Horse Show Association
. .
39
. . . . . .
40
Disordered Eating . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
Types of Disordered Eating . . . . . . .
42
Causes of Disordered Eating . . . . . . .
48
Menstrual Irregularities . . . . . . . . .
52
Types of Menstrual Irregularities . . . .
52
Causes of Menstrual Irregularities . . . .
55
Riding for Form and Function
Summary
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
B. The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
viii
Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . .
61
Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . .
62
Basic Assumptions
. . . . . . . . . . .
65
Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . .
65
Significance of the Study
. . . . . . . .
66
. . . . . . . . . . . .
67
C. Additional Methods
Eating Behaviors and
Demographics Questionnaire (C1) . . . . . .
68
Institutional Review Board(C2)
. . . . . .
74
. . . . . . .
81
Cover Letter Sent to Participants(C4) . . . .
83
Email Sent to IHSA Board(C3)
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
1
Characteristics of Participants . . . . . .
12
2
Participants’ Class Rank . . . . . . . . .
12
3
Participants’ Oral Contraceptives
Usage
4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
Participants’ Responses for
Menstrual Regulation
. . . . . . . . . .
13
5
Participants’ Main Event . . . . . . . . .
13
6
Participants’ Responses for
Eating Binges
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
7
Participants’ Responses for Vomiting . . . .
14
8
Participants’ Responses for Weight Control . .
14
9
Participants’ Eating Disorder Treatment . . .
15
10
Eating Disorder Issues . . . . . . . . . .
15
11
Pearson-Product Moment Correlation
Between The Equestrians Age and
Total Score . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
16
A One-Way ANOVA for Eating Disorders
among Riding Events . . . . . . . . . . .
17
x
13
Pearson-Product Moment Correlation
between The Equestrians BMI Scores
and Total Score
14
. . . . . . . . . . . .
18
T Test Comparison between
Binge Eating Responses for
the EAT-26 Score . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
19
T Test Comparison between
Weight Control Substance Use
(WCSU) for the EAT-26. . . . . . . . . . .
16
20
T Test Comparison of Responses
for the Eating Disorder Issues
for EAT-26. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
22
Coaches’ Ratings of the Seriousness
of Eating/Dieting Behaviors for the
Athlete’s Health and Performance . . . . . .
51
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1
2
Binge Eating Responses for EAT-26
Page
. . . . .
19
Substance Use Responses for EAT-26 . . . . .
20
3
Eating Disorder Issues for EAT-26
. . . . .
21
4
Proper Riding Position . . . . . . . . . .
41
1
INTRODUCTION
For years females have been participating in athletics
for both leisure and competition.
There is no limit to the
type of sports in which women may participate.
From field
hockey to softball, from motor bike racing to track, women
can do it all.
But one sport that is often overlooked when
discussing female participants in sports is horseback
riding (or equestrian sports).
While equestrian sports have been in existence for
years, and have continued to grow rapidly, the amount of
research on equestrians is sparse.
The few studies found
by the researcher on equestrian sports mainly examined the
different types of injuries that could be sustained by
horseback riding.
There is little research that pertains
to potential psychological disorders of equestrians and the
physiological effect.
Female equestrians are at the same, if not greater,
risk of sustaining injuries as athletes in other sports. It
could even be hypothesized that equestrians are at a higher
risk of injury since they are dealing with an animal that
can at times be unpredictable, uncontrollable, and
dangerous.
However, it has yet to be determined if female
equestrians have the same risk level or if they are even at
2
risk for developing psychological disorders that affect
other female athletes.
Eating disorders and the possibility of developing
menstrual irregularities are among the major psychological
concerns for female athletes.
It has been demonstrated
that 32% of female collegiate athletes practice pathogenic
weight-control behaviors that could be associated with
eating disorders.1 Furthermore, menstrual irregularities,
like amenorrhea and oligomenorrhea, may be related to
eating disorders.
The potential for female riders to develop eating
disorders as well as associated menstrual irregularities is
present in equestrian sports.
In the past, when horses
were used as beasts of burden instead of a form of
entertainment, it was important for riders to be lean,
flexible, and strong so that they could move and work with
the horse more efficiently.
It is still important for
modern day equestrians to be flexible and strong to be an
efficient rider. While a lean physique may not be necessary
for success in equitation, it is an important aspect in
competition judging. In equestrian sports where riders are
judged on their equitation(or riding position), pressure
can be put on equestrian athletes to have a lean figure.
3
It is often unspoken knowledge that overweight riders are
less likely to experience success in competitions than
riders who have a lean build.
Equestrians can feel the pressure to stay lean through
many different outlets.
Parents, coaches, teammates, and
competition can all put unnecessary pressure upon
equestrians to do whatever it takes to win in their
division.
It is also important to recognize that some
equestrians could feel pressure to be lean from their
coaches.
Equestrians, like other female athletes, may
avoid reporting symptoms of eating disorders for fear that
their coaches would remove them from competition.2
Previous
research has demonstrated that collegiate coaches consider
behaviors that can be associated with eating disorders to
be a serious matter as both the athlete’s health and
performance are placed at risk.3 Thus if equestrian athletes
are aware that their coaches feel strongly against
behaviors associated with eating disorders, they will be
less likely to report them.
Although no evidence could be found in the literature
that listed equestrian sports as being a lean or non-lean
sport, research has been done to evaluate whether or not
the type of sport (lean or non-lean) has an effect on the
4
prevalence of eating disorders.
It has been found that 25%
of lean sport athletes had more disordered eating symptoms
and were at greater risk of developing an eating disorder
compared to 2.9% in non-lean sports.4 Thus, if equestrians
consider themselves to be in a lean sport, they may also be
at a higher risk for developing an eating disorder and
developing menstrual irregularities.
Menstrual irregularities are a result of eating
disorders and are often used as a criterion for detecting
them.5
The commonly observed interval between menstrual
cycles is 26-32 days, which represent a “normal” menstrual
status.5 Therefore, cycles that are either shorter or longer
than the “normal” range indicate eating disorders among
female athletes.5
It has also been reported that athletes
had more significantly long cycles (79%) than non-athletes
(45%).6
This “normal” range is used in determining the
presence or absence of both amenorrhea and
oligomenorrhea.6,7
It has been stated that amenorrhea occurs almost 20
times more frequently in female athletes when compared to
the general population, and it can exist in up to 50% of
female athletes.6 Amenorrhea can also occur in normal weight
females that have a low percentage of body fat.8 Thus,
5
female equestrians are also at risk for developing
menstrual irregularities.
When female equestrians go to the extremes to be lean
in order to be competitive in their sport, they put
themselves at risk.
Whether they knowingly or unknowingly
engage in disordered eating behavior, they must be made
aware of it in order to encourage healthy training habits.
Thus, it is most important for athletic trainers and those
working with female equestrians to realize that these
athletes may be risk for developing eating disorders and
associated menstrual irregularities and help to guide them
in a more appropriate path.
This study will attempt to answer the following
questions: 1)What is the relationship between age and
eating disorders in collegiate female equestrians? 2)What
are the differences between eating disorders and riding
events among female equestrians? 3)What is the relationship
between body mass index and eating disorders among female
equestrians?
6
METHODS
The purpose of this study is to discover whether or
not
there
female
the
is
a
prevalence
collegiate
following
of
equestrians.
subsections:
eating
This
disorders
section
research
will
design,
amongst
include
subjects,
instruments, procedures, hypotheses, and data analysis.
Research Design
A descriptive design was used for this study.
The
independent variables were age, body mass index, and the
type of riding event. The dependent variable was the scores
on the eating disorders survey, the Eating Attitudes Test
(EAT-26), and the results of the demographics survey.
The strengths of this study are that a national survey
was distributed and the instrument used by the researcher
has demonstrated reliability9.
One limitation of the study
is that the population is limited to only female collegiate
equestrians.
Subjects
The number of subjects that were included in this
study was determined by how many surveys were returned from
7
a population of 6500, as long as they met the set criteria.
Subjects (N=127) were female collegiate equestrian
athletes, who competed in six different divisions: 1)
hunter/jumper, 2) equitation, 3) dressage, 4) reining, 5)
western pleasure, and 6) barrel racing/speed events.
The
sampling of this study was done by using all surveys that
were returned from the collegiate female athletes of the
Intercollegiate Horse Show Association (IHSA). Informed
consent was not necessary as it was an electronic survey
and consent was implied by the completion and return of the
survey.
Instrumentation
The instrument that was used for this study was the
Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26), as well as a demographics
section that has additional specific questions. The
specific questions in the demographics portion pertained to
the participant’s length of menarche, their usage of
hormonal contraceptives to regulate menstruation, and the
type of equestrian sport. The combination of the EAT-26,
demographics section, and specific questions was titled the
Eating Behaviors and Demographics Questionnaire (Appendix
C1).
Internal consistency reliability for the score of the
Eating Attitudes Test have ranged between .70 and .88.9
8
Demographics include age, height, weight, and class
rank. The athlete’s length of menarche, their usage of
hormonal contraceptives to regulate menstruation, and the
type of equestrian sport they participated in was analyzed
through specific questions.
Length of menarche was
assessed by asking the participants, “On average, how long
is your normal menstrual cycle (from the start of one
period to the beginning of the next period)?”
Use of
hormonal contraceptives and their use to regulate
menstruation as well as what riding event they participate
in were also asked.
The Eating Attitudes Test included 26 questions with
an optional answer of either “always”, “usually”, “often”,
“sometimes”, rarely”, or “never”.
There are also four
additional questions that asked about 1)binge eating, 2)
self induced vomiting, 3) the use of weight controlling
substances, and 4) past eating disorder treatment.
For all
questions (excluding #25) each of the responses were given
the following value: 3 points for “always”, 2 points for
“usually”, 1 point for “often”, and 0 points for
“sometimes”, “rarely”, and “never”.
For item #25 the
responses were given the following values: 0 points for
“always”, “usually”, and “often”, 1 point for “sometimes”,
9
2 points for “rarely”, and “3 points for “never”.
After
scoring the items the scores were added together.
If the
sum was greater than 20 then the participant was considered
to have an eating disorder issue. Also if the participant
answers “yes” to any of the four additional questions, they
should also be considered to have an eating disorder issue.
Procedures
The California University Institutional Review Board
for Protection of Human Subject Form (Appendix C2) was
completed and approved.
Upon receiving approval for the
study from the Institutional Review Board, an email
(Appendix C3) including a cover letter (Appendix C4) was
sent out to the chairperson of the Intercollegiate Horse
Show Association.
The IHSA chairperson was then notified
by the primary researcher of his/her willingness to
participate in the study.
Once clearance was allowed by
the IHSA, a link to an electronic survey was sent out to
all participants in the IHSA. The participants were also
emailed a copy of the cover letter which described the
study, indicated that they are not required to participate,
confirm that their identities would remain unknown, and
remind them that they have to be at least 18 years old to
10
participate.
All surveys that were completed and returned
to the researcher were then analyzed in the study.
Hypotheses
The level of significance used for testing the
hypothesis was set at an alpha level of .05.
Hypothesis 1: There will be a relationship between age
and eating disorders.
Hypothesis 2: There will be a difference between the
different types of riding events for eating disorders.
Hypothesis 3: There will be a negative relationship
between BMI and eating disorders.
Data Analysis
The level of significance used for testing the
hypothesis was set at an alpha level of .05.
1: A Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used to
determine if there would be a significant relationship
between age and eating disorders.
11
2: An ANOVA was used to determine if there would be a
significant difference between riding events for eating
disorders.
3: A Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used to
determine if there would be a significant negative
relationship between BMI and eating disorders.
12
RESULTS
Demographic Data
The sample consisted of female equestrians from the
Intercollegiate Horse Show Association (n=127). Table 1
depicts the characteristics of the participants from this
study.
Table 1. Characteristics of Participants
Characteristic
Range
Mean ± SD
Age
18-29
20.08 ± 2.01
Height (inches)
60-72
65.30 ± 2.59
Weight (pounds)
100-230
BMI
16.95-33.67
22.33 ± 3.26
Menstrual Cycle
Length (days)
18-70
29.34 ± 5.85
136.15 ± 22.85
Table 2 displays the class rank responses of the
subjects.
Table 2. Participants’ Class Rank
Class Rank
Frequency
Percent
Freshman
37
28.9%
Sophomore
37
28.9%
Junior
26
20.3%
Senior
22
17.2%
5
3.9%
Graduate Student
13
Table 3 displays the oral contraceptive use responses
of the subjects.
Table 3. Participants’ Oral Contraceptives Usage
Oral
Frequency
Percentage
Contraceptive
Use
Yes
65
50.8%
No
62
48.4%
Table 4 displays the oral contraception use for
regulating menstruation.
Table 4. Participants’ Responses for Menstrual Regulation
Menstrual
Frequency
Percentage
Regulation
Yes
34
26.6%
No
32
25.0%
Table 5 displays the main equestrian event responses
of the subjects.
Table 5. Participants’ Main Event
Event
Frequency
Percent
Hunter/ Jumper
60
46.9%
Equitation
42
32.8%
Dressage
8
6.2%
Reining
3
2.4%
13
10.2%
1
0.8%
Western Pleasure
Barrel Racing/
Speed Events
14
Table 6 displays the eating binge responses of the
subjects. The range was between 1 and 20 with a mean score
of 6.52 ± 6.72.
Table 6. Participants’ Responses for Eating Binges
Eating Binges
Frequency
Percentage
Yes
30
23.4%
No
96
75%
Table 7 displays the vomiting (purging) responses of
the subjects.
The range was between 1 and 30 with a mean
score of 5.56 ± 9.46.
Table 7. Participants’ Responses for Vomiting
Vomiting
Frequency
Percentage
Yes
9
7%
No
116
90.6%
Table 8 displays the use of weight control substances
(laxatives, diet pills, or diuretics) responses of the
subjects.
The range was between 1 and 180 with a mean
score of 10.45 ± 39.96.
Table 8. Participants’ Responses for Weight Control
Weight Control
Frequency
Percentage
Substances
Yes
21
16.4%
No
105
82%
15
Table 9 displays the past treatment for eating
disorders history responses of the subjects.
The range was
between 2000 and 2006 with a mean score of 2003 ± 2.45.
Table 9. Participants’ Eating Disorder Treatment
Eating
Frequency
Percentage
Disorder
Treatment
Yes
7
5.5%
No
118
92.2%
Table 10 displays the frequency of participants with
an eating disorder issue based upon their responses.
Table 10. Eating Disorder Issues
Eating
Frequency
Disorder
Issue
Yes
48
No
79
Percentage
37.79%
62.2%
Hypotheses Testing
The level of significance used for testing the
hypotheses was set at an alpha level of .05.
Hypothesis 1: There will be a relationship between age
and eating disorders.
A Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated for
the relationship between the participants’ age and the
16
total scores on the EAT-26 survey. A weak correlation that
was not significant was found (r125= .026, p > .05),
indicating that age is not related to the total scores on
the EAT-26. The results of this analysis are presented
below in Table 11.
Table 11. Pearson-Product Moment Correlation Between The
Equestrians Age and Total Score
Variable
N
r
P
Age &
125
.026
.779
Total Scores
Hypothesis 2: There will be a difference between the
different types of riding events for eating disorders.
The mean scores on the EAT-26 for each equestrian who
participated in one of four events were compared using a
one-way ANOVA.
No significant difference was found (F3,118
= .211, p > .05).
The equestrians’ scores on the survey
did not differ significantly based on event.
Equestrians
who participated in hunter/jumper events had a mean score
of 7.43 ± 8.46. Equestrians who participated in equitation
events had a mean score of 7.43 ± 7.12. Equestrians who
participated in dressage events had a score of 9.25 ±
8.45. Equestrians who participated in western pleasure
17
events had a mean score of 8.83 ± 9.60.
The results of
this analysis are presented below in Table 12.
Table 12. A One-Way ANOVA for Eating Disorders among
Riding Events
Eating
Sum of
Df
MS
F
P
Disorders Squares
Between
Groups
41.98
3
13.99
Within
Groups
7818.19
118
66.26
Total
7860.16
121
.211
.888
Hypothesis 3: There will be a negative relationship
between BMI and eating disorders.
A Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated to
evaluate the existence of a negative relationship between
the participants’ BMI and the total scores on the EAT-26
survey. A weak positive correlation that was significant
was found (r115 = .114, p > .05), indicating that BMI is not
negatively related to the total scores on the EAT-26. The
results of this analysis are presented below in Table 13.
18
Table 13. Pearson-Product Moment Correlation between The
Equestrians BMI Scores and Total Score
Variable
n
r
P
BMI Scores &
115
.114
.225
Total Score
Additional Findings
Several tests were conducted using the total eating
disorder scores and the responses to the last four
questions on the EAT-26 survey in an attempt to discover
additional findings.
An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare
the mean scores of the groups that answered “yes” and “no”
to the question, “Have you gone on eating binges where you
feel that you may not be able to stop?” for their
disordered eating total scores.
A significant difference
was found between the two groups (t114 = -5.29, p < .05).
The mean of the group that answered “no” was significantly
lower (5.68 ± 6.68) than the mean of the group that
answered “yes” (14.08 ± 8.22).
The results of the analysis
are presented below in Table 14 and Figure 1.
19
Table 14. T Test Comparison between Binge Eating Responses
for the EAT-26 Score
Binge
n
M
SD
t
P
Eating
No
91
5.68
6.68
-5.29
Yes
25
14.08
.023
8.22
Figure 1. Binge Eating Responses for EAT-26
Another independent samples t-test was conducted to
compare the mean scores of the groups that answered “yes”
and “no” to the question, “Have you ever used laxatives,
20
diet pills, or diuretics (water pills) to control your
weight or shape?” for their disordered eating total scores.
A significant difference was found between the two groups
(t113 = -5.82, p < .01).
The mean of the group that
answered “no” was significantly lower (5.74 ± 6.22) than
the mean of the group that answered “yes” (15.74 ± 9.49).
The results of this analysis are presented below in Table
15 and Figure 2.
Table 15. T Test Comparison between Weight Control
Substance Use (WCSU)Responses for the EAT-26
WCSU
n
M
SD
t
No
96
5.74
6.22
-5.82
Yes
19
15.74
9.49
P
.001
21
Figure 2. Substance Use Responses for EAT-26
A final independent samples t-test was conducted to
compare the mean scores of the equestrians who had an
eating disorder issue to those who did not, based on their
scores on the EAT-26 survey.
A significant difference was
found between the two groups (t115 = 8.81, p < .001).
The
mean of the group that had an eating disorder issue was
significantly higher (14.05 ± 8.85) than the group that did
22
not have an issue (3.80 ± 3.64).
The results of this
analysis are presented below in Table 16 and Figure 3.
Table 16. T Test Comparison of Responses for the Eating
Disorder Issues for EAT-26
EDI
n
M
SD
t
P
Yes
42
14.05
8.85
8.81
No
75
3.80
3.64
Figure 3. Eating Disorder Issues for EAT-26
.000
23
DISCUSSION
Discussion of Results
The focus of this study was to discover the prevalence
of eating disorders among female collegiate equestrian
athletes.
The researcher evaluated whether or not age,
type of riding event, and BMI had an effect on the
prevalence of eating disorders.
Hypothesis 1 stated that age would be significantly
related to the prevalence of eating disorders.
The
researcher proposed that age would have an effect on the
number of equestrians with eating disorders.
There was no
significant data showing that age was a predictor of eating
disorders.
Even though there is no significance in the data, age
can still be a predictor of important signs of eating
disorders.
In previous research it was determined that
subjects felt that their weight became a problem around the
mean age of 22.2 years.10 Since having weight issues can be
a predictor of eating disorders and 22.2 years old is well
within the range found for the ages of collegiate
equestrians in this study; age should still be considered
when evaluating female equestrians for eating disorders.
24
Hypothesis 2 stated that there would be a difference
between the riding events and eating disorders.
The
researcher proposed that events that put additional
pressure on the equestrian to be lean (equitation,
dressage, and western pleasure) would have a higher
prevalence of eating disorders opposed to other events
(hunter/jumper, reining, and barrel racing/speed events).
Due to the lack of data, reining and barrel racing/speed
events were not included in the analysis.
There was no significant data showing that any one
event would lead to a higher prevalence of eating disorders
than another.
Findings showed that there was only a 1.82
difference in mean scores for the EAT-26 between events.
Although there is no significance in the data, this
researcher still believes that this is an area that should
continue to be evaluated due to the small number of
responses for the survey.
Although there was no significance found; athletic
trainers, coaches, parents, and team mates should be aware
that there may still be pressure to be thin put on
equestrians based on the events that they participate in.
Those working with equestrians should be educated on eating
disorders and their prevalence in other female sports.
25
Attempts should be made to recognize and seek treatment for
those equestrians who may have eating disorders or related
issues.
Hypothesis 3 stated that there would be a negative
relationship between BMI and eating disorders.
The
researcher proposed that as BMI scores got lower the scores
on the EAT-26 would increase and that BMI was a predictor
of eating disorders in among female equestrians.
The
results showed that BMI and eating disorders were not
significantly related.
Although this data does not support the hypothesis
that BMI and eating disorders are related, there has been
previous research that does support this hypothesis.
A
study done by Reinking and Alexander4 showed that 25% of
lean sport athletes had more disordered eating symptoms and
were at greater risk of developing an eating disorder
compared to 2.9% in non-lean sports.
Also, lean sport
athletes are more likely to have lower BMI values.
Thus,
if an athlete were to have a low BMI value, they would be
at a higher risk of developing an eating disorder.
Despite the fact that equestrian sports have yet to be
defined as lean or non-lean, equestrians could still be at
26
risk for developing an eating disorder based on Reinking
and Alexander’s research.
If equestrians consider
themselves to be in a lean sport and have lower BMI values
because of this, they are placing themselves at risk.
More research needs to be conducted to discover
whether or not equestrian sports are considered to be lean
or non-lean.
Until then, athletic trainers, coaches,
parents, and teammates need to be aware that participants
with low BMI values are at risk for developing an eating
disorder.
These participants should be further evaluated
and referred to a physician for treatment.
In addition to hypothesis testing, analysis was also
done on the total eating disorder scores and the responses
to the last four questions on the EAT-26 survey.
First, a
comparison of the mean scores was conducted for the two
groups who answered “no” and “yes”, to the question “Have
you gone on eating binges where you feel that you may not
be able to stop?”, for their total disordered eating
scores.
A significant difference was found between the two
groups and mean of the group that answered “yes” was
significantly higher than that of the group that answered
“no”.
27
These results mean that female collegiate equestrians
who use binge eating for weight control are at risk for
eating disorders.
Professionals who work with collegiate
equestrians should be aware that binge eating is prevalent
among them.
They should thus be vigilant in recognizing
the signs and symptoms of binge eating before it leads to
more serious health issues related to binge eating and
eating disorders.
A second comparison that was conducted was between the
mean scores of the groups that answered “yes” and “no” to
the question, “Have you ever used laxatives, diet pills, or
diuretics (water pills) to control your weight or shape?”
for their disordered eating total scores.
A significant
difference was found between the two groups and the mean of
the group that answered “yes” was significantly higher than
the mean of the group that answered “no”.
These results mean that female collegiate equestrians
are, in some cases, not only using binge eating for weight
control but also substances in attempt to ease their eating
disorder issues.
Both binge eating and the use of
substances for weight control are used as diagnostic
criteria for bulimia nervosa.11 In a study by Johnson et
al12, 1.1% of the female athletes met the diagnostic
28
criteria for bulimia nervosa, 9.2% were diagnosed with sub
clinical bulimia, and 38% could be considered at risk for
developing bulimia.
This study is comparable to Johnson’s
research as 23.4% of participants said that they had used
binge eating and 16.4% had said that they used substances
as a form of weight control.
Professionals who work with collegiate equestrians,
then must also, be aware that the use of substances is
prevalent among them.
Like binge eating, the use of
substances could lead to more serious health issues and
eating disorders.
The results from this study for binge
eating and substance use compare to a study done by Rosen
et al1, who found that 32% of a female collegiate athlete
sample practiced pathogenic weight-control behaviors.
In some cases, respondents who answered “yes” to these
questions also had a score of more than 20 on the EAT-26
survey.
Thus, these participants are not only dealing with
an eating disorder issue, but are also currently performing
eating disorder practices (like binge eating and substance
abuse).
The results from this analysis tell those who work
with female collegiate equestrians that those who are
practicing weight control behaviors are also most likely
dealing with an eating disorder.
Professionals must be
29
educated and work hard to recognize sign and symptoms of
binge eating, substance abuse, and other eating disorder
symptoms in order to prevent additional harm and get
treatment from those who are already suffering.
The final additional analysis that was conducted
compared the mean scores of the equestrians who had an
eating disorder issue to those who did not, based on their
scores on the EAT-26 survey.
A significant difference was
found between the two groups; the mean of the group that
had an eating disorder issue was significantly higher than
the group that did not have an issue.
This analysis showed that 37.79% of the female
collegiate equestrians who participated in this survey are
currently dealing with eating disorder issues.
Of these
equestrians who are dealing with eating disorder issues,
nine answered “yes” to one or more of the four questions at
the end of the EAT-26.
Consequently, putting them at an
even greater risk of developing or even currently having an
eating disorder.
This information correlates to multiple studies that
found that 39.2% of female athletes met diagnostic criteria
for bulimia nervosa (BN), 4.2% of female athletes met
30
diagnostic criteria for anorexia nervosa (AN), and 22.1% of
ballet dancers and 18% of gymnasts had been diagnosed with
eating disorders not otherwise specified (EDNOS).13,14
Although this study did not determine the presence of
eating disorders or distinguish between them, it is still
necessary to note and compare the percentage of eating
disorder issues to the percentage of other female athletes
who have been diagnosed with eating disorders.
A descriptive analysis was also done which found the
average menstrual cycle length among female collegiate
equestrians.
The mean and standard deviation was found to
be 29.34 ± 5.85, which is a “normal” menstrual cycle length
(26-32 days).5 This information does not correspond with the
Williams et al5 study which reported that athletes had more
significantly long cycles (79%) than non-athletes (45%).
Although, it should be noted that of the 65 equestrians
(50.8%) who are using oral contraceptives, 34 (26.0%) of
them are using it for menstrual cycle regulation.
So it is
possible that the mean menstrual cycle length could be
affected by the use of hormonal oral contraceptives for
menstrual regulation.
Further research needs to be
conducted in order to distinguish how much the menstrual
31
cycle length in collegiate female equestrians is affected
by oral contraceptive use.
Conclusions
Based on the results from Table 10 and Figure 3, of
the 127 female collegiate equestrians that were surveyed 48
(37.79%) are dealing with an eating disorder issue.
Despite the small sample size, this information shows that
eating disorder issues and behaviors are present among
female collegiate equestrians.
These results reiterate
previous research that shows the predominance of eating
disorder issues among female collegiate athletes.
The
results also show that despite the lack-of-popularity of
equestrian sports as a varsity collegiate sport,
equestrians still suffer from the same eating disorder
issues as other varsity level collegiate athletes.
It should also be noted that since there was no
difference found between events for the scores on the EAT26, the event that the rider participates in is not a valid
predictor of whether or not the participant is at risk of
having an eating disorder.
Thus, athletic trainers,
coaches, parents, and teammates must not be biased towards
certain events and must treat all equestrians, no matter
32
what event they are in, as if they could develop an eating
disorder.
The demands being put on female equestrians to be lean
combined with a negative body image mentality is driving
female collegiate equestrians towards poor eating habits
and behaviors associated with eating disorders.
These
equestrians continue to get away with practicing unhealthy
weight control behaviors without being treated or even
recognizing that they have a problem.
Recommendations
The results of this study are most definitely
significant to equestrian sports and those who participate
in the sport.
This should lead those who work with
equestrians to be more aware of the prevalence of eating
disorders among female collegiate equestrians.
Coaches
and parents should be educated on the signs, symptoms, and
health issues associated with eating disorders.
Teammates
should also be educated as they often spend more time
together and may notice any eating disorder behaviors
sooner than coaches or parents.
This information is invaluable to athletic trainers
and team physicians who work with female collegiate
33
equestrians as they are the ones who are most likely to
recognize eating disorder symptoms in their athletes.
Professionals must then be made aware of the prevalence of
eating disorder issues among this population and include
eating disorder screenings in their pre-participation
exams.
If equestrians are attending a college that does
not provide athletic trainers for their sport, coaches
should encourage their athletes to get physically cleared
to participate in events by a physician prior to the
beginning of the season.
Perhaps then equestrians who are
suffering from an eating disorder could be recognized and
treated leading to a safer competitive setting.
34
REFERENCES
1.
Rosen LW, McKeag DB, Hough DO, Curley V. Pathogenic
weight control behaviors in female athletes. Physician
Sportsmed. 1986;14:79-86.
2.
Torstveit M, Rosenvinge J, Sundgot-Borgen J. Prevalence
of eating disorders and the predictive power of risk
models in female elite athletes: a controlled study.
Scandinavian J Med Sci Sports. 2008;18:108-118.
3.
Trattner R, Thompson R. NCAA Coaches Survey: The role of
the coach in identifying and managing athletes with
disordered eating. Eating Disorders. 2005;13:447-466.
4.
Reinking M, Alexander L. Prevalence of disordered-eating
behaviors in undergraduate female collegiate athletes
and nonathletes. J Athletic Training. 2005; 40(1):47-51.
5.
Williams N, Leidy H, Flecker K, Galucci A. Food
attitudes in female athletes: Association with menstrual
cycle length. J Sports Science. 2006;24(9):979-986.
6.
Volk E. Female athletes and menstrual irregularities.
Anabolic Pharmacology. 2002. Available at:
http://www.anabolicpharamcology.com. Accessed September
15, 2008.
7.
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2006. Oligomenorrhea.
Available at:
http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/symptoms/menstrual_irregul
arities/book-causes-8e.htm. Accessed October 6, 2008.
8.
Pinheiro A, Thorton L, Plotonicov K, et al. Patterns of
menstrual disturbance in eating disorders. Int J Eat
Disord. 2007;40:424-434.
9.
Burnett K, Doninger G, Enders C. Validity evidence
for eating attitudes test scores in a sample of
female college athletes. Measurement Physical
Education Exercise Science. 2005;9:35-49.
10. McAllister R, Caltabiano M. Self-esteem, body image and
weight in noneating-disordered women. Psychological
Reports. 1994;75:1339-1343.
35
11. Nordqvist C. What is an eating disorder? Types of eating
disorders. 2008. Available at:
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/105102.php.
Accessed October 6, 2008.
12. Johnson C, Powers PS, Dick RW. Athletes and eating
disorders: the natural collegiate athletic association
study. Int J Eat Disord. 1999;26:179-188.
13. Burckes-Miller M, Black D. Male and female college
athletes: Prevalence of anorexia nervosa and bulimia
nervosa. Athletic Training. 1988;23:137-140.
14. Ravaldi C. Body image and eating disorders among nonelite athletes. Eating Disorders Review. 2003;14:8.
36
APPENDICES
37
APPENDIX A
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
38
Review of the Literature
The prevalence of eating disorders and menstrual
irregularities is a topic that has been studied extensively
over the past years, but there is a lack of literature to
be found about the prevalence of these conditions among
equestrian sports participants.
Despite the lack of
literature to be found on eating disorders and menstrual
irregularities in equestrian sports, pressure is put on
these athletes to have a lean and athletic build (in terms
of both form and function)in order to place and win
competitions.
This pressure may put equestrians at risk
for eating disorders.
As important as it is to be lean in
equestrian sports it is more necessary that these athletes
be strong enough to work around and control horses at all
levels and disciplines of competition…a task that is not
easily done if the athlete is underweight or underdeveloped
due to eating disorders.
Recognition of potential eating disorders may help
shed light on this in equestrian sports that often goes
unnoticed or ignored.
The topics that will be discussed in
this literature review include: equestrian sports, eating
disorders, and menstrual irregularities.
A brief summary
will also be included at the end of the literature review.
39
Equestrian Sports
Equestrian sports range from many levels from
amateur to Olympian and include many different events from
fox hunting to barrel racing.
Although equestrian sports
may not be a varsity level sport in many colleges, it is
still a fairly common club sport and has its own collegiate
governing body.
Intercollegiate Horse Show Association
Established in April of 1967, the Intercollegiate
Horse Show Association (IHSA)is the governing body that
collegiate riding teams compete under in the United States.
The goal of the IHSA is to promote competition between
equestrians at all levels regardless of financial status.1
There are 300 member colleges in the IHSA with more than
6500 riders who compete at the regional and national levels
as either an individual or team.
The three major
competitive events are hunter seat equitation, western
horsemanship, and reining.
One of the goals of the IHSA is
to eliminate the costs of owning a horse so teams travel to
surrounding schools and are randomly assigned a horse to
ride.
The riders are not allowed to use their own tack
(saddle and bridle) and are not allowed warm-up time on
their horse, so they are truly judged on their horsemanship
40
skills and riding ability since they generally have never
ridden the horse that they are competing on before.1
Riding for Form and Function
In competitive equestrian sports where the rider is
judged on their equitation (riding form) there is often
pressure put upon them by coaches, peers, and themselves to
be lean.
It is an unspoken but common idea that riders who
are thin are often more likely to place then riders who are
overweight or heavy set since a thin or lean build looks
more ascetically pleasing while riding.
Being lean also
enables the rider to be more flexible and capable of moving
with the horse in order to do certain tasks. But it is also
important for riders to be strong enough to control a
horse, weighting anywhere from 500-2000 lbs, while looking
controlled and organized, and keeping their own body in
proper riding position. The proper riding position enables
the rider to be perfectly balanced on top of the horse and
to move in sync with the animal without putting the horse
off balance.
In order to do this the rider must sit in the
middle of the saddle, with the balls of their feet resting
on the stirrups, their toes pointing forward, and their
heels down.
If the rider were to be seen from the side it
would look like a line could be drawn from the rider’s
41
heels, to their hips, to their shoulders, and through the
center of their head.
It is also important that the rider
keep their head up and looking forward towards where they
are traveling, and that they keep their back straight.2
Figure 4 provides an example of the proper riding position.3
Figure 4: Proper Riding Position
42
Disordered Eating
Types of Disordered Eating
There are many different types of disordered eating
that can affect both the general public and athletes.
For
the purpose of this study anorexia nervosa, bulimia
nervosa, and eating disorders not otherwise specified
(EDNOS) will be described.
Anorexia nervosa (AN) can be defined as a
psychological disorder where the patient has a distorted
body image with an irrational fear of being overweight.4
Seventy six percent of reported cases of AN list onset to
be between the ages of 11 and 20; the later ages being that
of many college aged undergraduate athletes.4 In a study
done by Johnson et al5 on collegiate athletes, 9.2% of
surveyed athletes had behaviors that were consistent with
anorexia and 35% were at risk for developing anorexia.
Furthermore, Burckes-Miller and Black6 reported that 4.2% of
female athletes in their sample met diagnostic criteria for
AN. Thus it is important to recognize that athletes are at
risk for developing AN, and coaches, teammates, and the
medical staff should be able to recognize signs and
symptoms of it.
43
A person with AN generally weighs much less than they
should (at least 15% or more below their ideal body weight
based on age and height), has a BMI of 17.5% or less, has
missed three consecutive menstrual periods, has a
preoccupation with body shape and weight, and has a severe
fear of putting on weight, according to DSM-IV-TR®
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.4 The
physiological signs and symptoms of AN include but are not
limited to: thin appearance, fatigue, abnormal blood
counts, dizziness, brittle nails, thin hair, menstrual
irregularities, constipation, dry skin, irregular heart
rhythms, low blood pressure, dehydration, and low bone
mineral density.7
Several emotional symptoms can also be
present in patients with AN, like refusing to eat, denial
of hunger, excessive exercise, difficulty concentrating,
and a preoccupation with food.7
Recognition of these
symptoms is most important, in order to diagnose and treat
AN before it can lead to further health problems.
Bulimia Nervosa (BN) is another type of eating
disorder that can affect collegiate athletes.
It is
defined as a psychological disorder where the patient goes
through regular bouts of over-eating which leads to guilt
that causes them to purge (self-induced vomiting),
44
excessively exercise, or crash diet.4 In a study performed
by Johnson et al5 that was mentioned before, 1.1% of the
female athletes met the diagnostic criteria for bulimia
nervosa, 9.2% were diagnosed with sub clinical bulimia,
and 38% could be considered at risk for developing
bulimia. Also, Burckes-Miller and Black6 reported that
39.2% of female athletes in their sample met diagnostic
criteria for BN. Based off of these two studies, BN has a
higher rate of occurrence in female athletes than AN.
Female athletes that compete in lean sports also have a
higher percentage of meeting diagnostic criterion for
developing BN than non-lean sports.8
Thus making it all
the more important that those surrounding female athletes
at risk for developing BN be able to recognize the signs
and symptoms.
According to DSM-IV-TR® Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders a patient must meet the
following four criterions to be diagnosed with BN.
The
patient must: repeatedly binge-eat while feeling that they
can’t stop or control their eating, repeatedly and
inappropriately try to compensate for their over-eating
(for example through use of laxative, excessive
exercising, fasting, and purging), been binge-eating and
45
compensating at least twice a week for a consecutive 3
months, and over judge their weight and body shape.4
Physiological signs and symptoms of BN include: abnormal
bowel functioning, damaged teeth and gums (due to
excessive purging), swollen salivary glands in the cheeks
(due to excessive purging), sores in the throat and mouth,
bloating, dehydration, fatigue, dry skin, irregular
heartbeat, sores, scars or calluses on the knuckles or
hands, and either menstrual irregularities or loss of
menstruation (amenorrhea).7
Behavioral and emotional
symptoms of BN include: constant dieting, a feeling that
they can't control their eating behavior, eating until the
point of discomfort or pain, self-induced vomiting,
laxative use, excessive exercise, unhealthy focus on body
shape and weight, having a distorted, excessively negative
body image, going to the bathroom after eating or during
meals, hoarding food, and depression or anxiety.7
In a study done by Katzman and Wolchik9 a sample of
female undergraduates were evaluated for bulimia, binge
eating, or normal eating habits.
It was found that
bulimics had higher levels of the pathology based upon
behavioral and personality variables (depression, selfesteem, and body attitudes) as well as a higher
46
preoccupation with dieting.9 Therefore, as well as bulimia
being more prevalent among female athletes, bulimics also
tend to have more emotional and behavioral symptoms.
The final type of eating disorder (or disorders) that
will be discussed is Eating Disorders Not Otherwise
Specified (EDNOS). In a study done by Ravaldi10 that
evaluated eating disorders among ballet dancers, gymnasts,
and female controls, it was found that 22.1% of ballet
dancers had EDNOS; which was significantly higher than AN
at 1.8% and BN at 2.7%. Also, 18% of gymnasts in this
study were diagnosed with EDNOS, while only 2.6% had AN.10
Based off of this information, it can be suggested that
EDNOS is more prevalent among collegiate female lean-sport
athletes. Thus making it all the more important that
coaches, peers, and sports medicine staff are able to
recognize it.
Patients who suffer from EDNOS are classified into
this type of disorder because although they may have
symptoms of AN or BN, they do not meet the criteria for
them.11 Female patients with an EDNOS must meet the
following criteria: all the criteria for AN must be met
except they have a regular menses, and despite a
significant weight loss, the patient still maintains a
47
normal range BMI.12 Also, all criteria is met for BN except
that the inappropriate compensating behavior (laxative
use, excessive exercising, fasting, and purging) occurs
less than twice a week for less than three months, the
regular use of inappropriate compensating behaviors even
with small amounts of food, and the repeated chewing and
spitting out (not swallowing) of food.12 Additionally,
patients with EDNOS often switch between different types
of eating disorders, making it difficult to diagnose
them.12
Female athletes with EDNOS can use techniques like
excessive dieting, crash diets, fasting, excessive
exercising, purging, or taking diuretics and laxatives.
It was found in a study done by McAllister and Caltabiano,
that 65.15% of women in their study used dieting as a form
of weight loss.13 Also, Petrie14 concluded in his study
that 18% of gymnasts reported using excessive exercise as
their sole mean of weight-loss, and of 33 gymnasts who
were classified as dieter/restrictors 18.2% reported only
using dieting (without exercise) as their form of weight
loss.
Petrie’s finding were consistent with Burckes-
Miller and Black6 who found that over half of the female
college athletes in their sample used exercising
48
excessively as a form of weight control. Furthermore 15%
of female athletes engaged in day-long fasts or fad
diets.6 Based off of this information it can be concluded
that exercise may be more frequently use by female
collegiate athletes, as opposed to dieting and fasting, as
a weight-loss method.
Although there are many types of eating disorders with
differing signs and symptoms for each, the causes of
eating disorders can overlap between different types.
Causes of Disordered Eating
Disordered eating (DE) is a term to describe a
spectrum of attitudes and behaviors like a preoccupation
with body weight and shape, food restriction, and dieting
as well as bingeing, vomiting, and the abuse of diuretics,
laxatives and diet pills.8
Disordered eating in women can
be caused by a combination of psychological, social, and
physiological factors.15 Dissatisfaction with body shape in
the stomach, hips, and thighs has been reported by 80% of
women from ages 19-29 in a study done by McAllister et al.13
In athletes the pressures to be thin can also be influenced
by pressures to lose weight to satisfy personal or coaches
goals, peer pressure from teammates, the focus to have a
49
thin physique, personality characteristics like poor selfesteem, family dysfunction, sexual abuse, dieting, the
types of sport they participate in, and the belief in the
inverse relationship between body size and performance.8,15
In collegiate athletes, the mean age when subjects
felt that their weight became a problem was 22.2 years old,
as seen in a study performed by McAllister et al.13 In fact,
according to Rosen et al,16 32% of a female collegiate
athlete sample practiced pathogenic weight-control
behaviors.
Even more surprisingly, 70% of these athletes
felt that these practices were harmless.
The type of sport can also have an influence on
whether or not the athlete is at risk for developing an
eating disorder.
In previous studies differences have been
found between lean and non-lean sports in regards to DE.
Lean sports consist of gymnastics, swimming/diving, track,
cross-country, dance, and cheerleading, while non-lean
sports consist of softball, volleyball, basketball, rugby,
soccer, and field hockey.
No evidence was found in the
literature that lists equestrian sports as lean or non-lean
sports.
When comparing the risk of developing an eating
disorder in lean to non-lean sports, Reinking and
50
Alexander15 found that 25% of lean sport athletes had more
disordered eating symptoms and were at greater risk of
developing an eating disorder compared to 2.9% in non-lean
sports.
This could be due to the fact that female athletes
in non-lean sports feel that the positive effects of
participating in sports outweigh the pressure of
competitive collegiate athletics in regards to eating
behaviors.15
Some athletes avoid reporting DE because they feel that
if they do, it could lead to problems that might cause them
to be ejected from the team or kept from playing.8 This is a
thought that can be validated by Trattner and Thompson17
that identified the coaches rating of seriousness of eating
disorders/ eating behaviors (see Table 17).
If athletes
are aware of how their coaches feel about eating disorders,
they may be less likely to report such incidences. On the
other hand, athletes in non-lean sports are more prone to
self-report their experiences with eating disorders because
they do not feel that it is a “natural” part of their
sport.8
51
TABLE 17: Coaches’ Ratings of the Seriousness of
Eating/Dieting Behaviors for the Athlete’s Health and
Performance
Behaviors
Health
SD
Performance SD
Greater
Impact
Self-induced 3.90*
.41
3.85*
.46
H*
vomiting
Laxative
3.83*
.50
3.79*
.53
H*
abuse
Diuretic
3.77
.55
3.75
.57
H
abuse
Fasting
3.39*
.85
3.68*
.66
P*
Binge eating 3.24
.78
3.21
.80
H
Skipping 2
2.15*
.74
3.42*
.70
P*
meals/day
Under eating 3.15*
.79
3.35*
.73
P*
Weighing
3.08*
.86
2.61
1.06 H*
multiple
times
Excessive
3.05*
.82
3.10*
.85
P*
exercise
Eating fast
2.58*
.79
2.82*
.86
P*
food
frequently
Skipping 1
2.05*
.78
2.42*
.87
P*
meal/day
Eating fast
1.55*
.71
1.87*
.87
P*
food
occasionally
Note: Mean scores reflect ratings on a 4-point scale (1 = “not at all serious”
to 4 = “very serious”). The symbol H indicates that the behavior was rated as
more serious for the athlete’s health. The symbol P indicates the behavior was
rated as more serious for the athlete’s performance. All behaviors noted with
an * had paired samples t scores significant at <.0001.
In conclusion, there are many different causes of
eating disorders among collegiate female athletes.
It is
important that sports medicine personnel, coaches, and
peers are aware of these causes so that persons at risk can
be easily identified and treated before their disorders
lead to further health problems.
52
Menstrual Irregularities
Often menstrual irregularities are a result of eating
disorders and are used as a criterion for detecting them.18
The median age at menarche is 12.9 years of age.19 The
commonly observed interval between menstrual cycles is 2632 days, which was chosen by Williams et al18 to represent a
“normal” menstrual status.
As a result of their study of
collegiate female athletes, Williams et al18 reported that
cycles that are either shorter or longer than the “normal”
range indicated eating disorders among female athletes.
Williams et al18 also reported that athletes had more
significantly long cycles (79%) than non-athletes (45%).
Types of Menstrual Irregularities
There are many types of menstrual irregularities that
can affect both the general public and athletes alike.
Menstrual disorders can include: amenorrhea,
oligomenorrhea, luteal phase defects, dysmenorrhea,
anovulation, abnormal or excessive uterine bleeding, and
premenstrual syndrome.20,
21
For the purpose of this study
amenorrhea (the primary menstrual irregularity) and
oligomenorrhea will be described.
53
Amenorrhea can be defined as a lack of menstruation,
although there is an inconsistency among the literature in
defining the term.22 Volk explained the criteria for
amenorrhea to be as follows: one menstrual period during
the last ten months, less than three menstrual cycles per
year, and the absence of periods from 3-12 months.22
In her
review of literature, Volk also stated that amenorrhea
occurs almost 20 times more frequently in female athletes
when compared to the general population, and it can exist
in up to 50% of female athletes.22 Besides the absence of
menstruation, amenorrhea can also have symptoms like milky
nipple discharge, headaches, vision changes, and excessive
hair growth on the face and torso (hirsutism).23 Pinheiro et
al24 explained in a review of the literature that women with
amenorrhea also had a significantly lower BMI than those
without amenorrhea.
Amenorrhea can also present itself in different forms,
primary and secondary amenorrhea.
Primary amenorrhea is
the absence of a menstrual period by age 16 with the
presence of secondary sexual characteristics or by the age
of 14 when there are also a lack or secondary sexual
characteristics.21 Secondary amenorrhea is the absence of
menstruation for three to six months after previously going
54
through menstruation.23 Since menarche occurs when body fat
makes up 17% of body weight, secondary amenorrhea then
occurs when body fat falls below 22% of body weight.25
Pinheiro et al24 stated that within patients with BN,
7-40% of patients presented with amenorrhea, 35.6%
presented with secondary amenorrhea, and BN patients with a
history of AN reported the highest frequency of secondary
amenorrhea (77.1%).
A study by Griffith et al26 also found
that 60.6% of gymnasts and 59.8% of cross-country runners
presented with amenorrhea. Among the participants of this
study, 70% of amenorrheic athletes also had eating
disorders.
Lastly, amenorrhea can also occur in normal
weight females that have a low percentage of body fat both
prior to significant weight loss and can continue in AN
patients after weight restoration.24
The second type of menstrual disorder to be discussed
is oligomenorrhea. Oligomenorrhea can be defined as
abnormal infrequent menstruation characterized by only 3 to
6 menstrual cycles per year.27 When menstruation does occur
it is generally profuse, prolonged (up to 10 days), and
loaded with clots and tissue; occasional spotting is also
associated with oligomenorrhea.27 Oligomenorrhea is also
55
more frequent in BN patients, occurring in 37-64% of
patients.24
Causes of Menstrual Irregularities
The causes of menstrual irregularities can vary from
patient to patient depending on the type or menstrual
irregularity, the patient’s age, weight, sport, emotional
stress, psychological factors, or a combination of factors.
For example, Harlow and Matanoski28 reported that there was
an association between life stressors and changes in weight
and long menstrual cycles in college-aged women.
Although several causes for menstrual irregularities
exist most authors agree that hypothalamic dysfunction is
the major cause.
Since the hypothalamus releases
gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH)which regulates the
release of gonadotrophins, like luteinizing hormone (LH)
and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), if it is not
functioning properly these hormones would not be released.
If LH and FSH aren’t released into the body, important sex
hormones like estrogen and progesterone fail to be
released.
Without these hormones normal menstruation will
not occur.22,25
56
Dietary choices can also lead to amenorrhea.
When
dietary sources (calories from fats and carbohydrates) are
limited or restricted metabolic fuels are shunted and
metabolic pathways are blocked.
Without the proper
metabolic balance the hypothalamus will malfunction and
GnRH will not be properly released.22 Correlations have been
found in athletes with diets low in fat and carbohydrates
and menstrual irregularities.22
Poor diet choices as well as sport type can also lead
to a low percentage of body fat, which in turn can also
lead to amenorrhea for the same reason.22,23 As mentioned
before menarche occurs when body fat makes up 17% of body
weight, so when body fat falls below 22% of body weight
amenorrhea may occur.25 Female athletes who practice
restrictive eating habits because it is believed that lower
body weight will result in greater performance levels are
put themselves at high risk for menstrual irregularities.29
For example in a study done by Stokic et al19 that evaluated
ballet dancers, it was reported that the ballet dancers had
lower body weights and BMIs than the control group. Because
of this, the ballet dancers also had a higher prevalence of
amenorrhea (20%) and oligomenorrhea (10%) than the control
group.19
57
It should also be noted that training volume and
intensity can have an effect on the prevalence of menstrual
irregularities.
The term exercise-related menstrual
irregularities (ERMI) has been given to menstrual
irregularities that are caused by prolonged and extreme
endurance exercises.22
These extended exercise sessions can
lead to significant changes in gonadotrophin plasma levels,
lower ovarian blood circulation, and an increase in
metabolism causing changes in metabolic clearances of
endogenous hormones.22 Athletes may also create a negative
energy balance by burning more calories than they consume,
causing dysfuncioning of the hypothalamus.25
Lastly, causes of menstrual irregularities can also
differ depending on the type of eating disorder the patient
has. For example Pinheiro et al24 explain that amenorrhea
occurs in AN patients as a result of malnutrition-induced
impairments in gonadotropin (principally luteininzing
hormone (LH) secretory pattern). In BN patients as a result
of low LH concentrations and reduced LH pulse frequency and
low levels of estradiol and noradrenalin.24
58
Summary
By participating in equestrian sports female athletes
put themselves at risk for sustaining athletic injuries and
illnesses.
It is possible that they are also then at risk
for developing eating disorders and menstrual
irregularities.
Thus the types and causes of eating
disorders and menstrual irregularities were the main focus
of this literature review.
Eating disorders can include anorexia nervosa, bulimia
nervosa, and eating disorders not otherwise specified.
Researchers have attempted to find links between possible
causes of eating disorders and situation factors that might
predispose female athletes to them.
Menstrual irregularities can sometimes be a symptom of
eating disorders that are experienced by female athletes.
Although research has shown that menstrual irregularities
have a link to lean vs. non-lean sports, it still lacks in
what factors can predispose female athletes to them.
It is obvious that eating disorders and menstrual
irregularities are related.
The causes of these conditions
in female athletes can range from sport type, body
dissatisfaction, and physiological and psychological
59
disturbances.
Thus it is important for the sports medicine
staff surrounding female athletes to be aware of them, and
be able to properly diagnose them.
60
APPENIDX B
THE PROBLEM
61
The Problem
Statement of the Problem
Extensive research has been done that has evaluated
the prevalence of eating disorders and menstrual
irregularities among female athletes.
Studies have
attempted to find common variables among female sports that
may cause an athlete to be more predisposed to developing
an eating disorder. Researchers have even gone far enough
to study the effects that these issues have on the female
body in terms of the resulting health issues.
Although
research has been done to discover what sports or types of
sports (lean vs. non-lean) could predispose an athlete, no
research could be found as to whether or not female
equestrian athletes are at risk for developing eating
disorders and menstrual irregularities.
Thus, the purpose of this study is to discover whether
or not there is a prevalence of eating disorders amongst
female collegiate equestrians. A secondary purpose of this
study is to determine the average length of female
collegiate equestrian’s menstrual cycle.
The goal is to
see if there are any significant variables that may
increase the prevalence of eating disorders.
62
Definition of Terms:
The following terms have been defined for the purposes
of this study:
1) Amenorrhea- a lack of or abnormal cessation of
menstruation, either: one menstrual period during
the last ten months, less than three menstrual
cycles per year, and the absence of periods from
3-12 months, can be either primary or secondary22
i.
Primary Amenorrhea- the absence of a
menstrual period by age 16 with the presence
of secondary sexual characteristics or by
the age of 14 when there are also a lack or
secondary sexual characteristics
ii.
Secondary Amenorrhea- the absence of
menstruation for three to six months after
previously going through menstruation
2) Anorexia Nervosa (AN) - a psychological disorder
where the patient has a distorted body image with
an irrational fear of being overweight, according
to DSM-IV-TR® Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders,4 an AN patient:
63
a. weights much less than they should (at least
15% or more below their ideal body weight
based on age and height)
b. has a BMI of 17.5% or less
c. has missed three consecutive menstrual
periods
d. has a preoccupation with body shape and
weight
e. has a severe fear of putting on weight
3) Body Mass Index- an index of a person’s weight in
relation to height, calculated by multiplying the
person’s weight in pounds by 705 and dividing by
the square root of the height in inches
4) Bulimia Nervosa (BN)- according to DSM-IV-TR®
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders,4 a patient with BN:
a. repeatedly binge-eats while feeling that
they can’t stop or control their eating
b. repeatedly and inappropriately tries to
compensate for their over-eating through use
64
of laxative, excessive exercising, fasting,
or purging
c. has been binge-eating and compensating at
least twice a week for a consecutive 3
months
d. over judges their weight and body shape
5) Disordered Eating- a spectrum of attitudes and
behaviors like a preoccupation with body weight
and shape, food restriction, and dieting as well
as bingeing, vomiting, and the abuse of
diuretics, laxatives and diet pills8
6) Eating Disorder- a psychological disorder where
the patient has a distorted body image which
leads them to consume an insufficient amount of
nutrients to maintain normal, healthy life
7) Equestrian Sports- sporting events where an
athlete participates as a team with a horse
8) Normal Menstrual Cycle- the functioning of
reproductive organs and glands that prepare a
women’s body for pregnancy and child birth, made
up of three phases within 26-32 days17
65
9) Oligomenorrhea- abnormal infrequent menstruation
characterized by only 3 to 6 menstrual cycles per
year
Basic Assumptions
There were several basic assumptions that were made
for the purpose of this study.
1) The subjects will answer all questions honestly and to
the best of their knowledge.
2) The subjects will not receive assistance from any
outside individual or source on any of the questions.
3) The sample is a representative of the population of
female collegiate equestrians.
Limitations of the Study:
The following are possible limitations of the study:
1. The study only consisted of female collegiate
athletes from the Intercollegiate Horse Show
Association.
2. The study only consisted of subjects who are 18
years or older.
66
Significance of the Study:
Professionals working around female equestrians should
possess adequate knowledge of eating disorders.
Since many
equestrian sports teams do not have a sports medicine
person on staff, it is even more important that coaches are
able to recognize signs and symptoms in athletes that may
be at risk.
The timely identification of these topics is
essential to decrease the risk of an athlete developing the
adverse effects that result from eating disorders.
Those
surrounding female equestrians should also be able to
recognize and refer at risk patients to the proper health
care professionals.
This study examined eating disorders among collegiate
female equestrian athletes.
Thus, this study provided
results on this topic for female equestrian athletes and
those who work with them.
Furthering their education on
eating disorders could potentially lead to increased health
in the female equestrian population.
67
APPENDIX C
ADDITIONAL METHODS
68
APPENDIX C1
Eating Behaviors and Demographics Questionnaire
69
EATING BEHAVIORS AND DEMOGRAPHICS QUESTIONNAIRE
Please answer all questions honestly and to the best of
your knowledge, without any assistance. Please understand
that this questionnaire is voluntary. If you feel
uncomfortable answering any question, please feel free to
leave it blank.
Age:
Height:
Weight:
Class Rank: Freshman
Senior
Sophomore
Junior
Graduate Student
•
On average, how long is your normal menstrual cycle in
days (from the start of one period to the beginning of
the next period)?
•
Do you use a form of female hormonal contraceptive (ex.
birth control pills, the patch, the shot)?
Yes:________ No:________
•
If you answered “yes” to the previous question, please
answer the next question.
Do you use this contraceptive to regulate your
menstrual cycle?
Yes:________ No:________
•
Please place a check mark next to the ONE riding event
that you consider to be your MAIN event from the
following list.
hunter/jumper
reining
Equitation
western pleasure
dressage
barrel racing/speed events
70
Please circle a response for each of the following
statements:
1. Am terrified about being overweight
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
2. Avoid eating when I am hungry
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
3. Find myself preoccupied with food
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
4. Have gone on eating binges where I feel that I may not
be able to stop
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
5. Cut my food into small pieces
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
6. Aware of the calorie content of foods that I eat
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
7. Particularly avoid foods with high carbohydrate content
(i.e. bread, rice, potatoes ,etc.)
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
8. Feel that others would prefer if I ate more
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
9. Vomit after I have eaten
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
10. Feel extremely guilty after eating
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
11. Am preoccupied with a desire to be thinner
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
12. Think about burning up calories when I exercise
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
13. Other people think that I am too thin
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
14. Am preoccupied with the thought of having fat on my
body
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
71
15. Take longer than others to eat my meals
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
16. Avoid foods with sugar in them
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
17. Eat diet foods
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
18. Feel that food controls my life
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
19. Display self-control around food
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
20. Feel that others pressure me to eat
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
21. Give too much time and thought to food
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
22. Feel uncomfortable after eating sweets
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
23. Engage in dieting behavior
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
24. I like my stomach to be empty
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
25. Enjoy trying new rich foods
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
26. Have the impulse to vomit after meals
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
Total Score_________
72
Please respond to the following questions:
1) Have you gone on eating binges where you feel that you
may not be able to stop? (Eating much more than most people
would eat under the same circumstances)
No______ Yes______
If yes, how many times in the last 6 months?______
2) Have you ever made yourself sick (vomited) to control
your weight or shape?
No______ Yes______
If yes, how many times in the last 6 months?______
3) Have you ever used laxatives, diet pills, or diuretics
(water pills) to control your weight or shape?
No______ Yes______
If yes, how many times in the last 6 months?______
4) Have you ever been treated for an eating disorder?
No______ Yes______
If yes, when?
73
Scoring the Eating Attitudes Test:
For all items (except #25), each of the responses
receives the following value:
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
=
=
=
=
=
=
3
2
1
0
0
0
For item #25, the responses receive these values:
Always
= 0
Usually
= 0
Often
= 0
Sometimes = 1
Rarely
= 2
Never
= 3
After scoring each item, add the scores for a total.
If your total score is greater than 20, the participant has
a disordered eating issue, and realistically should be seen
by a counselor. If the participant answered “yes” to any of
the last four yes/no questions, they are also considered to
have a disordered eating issue.
74
APPENDIX C2
INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD
75
Date of Previous IRB Protocol
76
77
78
79
80
APPENDIX C3
EMAIL SENT TO IHSA BOARD
81
Naomi Blumenthal
Hello, my name is Alexandra Houck and I am a graduate athletic training student at
California University of Pennsylvania. As part of my graduate studies I am required to
complete a thesis. The topic that I have chosen for my thesis is “The prevalence of eating
disorders and menstrual irregularities in collegiate equestrian sports.” Being an
equestrian myself I have felt the pressures to be thin and have been able to recognize a
need for a study such as this. By completing this study I hope to shed a light on the
prevalence of eating disorders and menstrual irregularities in equestrian sports (if there is
a notable number to be found) so that healthy eating habits can be developed and
encouraged among any suffering equestrians to promote a safer, healthier competitive
environment.
I had previously consulted with Robert Cacchione to inquire about getting the survey
distributed to the equestrian participants in the IHSA. I spoke with him on the phone
about my thesis and he was very excited and informed me that you were the lady to email
about getting my survey sent out. We spoke about how the survey will remain
anonymous and that I will not have any contact or way of knowing who participated in
the survey, all I will receive back from the participants are the results of the survey. He
also mentioned that the distribution of the survey may have to be approved by the IHSA
board which meets in January, but time constraints on my thesis mean that I have to have
the survey distributed in January. Thus this is something we may have to talk about and
brainstorm over the phone.
In order to complete this study though I am in need of subjects to complete a survey that
is composed of questions concerning eating disorders and menstrual irregularities. The
identity of the subjects will remain anonymous as it is important to legally protect their
rights. The survey has not yet been set up or completed (and probably won’t be up and
running until January of 2009) as I wanted to be sure that I had a subject basis first. I am
hoping that the IHSA will see the importance of this study and will be willing to help out.
Please contact me with any questions you may have about the survey and whether or not
the IHSA will be able to help me complete my thesis study. My email address is
hou1486@cup.edu and my personal cell phone # is (410) 428-6807. Please provide
information I will need to conduct the study (i.e. contact person’s name, email, and
phone). Thank you very much for the time you are taking to read and respond to my
email, it is greatly appreciated.
82
APPENDIX C4
COVER LETTER TO PARTICIPANTS
83
Dear Participants:
I am a master’s degree candidate at California University
of Pennsylvania, requesting your help to complete part of
my degree requirements. As a fellow equestrian, the
researcher feels an honest concern that there may be a
connection between equestrian sports and eating disorders
(and the possible menstrual irregularities that can result
from them). Thus I am conducting this study to see if any
connection does exist. The results of this study (not
including individual information) will be published in
medical journals to inform the medical community if there
is a possible connection between equestrian sports and
eating disorders. The female equestrians of the IHSA have
been chosen as the subjects for this study because the
researcher feels that this group is the best representation
of female collegiate equestrians across the nation. Please
follow the link at the end of this letter to an online
survey titled: Eating Behaviors and Demographics
Questionnaire.
The questionnaire consists of 38 questions, which will take
about 5 to 10 minutes to complete. Due to this being a
survey there is minimal risk involved as confidentiality
will be maintained.
All equestrians in the Intercollegiate Horse Show
Association are being asked to complete this questionnaire,
although you do have the right to choose not to participate
or to discontinue participation at any time. If the
participant chooses to discontinue the survey (by clicking
the EXIT THIS SURVEY button on the top of the webpage) then
all information will be discarded. Participants of this
survey must be 18 years of age or older. The California
University of Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board has
approved this study for the Protection of Human Subjects.
This approval is effective 02/04/2009 and expires
02/03/2010.
This is an anonymous questionnaire and upon submission,
neither your name nor email address will be attached to
your answers. Your information will be kept strictly
confidential and it will only be accessible to the primary
researcher. All individual survey information will be
stored on a password protected online database that only
the primary researcher will have access to. Upon
completion of the study all individual survey results will
be deleted. By completion of the survey, you are giving
84
consent for me to use the results of your survey in the
study.
As an equestrian in the IHSA, your information and opinions
regarding this topic makes your input invaluable. Please
take a few minutes to fill out the anonymous questionnaire
you will find by clicking on this link…
http://www.surveymonkey.com/s.aspx?sm=AtE_2fHkisSgVpImZMZ_2
fr1eg_3d_3d
If you have any concerns or questions please feel free to
contact me through email at hou1486@cup.edu or by phone at
(410)428-6807. Thank you for your time and consideration.
Sincerely,
Alexandra Houck, ATC
California University of Pennsylvania
250 University Avenue
California, PA 15419
Hou1486@cup.edu
(410)428-6807
Carol Biddington, EdD
Faculty Advisor
Health Science and Sport Studies
Biddington@cup.edu
724-938-4562
85
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ABSTRACT
Title:
THE PREVALENCE OF EATING DISORDERS AMONG
FEMALE COLLEGIATE EQUESTRIAN ATHLETES
Researcher:
Alexandra M. Houck
Advisor:
Dr. Carol Biddington
Date:
May 2009
Research Type: Master’s Thesis
Purpose:
The purpose of this study was to determine a
prevalence of eating disorders among female
collegiate equestrian athletes.
Problem:
No research could be found as to whether or
not female equestrian athletes are at risk
for developing eating disorders and
menstrual irregularities. It must be
determined if this population is at risk so
that they can be treated accordingly.
Methods:
A descriptive type of research was
conducted. One hundred and twenty seven
female collegiate equestrians from the
Intercollegiate Horse Show Association
volunteered for the study. The instrument
used was the Eating Behaviors and
Demographics Questionnaire.
Findings:
Equestrians who practice binge eating or
purging have significantly higher eating
disorder than those who do not. Equestrians
who use substances for weight control have
significantly higher eating disorders than
those who do not. A significant number of
female collegiate equestrian athletes have
eating disorder issues.
Conclusions:
Eating disorders are prevalent in the female
collegiate equestrian sport population.