CORRELATION BETWEEN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND JOB SATISFACTION
AMONG ATHLETIC TRAINERS

A THESIS
Submitted to the Faculty of the School of Graduate Studies
and Research
of
California University of Pennsylvania in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science

by
Kristin Defenbaugh

Research Advisor, Dr. Shelly DiCesaro
California, Pennsylvania
2011

ii

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to take this opportunity to thank all my
committee members and professors. Dr. Shelly DiCesaro for
providing me guidance throughout this process, as well as
an opportunity to learn and grow and for always being
willing to listen. Dr. Bruce Barnhart and Dr. Ayanna Lyles
for providing great insight and opinion that helped build
this project. Dr. Tom West for always finding time for his
students and helping us accomplish so much in one year‟s
time. Without the support of these individuals I would
never have been able to complete this thesis.
To my roommates and great friends Katy Annunziata,
Jackie Coyne, and Joanna Murray. Although we are all going
to be in different places I know we will never forget the
crazy and interesting journey this past year has been. I
wish all three of you an amazing future and lots of
happiness.
Thanks to my family Dad, Mom, Paul, Kelsey, Kylie and
extended family for their support, love and understanding
during this challenging year so far from home. A special
thanks to my Grandma Books for believing in me and helping
me find my survey.
Also, to my boyfriend Zach Kutch. Thank you for always
listening and giving advice. I look forward to our theses
sitting side by side on the bookcase.
To my coaches, faculty, and athletes at Frazier High
School. Thank you for making me feel so welcome and like a
part of the Commodore family. The opportunity to work with
you all has helped me grow as an Athletic Trainer and given
me confidence and pride in my work. I will never forget my
time spent with you all. Go „Dores!

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
SIGNATURE PAGE

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

AKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
INTRODUCTION
METHOD

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Research Design
Subject

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Instrumentation

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Procedures

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Hypotheses

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Data Analysis
RESULTS

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Demographic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Hypotheses Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Additional Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Discussion of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Recommendations

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

v

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
APPENDIX A: Review of Literature
Athletic Training Profession

. . . . . . . . . 34

. . . . . . . . . . 36

Importance of Physical Activity . . . . . . . . . 38
Link between Physical Fitness and Lowered Stress

. . 39

Physical Activity for Athletic Trainers . . . . 41
Level of Fitness for Other Health Professionals

45

Job Satisfaction of Athletic Trainers . . . . . 47
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
APPENDIX B: The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Basic Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Significance of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
APPENDIX C: Additional Methods . . . . . . . . . . 58
IRB: California University of Pennsylvania (C1) . . . 59
Cover Letter Preceding Survey (C2) . . . . . . . .

62

The Physical Activity and Job Satisfaction Questionnaire
for Athletic Trainers

. . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

vi
LIST OF TABLES

1

Frequency Table of Gender

. . . . . . . 13

2

Frequency Table of NATA District . . . . . 13

3

Frequency Table of Characteristics of
Athletic Trainers . . . . . . . . . . . 13

4

Frequency Table of Highest Degree Earned. . 14

5

Frequency of Job Title . . . . . . . . . 14

6

Frequency of Employment Setting . . . . . 14

7

Pearson Product-Moment Correlation
Between Physical Fitness Scores and Job
Satisfaction Scores . . . . . . . . . . 15

8

MANOA for Job Satisfaction, Physical Fitness
Scores, and Employment Settings . . . . . 16

9

Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Between
Years Certified and Job Satisfaction . . . 17

vii
LIST OF FIGURES

1

Degree Earned by Job Satisfaction Box Plot . 18

2

Gender by Physical Fitness Score . . . . . 19

1

INTRODUCTION

The job of an Athletic Trainer often requires them to
be the first one at an event and the last one to leave.
They are usually required to be at every practice, game,
and even off days to provide treatment or rehabilitation.
Hours can change from day to day and season to season.
Athletic Trainers may find it impossible to form a regular
schedule and routine in their daily living. It is important
that these individuals remember to care for themselves and
their health so that they are able to perform their jobs to
the best of their ability and to enjoy a long and healthy
life.
It may be thought that because Athletic Trainers are
considered allied healthcare professionals, they “practice
what they preach” and are exercising regularly but this may
conflict with the hours and demands that the profession
places upon individuals. It has been found that Athletic
Trainers can have higher than normal levels of burnout and
stress and lower than normal levels of job satisfaction
that may lead to poor health practices.1-3 Job satisfaction
can be thought of as having a sense of pride and

2
accomplishment in one‟s job and enjoying one‟s day to day
tasks.4 These levels of stress, burnout, and job
dissatisfaction have been found to be caused from lack of
control over scheduling and staffing patterns in the work
place.3,5 Meaning, these individuals are unable to have an
opinion or say in the hours or specific time they will be
working. Staffing patterns refer to the particular way that
individuals at a facility are organized in a chain of
command.5
It is known that exercising and participating in
physical activity can help lower stress levels and give a
variety of overall health benefits.6,7 Several studies have
examined the physical activity levels of Athletic Trainers
and have produced somewhat conflicting results.8-11 It is the
general consensus that Athletic Trainers on average have
higher physical fitness levels that the general population
but do not typically meet guidelines set forth by the
American College of Sports Medicine.7,8 Because they do not
meet physical fitness guidelines, some believe that
Athletic Trainers are not “role models for health
behavior”.9 Other studies have also compared the physical
fitness levels of Athletic Trainers in different job
settings, and again found conflicting results.9,10

3
Other allied healthcare professions such as Physical
Therapy, nursing, and physicians have attempted to study
their physical fitness habits as well.12-16 Physical
Therapists and nurses found that their respective members
have higher rates of physical activity than the general
public and are meeting ACSM guidelines.12-14 In one study
physicians reported exercising regularly at a level 30%
than the general population.15 Another study found that
physicians who reported healthier habits regarding
exercising, eating, and smoking were less likely to
experience anxiety, job stress, and had great life
satisfaction.16 Although these professions may be similar in
some aspects of the job, it is important to remember that
hours and consistency of the job are very different and
typically far more stable than those of an Athletic
Trainer.
Because physical activity can help lower stress and
gives numerous other health benefits it is important for
all individuals to exercise regularly but particularly
those who are exposed to higher levels of stress and
burnout, such as Athletic Trainers.5,17 By working to lower
these stress levels, these individuals could potentially
find themselves happier thus raising their job satisfaction
levels.

4
This study will attempt to determine if a correlation
exists between Athletic Trainer‟s perceived physical
activity and job satisfaction scores. It will also attempt
to compare Athletic Trainers of different job settings to
determine if there is a significant difference in physical
activity scores between job settings as well as a
significant difference in job satisfaction and different
job settings. Implications of this study may emphasize the
vital importance of routine physical activity for the
overall quality of life of Athletic Trainers.

5

METHODS

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the
level of physical activity and job satisfaction for
Athletic Trainers. The study also attempted to determine if
a significant difference existed between job settings for
physical fitness and job satisfaction. This section
includes the following subsections: Research Design,
Subjects, Instrumentation, Procedures, Hypothesis, and Data
Analysis.

Research Design

This research was a descriptive study using a
questionnaire. The two dependent variables used in this
study were physical activity scores and job satisfaction
scores as determined by a calculated numerical score. The
strengths of the study were the reliable and validated
Baecke Questionnaire of Habitual Physical Activity and the
Job Satisfaction Survey©18-22 (JSS). The questionnaire also
included demographic questions allowing the researcher to
describe the typical survey respondent as well as make
comparisons between groups.

The survey was sent to 1,000

6
participants via the National Athletic Trainers‟
Association survey system.

Subjects

Participants used in this study consisted of 1,000
certified Athletic Trainers chosen at random from the
National Athletic Trainers‟ Association survey system. As
of March 2011 there were 27,779 certified Athletic Trainers
who were members of the NATA.23 The recommended target
sample size for this population is 377-379 individuals.24 A
response rate of 113-151 is considered “average” for a webbased survey of this population, while a response of 188190 is considered “good” and 226-227 is considered a “very
good” for this target sample size.25
Upon approval from the California University of
Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board (Appendix 1) each
subject was asked to participate in an online survey that
took approximately 20 minutes to complete. The survey was
distributed through the program Survey Monkey™ and was sent
through a link in an email distributed to participants.
Each email contained a cover letter explaining the purpose
of the study as well as risks and benefits of participation
(Appendix C2). Informed consent was assumed by the

7
subject‟s participation in the survey. Each participant‟s
identity remained confidential and was not included in the
study.

Instrumentation

The custom made survey used for this study
incorporated The Baecke Questionnaire of Habitual Physical
Activity18 and the Job Satisfaction Survey©19 (JSS) Copyright
Paul E. Spector 1994, All rights reserved. Both surveys
were used in their entirety.

Additional demographic

questions were added to include questions on job setting,
job title, gender, years of practice, and age. The survey
was called The Physical Activity and Job Satisfaction
Questionnaire for Athletic Trainers (Appendix C3). The
Physical Activity and Job Satisfaction Questionnaire for
Athletic Trainers included seven demographic questions, 17
questions from The Baecke Questionnaire of Physical
Activity18, and 36 questions from the Job Satisfaction
Survey©19.
The Baecke Questionnaire was divided into three
sections: work, exercise, and non sport leisure activity.
Each question utilized a five-point Likert scale for
responses using a 1(never) to a 5(always/very often). Each

8
section was scored using a special formula, rounding each
section to a tenth of a point. The maximum point for each
section was five points; leading to a range of total scores
from three to fifteen points.18 The total score was then
used as the participants “physical fitness score”. The JSS©
utilizes a nine facet scale to look at individual‟s
satisfaction with their job. These nine subsections include
pay, promotion, supervision, fringe benefits, contingent
reward, operating procedures, coworkers, nature of work,
and communication.21 Thirty-six questions are asked and
scored on a six-point Likert scale from 1(disagree very
much) to 6(agree very much)and a point value is assigned to
each response. Nineteen of the questions are worded
negatively and scores are reversed for those particular
questions. For this study only the composite score of all
questions was utilized to give individuals their “job
satisfaction score”.

All subjects were asked to answer

questions honestly and to the best of their ability.
Both surveys in this studies have been utilized in
previous research and have had the reliability tested.

N.

Van Saane et al20 looked at the Job Satisfaction Survey©
using a test re-test and running a Pearson‟s correlation
coefficient found the reliability to be .71. The Baecke
Questionnaire of Habitual Activity has been tested for

9
reliability using several different populations.
Philippaerts and Lefevre21 used a test-retest method and ran
a intraclass correlation (ICC) on a group of all male
participants and found the reliability to be .86. Ono et
al22 also used a test-retest method and an ICC on a group of
all females and found the reliability to be .87. When using
a Pearson‟s correlation test correlations greater than .7
are considered strong.26 Values for ICC tests greater than
.75 they are considered strong and substantial.21
Validity was also assessed for these instruments by
the same authors. Ono utilizes a Spearman‟s rank
correlation coefficient to test for the convergent validity
of Baecke Questionnaire of Physical Activity against a
pedometer and found criterion validity to be .49 which is
found to be a moderate correlation.22 Van Saane et al tested
the Job Satisfaction Survey against the Job Descriptive
Index using a multi-trait multi-method and found convergent
validity to be .61-.8 which is considered moderate to
high.20

Procedure

Once IRB approval was obtained, a request was sent to
the NATA District II Secretary asking that the survey be

10
sent to a random sample of 1,000 certified Athletic
Trainers. The request included a copy of IRB approval
confirmation, the survey instrument, as well as paperwork
describing the requested population. The request was then
forwarded from the District II Secretary to the appropriate
department within the NATA. The NATA then sent an email
with a copy of a cover letter (Appendix C2) and a link to
the survey via Survey Monkey™ to 1,000 BOC certified
Athletic Trainers. The cover letter described the purpose
of the study, indicated that subjects were not required to
participate, and confirmed that their identity will remain
anonymous. Participants were asked to complete the survey
as soon as possible. Two reminder emails were sent by the
NATA to all participants on the 5th and 12th day after the
initial e-mail was sent. These dates were chosen due to
convenience with the NATA survey system. The reminder email
also included a similar cover letter and link to the
survey. Once participants completed the survey by clicking
submit they were taken to a page thanking them for their
contribution to research and allow them to be taken to the
California University of Pennsylvania website. All
completed surveys were returned electronically to the
researcher and then analyzed.

11
Hypotheses

The following hypotheses are based on previous
research and the researcher‟s intuition after a review of
the literature. Significance will be set at an alpha level
of .05.
1.

There will be a positive relationship between
physical activity scores and job satisfaction
scores.

2.

There will be a significant difference between
job settings for physical fitness scores and job
satisfaction scores.

Data Analysis

All data will be analyzed using PASW version 18.0 for
Windows at an alpha level of P < 0.05.

The research

hypotheses will be analyzed using a Pearson Product Moment
Correlation to determine the relationships between physical
fitness scores and job satisfaction scores. Hypothesis 2
will be tested with an MANOVA to compare physical fitness
scores and job satisfaction scores between Athletic
Trainers in different employment settings.

12
RESULTS

Demographic Data

Certified Athletic Trainers that were members of the
National Athletic Trainers‟ Association (N = 286)
voluntarily participated in this study. The survey was
originally sent out to a random sample of 1,000 members of
the NATA. Two hundred fifty eight of these surveys were
fully completed and able to be analyzed for their data, a
25.8% overall response rate. This places the response rate
at “very good” for the target sample size of the
population.25
It is important to note that of the twenty eight
surveys that were incomplete twenty five were completed 2/3
of the way, meaning individuals completed the Baecke
Questionnaire of Habitual Physical Activity and
demographics questions but not the Job Satisfaction
Survey©. This was speculated to be caused from the length
and the time it took to complete the survey. The survey was
formatted into 3 separate sections with the JSS© being the
third and longest portion.
The following tables (Tables 1-6) represent various
demographic data regarding the participants in this study.

13
Table 1 represents gender information about these Athletic
Trainers.
Table 1. Gender of Participants
Classification
Frequency
Female
132
Male
125
No Response
1

Percent
51.2
48.4
.4

Table 2 represents the NATA district that the Athletic
Trainer is employed.
Table 2. Demographics of District
District
Frequency
I
19
II
42
III
36
IV
51
V
18
VI
15
VII
13
VIII
27
IX
24
X
13

Percent
7.4
16.3
14.0
19.8
7.0
5.8
5.0
10.5
9.3
5.0

Table 3 represents the age and years certified as an
Athletic Trainer.
Table 3. Characteristics of Athletic Trainers
Characteristic
Range
Mean ± SD
Age
22-67
34.97 ± 10.537
Years Experience

.5-40

11.77 ± 9.5808

Table 4 represents the highest degree earned by the
Athletic Trainer

14
Table 4. Highest Degree Earned
Classification
Frequency
Bachelor‟s
94
Master‟s
151
Doctorate
12
No Response
1

Percent
36.4
58.8
4.7
.4

Table 5 represents the job title of the Athletic Trainer.
Table 5. Job Title
Classification
Head Athletic Trainer
Asst. Athletic Trainer
Program Director
Professor
Graduate Assistant
Other

Frequency
100
60
10
9
22
57

Percent
38.8
23.3
3.9
3.5
8.5
22.1

Table 6 represents the employment setting of the Athletic
Trainer.
Table 6. Employment Setting
Classification
Frequency
Clinic
19
Clinic/High School
26
College/University
111
High School
59
Hospital/High School
15
Industrial
8
Military/Government
1
Performing Arts
1
Professional Athletics
3
Sports Club/Youth Sports
0
Other
15

Percent
5.4
10.1
43.0
22.9
5.8
3.1
.4
.4
1.2
0.0
5.8

Participants from Military/Government, Performing Arts,
Professional Athletics, and Sports Club/Youth Sports were
not represented highly enough in the sample and their

15
information was unusable for data collection utilizing job
settings.

Hypotheses Testing

The following hypotheses were tested for this study
with an alpha level of .05 for significance
Hypothesis 1: There will be a positive relationship
between physical activity and job satisfaction.
A Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used to test
for a correlation between physical activity scores and job
satisfaction scores for certified Athletic Trainers. An
insignificant weak positive correlation was found (r (255)
=.024, p>.05) implying that physical fitness scores are not
related to job satisfaction scores. The results can be seen
in Table 7.

Table 7. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation between
Physical Fitness Scores and Job Satisfaction Scores
Variable
n
r
P
Physical
257
.024
.702
Fitness
Scores and
Job
Satisfaction
Scores

16
Conclusion: Physical fitness scores are not related to job
satisfaction.

Hypothesis 2: There will be a significant difference
between job settings for physical fitness and job
satisfaction.
The physical fitness scores and job satisfaction
scores from Athletic Trainers in different job settings
were compared using a factorial MANOVA. No significant
effect was found (Lambda (10,500) =.955, p>.05). Neither
physical fitness scores nor job satisfaction scores were
significantly influenced by employment setting.

Table 8. A MANOVA for Job Satisfaction Scores, Physical
Fitness Scores and Employment Settings.
Source

Dependent
Variable

Type III
Sum of
Squares

df

MS

F

P

PF*
11.990
5
2.398
1.551
.174
JS**
2436.297
5
487.259
.826
.532
*PF (Physical Fitness), **JS (Job Satisfaction)
Conclusion: Employment setting has no significant effect on
job satisfaction scores and physical fitness scores.

17
Additional Findings

A Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used to test
if there was a correlation between years as a certified
Athletic Trainer and job satisfaction scores. A weak
positive relationship was found (r(255)=.133, p<.005),
indicating a significant linear relationship and implying
that job satisfaction is positively related to years
certified as an Athletic Trainer. The results can be seen
in Table 9.
Table 9. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation between Years
Certified and Job Satisfaction Scores
Variable
n
r
P
Years
257
.133
.033
Certified and
Job
Satisfaction
Scores
Conclusion: Job Satisfaction Scores are positively
correlated to Years Certified as an Athletic Trainer.

18
Figure 1 looked at job satisfaction scores based upon
the highest degree an individual had earned. The box
depicts all the job satisfaction scores for the sample,
while the solid black line within the box represents the
median job satisfaction score. As the median scores appear
to increase with degree earned, they are not found to
increase significantly.

B D*

M D**

D D***

*BD= Bachelor’s Degree MD= Master’s Degree DD=Doctorate
Degree
Figure 1. Job Satisfaction Based Upon Highest Degree Earned

19
Figure 2 looked at physical fitness scores based upon
gender. The box depicts all the physical fitness scores for
the sample, while the solid black line within the box
represents the median physical fitness score. Median
physical fitness scores for females and males are found to
be very similar within this sample.

Female

Figure 2. Fitness Scores Based Upon Gender

Male

20
DISCUSSION

The following section will include: 1) Discussion of
Results, 2) Conclusions, and 3) Recommendations

Discussion of Results

The main focus of this study was to find a potential
correlation between physical fitness scores and job
satisfaction scores among certified Athletic Trainers.
These scores were also compared with other variables such
as gender, years certified, highest degree earned, and
employment setting.
It may be assumed that because Athletic Trainers are
allied healthcare professionals, they practice healthy
exercise habits daily. Previous studies have found that
although Athletic Trainers tend to be healthier than the
general population they are not meeting daily fitness
guidelines set forth by the American College of Sports
Medicine.7-8 Due to these findings some believe that
Athletic Trainers are not “role models for healthy
behavior”.9 Other research has attempted to compare physical
activity of Athletic Trainers in different job settings and
have failed to find consistent results.

21
Previous research has also found that Athletic
Trainers have higher than normal levels of burnout and
lower levels than normal of job satisfaction than other
professions.1-3 These levels have been attributed to lack of
control over scheduling, staffing patterns, inconsistent
hours, and an inability to create a routine schedule around
one‟s job.3,5 It is a known fact that exercising and other
means of physical activity can help lower one‟s stress
level and allow those individuals to reap a variety of
other health benefits.6-7
Hypothesis 1 stated that there would be a positive
correlation between physical fitness scores and job
satisfaction scores. The researcher hypothesized that due
to previous findings, individuals who have more time in
their routine to be physically active are able to release
stress and tension and may avoid burnout, which leads to
lower job satisfaction.1-2,6,7 In addition, those Athletic
Trainers who have more routine hours with their job can
find times daily to be physically active and may have
higher satisfaction due to a more consistent schedule.
Other healthcare professionals whose physical fitness
habits have been studied such as Physical Therapists,
physicians, and nurses have higher rates of physical
activity than the general population. Physical Therapists

22
and nurses also have been found to generally meet daily
fitness guidelines.12,13 Two studies on Physical Therapists
by Chevan et al and Galzer-Waldman et al found that
population to exceed ACSM guidelines as well as those of
other allied healthcare professions.12,13 The authors felt
this was due to the fact that Physical Therapists work to
educate their patients about the importance of physical
activity and that “movement plays a central role in the
profession of physical therapy”, meaning that already
active individuals may be more inclined to pursue a career
in that particular field.12 Both of these statements can be
true of the Athletic Training profession.
A previous study by Lawerence et al found that
physicians who reported healthier habits with eating,
drinking, smoking and exercising experienced less anxiety,
job stress, and had greater life satisfaction.16 The
professions mentioned are not known to have higher than
average levels of burnout or lower than normal levels of
job satisfaction. These studies lead the researcher to
believe that there may be a correlation between physical
fitness and job satisfaction.
It was found that there was no significant correlation
between physical fitness scores and job satisfaction
scores. The insignificant correlation that existed was

23
positive and considered very weak. At the present time no
published research could be found that utilizes a
correlational test between physical fitness scores and job
satisfaction scores for Athletic Trainers or any other
profession. Athletic Trainers may differ from other
healthcare professionals in fitness levels and job
satisfaction because of their potential for an inconsistent
and uncontrollable schedule. There may also be other
variables present in Athletic Trainers jobs or lives that
do not affect other allied healthcare professionals.
Hypothesis 2 stated that there would be a significant
difference between job settings for physical fitness scores
and job satisfaction scores. Cuppett et al utilized the
Baecke Questionnaire of Physical Activity and found that
Athletic Trainers working in the clinical setting had the
highest mean activity score of all employment settings and
scored significantly higher than those working in the high
school and collegiate setting.10 Oki also utilized the
Baecke Questionnaire of Physical Activity but found no
significant difference between employment settings.9 At the
present time these are the only published study to compare
physical fitness scores and employment settings for
Athletic Trainers.

24
As for previous studies looking at Athletic Trainers‟
job satisfaction, the research has primarily focused on
what factors are causing lower job satisfaction and have
each looked at one particular employment setting such as
the high school or Division I collegiate setting.3,5,28
Previous research found that the main factors in low job
satisfaction are high volumes of work, low administrative
support, lack of control over schedule, and staffing
patterns.3,5

There is no published research comparing both

job satisfaction and physical activity against employment
settings.
The previous research performed in these areas has
been both conflicting and incomplete. It was hypothesized
by the researcher that Athletic Trainers who work in
settings with more stable hours and schedules such as
clinics and hospitals would have higher fitness scores and
job satisfaction as opposed to individuals who worked in
the collegiate or high school setting, which may have less
consistent schedules and higher volumes of work.
No significant difference was found between job
settings for physical fitness and job satisfaction scores.
These results indicate that the setting one works in may be
indifferent as to whether their job satisfaction and
physical fitness scores are considered high or low. These

25
scores may be more dependent on individual motivation,
personal life, health habits or other factors. Individual
personalities, as well as the way one adapts to and handles
stress may also play a role as to how one perceives their
overall job satisfaction.
It is important to note that due to low subgroup
response rates, individuals who work in the
military/government, performing arts, sports club/youth
sports and professional athletes were not included in this
portion of the data analysis. It would be interesting to
further investigate as to why these particular subgroups
were nonresponsive or not represented highly enough in this
sample.
In addition to the two hypotheses, several statistical
analyses were performed to obtain additional findings. When
looking at years certified as an Athletic Trainer a
significant weak correlation was found with job
satisfaction scores. Meaning, the more years an individual
was certified, and presumably working as an Athletic
Trainer, the more satisfied they were with their job. The
researcher hypothesized that this could be due potentially
to higher wages, higher status within an organization, or
more job stability. It is possible that the longer an

26
individual is in the field the more chance they could have
to explore and to find their ideal employment setting.
Another interesting finding is illustrated in Figure
1; showing that the higher degree one holds the higher the
median scores for job satisfaction. While scores appear to
increase with highest degree earned it was found using a
one-way ANOVA that scores did not increase significantly.
It is possible that Athletic Trainers with higher degrees
may have more control and choice over the setting that they
work in. They may also supervise or instruct other Athletic
Trainers or health care professional below them thus being
able to eliminate some factors that cause job
dissatisfaction such as lack of control over scheduling and
staffing patterns. Using a larger and evenly dispersed
sample size may provide a more accurate portrayal of the
results.
Figure 2 compared physical fitness scores between
genders. (Females being 1 and Males being 2) The scores for
both sexes are quite similar, which was consistent with
previous studies by Oki and Budruck et al.9,11 This finding
was inconsistent with Cuppett et al. who found females to
have a higher activity level.10

27
Conclusion

Upon reviewing the results of this survey it can be
concluded that there is not a significant correlation
between physical fitness scores and job satisfaction scores
for certified Athletic Trainers but that research should
not cease in this area. A very weak correlation did exist
and because this was the first study of its type, further
research with these variables is necessary. It has been
found in several studies that Athletic Trainers do not meet
ACSM guidelines for daily physical fitness and that they
suffer from higher levels of burnout and lower levels of
job satisfaction.7,8,13,14 Although these theories may be
correct the two variables may not directly influence each
other.
It is also possible that the sample collected was not
an adequate portrayal of the population. Several employment
settings were not represented in high enough numbers to be
used in data collection. Perhaps individuals in the
settings not represented lack adequate time needed to
complete the survey and could potentially mean these
individual are overworked which may have influence on
either their physical fitness score or job satisfaction
score. If these results are to be generalized to the entire

28
occupation a more equal sample size of different employment
settings is warranted.
Employment settings were found to not influence job
satisfaction and physical fitness scores. Other variable
may be at fault for influencing physical fitness levels and
lower than normal job satisfaction levels for Athletic
Trainers. It is the goal of future research to determine
what those variables are and how to adjust them in order to
raise physical fitness habits and job satisfaction levels
for Athletic Trainers.

Recommendations

It is a known fact that both physical fitness and job
satisfaction are important for an individual in any work
setting and Athletic Trainers are no different. If further
research is to be performed on these variables it may be
necessary to seek a larger sample size and to stress the
importance of completing the questionnaire. Twenty five
participants in this study filled the first half of the
questionnaire but were unable to finish, making their data
unusable. A larger number of responses and a more equal
representation of job settings may provide more accurate

29
results, as well as assist in making results more
generalized to the entire population.
At the time of this study there was no published
research found that directly compared physical fitness and
job satisfaction for Athletic Trainers. It would be
beneficial for future studies to use other instruments to
measure physical fitness and job satisfaction, potentially
ones shorter in length, in order to gain a higher response
rate. It would also be worth researching other variables in
Athletic Trainer‟s individual lives that influence physical
fitness levels and job satisfaction scores.

30
REFERENCES

1.

Scriber KC, Alderman MH. The Challenge of Balancing
Out Professional and Personal Lives. Athlet Ther
Today. 2005;10(6):14-17.

2.

McChesney JC, Peterson M. There is No Off-Season
Anymore. Athlet Ther Today. 2005;10(6):6-10.

3.

Pitney WA. Organizational Influences and Quality-ofLife Issues During the Professional Socialization of
Certified Athletic Trainers Working in the National
Collegiate Athletic Association Divisions I Setting. J
Athl Train. 2006;41(2):189-195.

4.

Kaiser DA. Finding Satisfaction as an Athletic
Trainer. Athlet Ther Today. 2005;10(6):18-24.

5.

Mazerolle SM, Bruening JE, Casa DJ, Burton L, Van
Heest J. The Impact of Work-Family Conflict on Job
Satisfaction and Life Satisfaction in Division I-A
Athletic Trainers. J Athl Train. 2006;41(2Supplement):S72-S74.

6.

Miles L. Physical Activity and Health. British
Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin.
2007;(32):314-363.

7.

Pollock, ML, Gaesser GA, Butcher, Janus D, Després J,
Dishman Rod K, Franklin BA, Garber CE. ACSM Position
Stand: The Recommended Quantity and Quality of
Exercise for Developing and Maintaining
Cardiorespiratory and Muscular Fitness, and
Flexibility in Health Adults. Med Sci Sport Exer.
1998:30(6) Accessed October 6, 2010.

8.

Groth JJ, Ayers SF, Miller MG, Arbogast WD. SelfReported Health and Fitness Habits of Certified
Athletic Trainers. J Athl Train. 2008;43(6):617-623.

9.

Oki Y. Physical Activity Levels of Certified Athletic
Trainers. Masters Thesis California University of
Pennsylvania. 2006.

31
10.

Cuppett M, Latin RW. A Survey of Physical Activity
Levels of Certified Athletic Trainers. J Athl Train.
2002;37(3):281-285.

11.

Budruck M, Cowen LJ, Yoshioka CF, Kulinna P. Physical
Activity Participation Constraints among Athletic
Trainers: A Profession Based Assessment.
Leisure/Loisir. 2009;33(2):563-587.

12.

Chevan J, Haskvitz EM. Do As I Do: Exercise Habits of
Physical Therapists, Physical Therapist Assistants,
and Student Physical Therapists. Phys Ther.
2010;90(5):726-734.

13.

Galzer-Waldman HR, Hart JP, LeVeau BF. Health Beliefs
and Health Behaviors of Physical Therapists. Phys
Ther. 1989;69(3):204-210.

14.

Gauerke RD. Fitness and Stress Levels in Registered
Nurses. Masters Thesis Drake University. 1991.

15.

Bortz WM II. Health Behavior and Experiences of
Physicians, Results of a Survey of Palo Alto Medical
Clinic Physicians. West J Med. 1992;156:50-51.

16.

Lawrence SL, Yager J, Cope D, Leake B. Health Habits
and Coping Behaviors Among Practicing Physicians. West
J Med. 1986;144:484-489.

17.

Hamer M, Stamatakis E, Steptoe A. Dose Response
Relationship between Physical Activity and Mental
Health; The Scottish Health Survey. Brit J Sport Med.
April 10, 2008. Accessed October 6, 2010 Physical
Activity for Athletic Trainers.

18.

Baecke JA, Burema J, Frijters JE. A Short
Questionnaire for the Measurement of Physical Activity
in the Epidemiological Studies. Am J Clin Nutr.
1982;36(5):936-942.

19.

Spector P, Job Satisfaction Survey, JSS Page.
University of South Florida. 2011. Available at:
http://shell.cas.usf.edu/~pspector/scales/jsspag.html.
Accessed March 22, 2011.

20.

van Saane N, Sluiter JK, Verbeek JHAM, Frings-Dresen
MHW. Reliability and Validity of Instruments Measuring

32
Job Satisfaction- A Systematic Review. Occup Med.
2003;53:191-200.
21.

Philippaerts RM, Lefevre J. Reliability and Validity
Of Three Physical Activity Questionnaires in Flemish
Males. Am J Epidemiol. 1998;146(10):982-990.

22.

Ono R, Hirata S, Yamada M, Nishiyama T, Kurosaka M,
Tamura Y. Reliability and Validity of the Baecke
Physical Activity Questionnaire in Adult Women with
Hip Disorders. BMC Musculoskelet Di. 2007;61(8).

23.

The National Athletic Trainers Association. Available
at:
http://cf.nata.org/members1/documents/membstats/201103.htm. Updated March 2011. Accessed April 14, 2011.

24.

Krejcie RV, Morgan DW. Determining Sample Size for
Research Activities. Educ Psychol Meas. 1970;30:607610.

25.

Instructional Assessment Resources. Response Rates.
The University of Texas at Austin. Available at:
http://www.utexas.edu/academic/ctl/assessment/iar/teac
hing/gather/method/survey-Response.php. Updated August
15, 2010. Accessed April 28, 2011.

26.

Cronk B. How to Use SPSS®. California: Pyrczack
Publisghin; 2008.

27.

Greco JS, Powell JW. Job Satisfaction of High School
Athletic Trainers. J Athl Train. 2006;41(2Supplement):S72-S74.

33

APPENDICES

34

APPENDIX A
Review of Literature

35
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
An Athletic Trainer by definition is an “allied
healthcare professional(s) who collaborates with physicians
to optimize activity and participation of patients and
clients.”1 Athletic Trainers can be found in numerous
settings such as high schools, collegiate sports,
professional sports, clinics, hospitals, industrial
settings and more. Because of the demanding and
untraditional hours a “normal” 40 hour work week schedule
may be impossible to obtain.
As an allied health care professional who
traditionally works with physically active it may be
assumed that Athletic Trainers “practice what they preach”
and set an example to their patients and clients they
serve. For some this may be an impossible feat due to
workday length and time of day as well as job expectations.
It is generally known that physical fitness is essential
for a healthy life but staying physically active can also
have additional health and wellness benefits such as
helping to lower stress and assist in keeping individuals
mentally healthy.2 Several allied health care professionals
have had their personal fitness and health habits examined
as well and can be compared to Athletic Trainers. It may be

36
important to determine the implications that fitness levels
and time for physical activity correlate with job
satisfaction.

Athletic Training Profession

Athletic Training has dramatically changed as a
profession throughout the years and continues to grow and
evolve with time. According to the Board of Certification,
which is the accrediting body of Athletic Trainers,

“Certified Athletic Trainers are healthcare
professionals who are experts in injury prevention,
assessment, treatment and rehabilitation, particularly
in the orthopedic and musculoskeletal disciplines.
Athletic training has been recognized by the American
Medical Association (AMA) as an allied healthcare
profession since 1990."3

Athletic Trainers can be found in a wide variety of
settings from collegiate sports, professional sports, high
school settings, clinics and hospitals, the military,
industrial settings, and even in performing arts and public
safety.1 As the field continues to grow, different job

37
settings and opportunities continue to open up for Athletic
Trainers and expand the field to even larger range of
coverage and practice.
Traditionally Athletic Trainers are the first staff
members at a game and the last one to leave afterwards.
Often, they are expected to come in on off days to give
treatments or rehabilitation. Scriber and Alderman called
this career an “intensive profession” and felt that
Athletic Trainers were at risk for high stress levels and
must strive to find ways to balance out their personal and
professional lives.4 They blame the stress on long hours,
low paychecks, numerous responsibilities, limited control
over schedules, and the wide variety of job expectations.
McChesney and Peterson found that job dissatisfaction
and burnout are on the rise for Athletic Trainers because
of demands placed on them from athletes and employers.5 They
state that there is a direct correlation between job stress
and job dissatisfaction. Generally if one suffers from
higher stress at their job than job satisfaction is lower.5
Because of some of the settings that Athletic Trainers may
work in their schedules can vary dramatically. Hours may
vary on a day to day basis and may change with the season
of the athletes or clients they are working with. For some,
this may be challenging to find a consistent schedule and

38
may leave some without adequate time to tend to their own
personal needs.

Importance of Physical Activity

Physical activity was defined by the US Department of
Health and Human Services as “bodily movement that is
produced by the contraction of skeletal muscle and that
substantially increases energy expenditure”.6 It is general
common knowledge that physical activity is beneficial to
one‟s health, although the different specific benefits may
not be as clearly known. There also may be discrepancy on
frequency and intensity of workouts that are recommended
for individuals each week. The American College of Sports
Medicine (ACSM) recommends 3-5 days of physical activity a
week at an intensity of 55/65-90% of maximum heart rate for
20-60 minutes for cardiorespiratory fitness and body
composition in their physical activity position statement.6
ACSM also recommends incorporating resistance and
flexibility training. The American Heart Association (AHA)
recommends moderate to vigorous aerobics for 30 minutes for
“most days of the week” at 50-85% of one‟s maximum heart
rate.

7

The AHA also mentioned that these 30 minutes can be

accumulated in 10 or 15 minute separate sessions throughout

39
the day. ACSM mentions that even low amounts of physical
activity can reduce the risk for certain chronic
degenerative diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular
disease and can also help speeding up one‟s metabolic
fitness. It can also help prevent against coronary artery
disease, hypertension, osteoporosis, and obesity.6
Miles mentioned in his research that physical activity
also protects against high blood pressure, stroke, colon
and breast cancers and can also affect other health
“outcomes” such as one‟s mental health, fall rates, and
other injuries.2 It is clear that physical activity is not
only beneficial but it is critical to maintaining a healthy
lifestyle alongside other factors such as healthy eating,
adequate sleeping and not partaking in risky behaviors such
as smoking and excessive drinking.

Links Between Physical Fitness and Lowered Stress

Another important link between health and physical
fitness is fact that higher levels of physical fitness can
help lower stress levels. Multiple studies have been
conducted regarding Athletic Trainers having high stress
and burnout rates due to demands of the job that were
mentioned earlier.5 If a relationship does exist between

40
higher levels of physical fitness and lowering stress it
may make it vitally important for Athletic Trainers to
partake in daily exercise in order to help reduce harmful
side effects of stress and potential burnout.
A study by Gauerke examined nursing students and a
possible correlation between exercise amount and stress
levels.8 Participants were given an exercise history
questionnaire, the Health Problems Inventory and questions
about their perceived fitness. The study found a
significant relationship between fitness levels and lower
stress as well as in those who perceived themselves as
physically fit.8 Another study by Guszkowska looked at high
school student and how physical fitness affects
psychological distress and overall health over two years.9
Results found that students with intense stress had lower
moods, lower level of positive well-being, and lower
health. The author felt that physical fitness may be a
critically important factor in helping deal with stress.
Hamer et al published a study in the British Journal
of Sports Medicine that surveyed 19,842 people and looked
at the relationship between physical activity and mental
health.10 The survey measured self reported physical
activity and used the General Health Questionnaire (GHO-12)
as well. It was found that those individuals who

41
participated in any form of physical activity had lower
risks of psychological distress. Moderate reductions of
psychological distress were associated with less frequent
or less intense activity such as housework and walking. The
strongest effect for lower psychological distress came with
sport participation. Researchers concluded that one can
benefit mentally from as little as 20 minutes per week of
physical activity although the greatest reduction of mental
health risks came with higher intensity or higher volume of
activity.
Research clearly shows that physical activity can help
lower feelings of stress even in small amounts. As a
result, Athletic Trainers will benefit from setting aside
time in their schedule for physical activity which can help
to reduce stress from their job and life that could
potentially lead to burnout.

Physical Activity for Athletic Trainers

At this time there are several studies that have been
performed that examine Athletic Trainer‟s physical activity
levels and health habits, however each study focuses on a
slightly different topic.

42
Groth et al used a web-based survey to examine weekly
exercise amount, composite health score, nutrition habits,
and drinking and smoking habits. Researchers hoped that as
health care providers Athletic Trainers would be “role
models for health behavior”.11 The study found that Athletic
Trainers generally had better health and fitness habits
than the rest of the general population despite the fact
that most did not meet the American College of Sports
Medicine weekly physical activity guidelines. They also
concluded that Athletic Trainers were not the ideal role
models for healthy lifestyles.
A study by Oki looked at physical activity levels of
Athletic Trainers and hypothesized that they would be at a
higher level of activity than the general population so
that they could be “adequate role models and educators.” It
was also thought that Athletic Trainers in the clinical
setting would have high overall activity level, females
would have high leisure activity and males would have
higher total activity.12 Oki utilized the Baecke
Questionnaire of Habitual Physical Activity and measured
work activity level, sport activity level, leisure activity
level as well as total activity level. It was found that
there was no significant difference in total activity
between job settings or gender and there was a significant

43
weak positive relationship between years of experience and
leisure activity.
Another study by Cuppett et al also used the Baecke
Questionnaire of Habitual Physical Activity to determine
physical activity of Athletic Trainers in the Midwest
region of the United States.13 In this research total
fitness indexes were found to compare employment setting,
position, and age. They found that Athletic Trainers in the
clinical setting had the highest mean activity score and
were significantly higher than high school and collegiate
Athletic Trainers.13 Athletic Trainers in the high schools
and clinics had significantly higher work indexes than any
other setting. It was also found that females had higher
activity levels and the mean total activity index of those
over 36 years old was significantly lower. There was no
significant different in mean totally activity level by
employment position.13
Budruck et al attempted to understand physical
activity participation and leisure constraints of Athletic
Trainers. They originally felt that despite the fact that
Athletic Trainer are ultimately trained to be fit and
healthy they may end up ultimately having to sacrifice
their own health to meet job obligations. Their study
attempted to compare ideal and actual physical activity

44
participation as well as the effect of age, gender, leisure
constraints on physical activity. The research found that
actual physical activity participation rates were much
lower than the respondent‟s ideal goal.14 They found no
major differences between men and women and that age,
gender, intrapersonal and interpersonal constraints did not
significantly influence physical activity participation.
They did find that the effect of structural constraints on
physical activity participation was both significant and
negative. The author‟s suggestions were that Athletic
Training employers should encourage Athletic Trainers to
participate in wellness programs that address quality of
life issues and provide professional support such as time
management skills.
It is clear that although attempts have been made to
examine Athletic Trainers and their physical activity and
health habits that there are discrepancies in the research.
Based on these discrepancies and conflicting results it is
important that this area be examined more in-depth to try
and find more consistent results. The current study will
attempt to fill a gap in the research that could implicate
important finds for the profession and potentially
influence what Athletic Trainers need to do on a daily
basis to be healthy and satisfied with their profession.

45
Levels of Fitness for Other Health Professionals

Just as there are limited studies that examined
Athletic Trainers and their fitness levels, there is also
limited research within the other allied health care
professions. Physical Therapists are health care
professionals who share similar job responsibilities with
Athletic Trainers. A major difference in the two
professions is that Physical Therapists traditionally work
in a clinic or office and have set hours and a predictable
schedule from day to day. Although their job focus and
population they treat may not be exactly the same as
Athletic Trainers their knowledge about the importance of
physical activity should still be present.
Chevan and Haskvitz looked at exercise habits and
leisure time physical activities of Physical Therapists,
Physical Therapist Assistants and student Physical
Therapists and compared them with the general public.15 They
hypothesized that because these individuals generally are
instructing their patients to be physically active then
they are more likely to be physically active themselves.
Utilizing an online survey, their results found that
Physical Therapists, Physical Therapy Assistants and
Physical Therapy students appear to have higher rates of

46
physical activity than both the general public as well as
other allied healthcare professionals.15 It was also found
that the amount of adults that meet these criteria
diminishes with age. They concluded that it is possible
that individuals who work in the Physical Therapy field are
more inclined to be active and appear to be good role
models for their patients. Glazer-Waldman et al. utilized a
survey about health behaviors and beliefs on Physical
Therapists in Texas and found that overall the Physical
Therapists have good health habits. They were found to have
lower drinking and smoking habits than the general
population as well as higher levels of overall activity.16
The study by Glazer-Waldman et al. was the only research
that could be found on Physical Therapists and their
physical activity levels.
Another profession of which physical fitness habits
have been assessed is nursing. Nursing does not share as
many job responsibilities with Athletic Trainers but still
work in the healthcare field. Nurses may not work a
traditional 40 hour work week but usually have some
consistency and control over their schedule. Research on
the nursing profession seemed to focus primarily on what
factors were important in promoting physical activity among
their patients and if there was a correlation between

47
amount of personal fitness habits and promotion of physical
activity with patients.17,18 As mentioned earlier a study by
Gauerke found a correlation between exercise amount and
stress levels in registered nursing.8
Irazusta et al looked at the fitness and dietary
habits of first year female Nursing students and found that
physical activity level in first year Nursing students was
lower than that of other first year students at the same
University.19 The authors also found the level of first year
Nursing students to be sedentary was higher than other
first year students at that University as well. After an
exhausting search these were the only relevant studies on
Nursing and fitness levels that were found. It is important
to remember that research performed on students should not
be generalized to the population of that profession.
Clearly more research needs to be done on allied
health care professionals and further assess their personal
fitness levels and determine if they are adequate role
models for their patients.

Quality of Life and Job Satisfaction of Athletic Trainers

It is important in any job setting to evaluate
worker‟s job satisfaction and the field of Athletic

48
Training is no different. Job satisfaction can be thought
of as having a sense of pride and accomplishment in one‟s
job and enjoying one‟s day to day task.20 Kaiser mentioned
in his research that Athletic Training can be a rewarding
and satisfying field but that Athletic Trainers may need to
work hard at balancing personal and professional life to
find that satisfaction.20 It is possible for one‟s job
satisfaction or dissatisfaction to influence quality of
life because of the large part a job plays in their life.
Several studies have examined Athletic Trainer‟s job
satisfaction and quality of life because of the stresses
the job can place upon one‟s life. Pitney looked at quality
of life of NCAA Division I Athletic Trainers. After a
series of in-depth one-on-one interviews the participants
said that their jobs were influenced by “bureaucratic
tendencies” and that this could be causing quality of life
to diminish for Athletic Trainers.21 Common problems in the
workplace were high volumes of work and low administrative
support which would also lead to lower quality of life and
potentially burnout. It was concluded that the field of
Athletic Training was rewarding yet challenging due to the
structure of the job and the constant demands of balancing
personal and professional life.

49
In an article by Mazerolle and Bruening they mentioned
that the pressing factors for Athletic Trainers that may
affect their quality of life were time, locus of control
(their control over events), and staffing patterns.22 They
felt that it was important to continue research for
proposed solutions to these problems to help improve
quality of life for Athletic Trainers. Milazzo et al looked
at these factors in their study on Division I-A Athletic
Trainers.23 They also aimed to find a relationship between
bidirectional work-family conflict, job satisfaction, and
its link to burnout and aptness to leave a job.23 They
utilized their own survey and had 558 returned which they
determines was around 60% of all Division I-A Athletic
Trainers. They found that there was a significant negative
relationship between work-family conflict and job
satisfaction and that long working hours, traveling, job
burnout and satisfaction were the largest contributors to
work-family conflict. They also found a positive
relationship between work-family conflict and job burnout.
They determined that these individuals working in the
Division I-A collegiate setting were having difficulties
balancing their professional and private lives due to the
conditions of their job. They also felt that work-family

50
conflict was the leading cause to burnout and possible job
attrition.23
Greco and Powell also looked at job satisfaction, but
this time for Athletic Trainers working in the High School
setting. They looked at the causes of intrinsic
satisfaction, extrinsic satisfaction, and general
satisfaction using the Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire.24 903 surveys were returned and from that
sample there was no significant difference in satisfaction
between individuals with bachelors and masters degrees,
between males and females and between curriculum education
and internship education. There were significant
differences in intrinsic satisfaction but not extrinsic
satisfaction for those in different salary groups, those
who had written job descriptions, those who had written
policies and procedures, and those who had final decisions
for athlete‟s return to play. It was concluded that High
School Athletic Trainers who had the highest job
satisfaction were those individuals with the highest pay, a
written job description, a policies and procedures manual,
and those who made final decisions on return to play.24
It is clear from the previous research that in general
Athletic Trainers are challenged to balance their personal
and professional lives. Because of this they may be at a

51
higher risk for work-family conflict, job attrition, or
burnout.20-25 If individuals are at risk for these problems
then other aspects of their lives may suffer as well such
as physical fitness participation and personal health
habits.

Summary

Previous research has shown that there is a clear
discrepancy in studies regarding Athletic Trainers and the
amount of physical fitness they have time to complete or
choose to complete.11-14 What is known is the importance of
physical fitness for the overall well being of all
individuals.5-7,10 Countless benefits can come from even
small levels of physical activity each day including
health, psychological, mental, and overall well being.5
As health providers it would be assumed that Athletic
Trainers and other allied health care professionals would
act as role models but with such an inconsistent work
schedule this may not always be possible.20 Athletic
Training can be a stressful and intensive profession which
places a burden on individuals in an attempt to balance out
personal and professional lives. This puts Athletic
Trainers at serious risk for higher levels of burnout and

52
job attrition.2 Higher levels of burnout can then lead to
lowered job satisfaction and potentially lower quality of
life due to one‟s job being such a large portion of their
life.21-24
It is clear that there is a relationship between higher
physical activity and lowered stress levels, thus making
for a potential link between physical activity levels and
job satisfaction.8,9 If a link is discovered, Athletic
Trainers can make attempts to change their physical fitness
regiment in order to raise job satisfaction and hopefully
improve one‟s quality of life.

53

APPENDIX B
The Problem

54
THE PROBLEM

Statement of Problem
Athletic Training is a profession in which hours may
vary greatly from day to day and a constant routine may be
difficult to obtain. In this struggle for normalcy,
physical fitness activities may be forgotten or not
completed as much as one desires. Athletic Trainers have
been shown to suffer from higher levels of burnout, stress,
and job attrition.19-22 It is a known fact that physical
fitness on a regular basis can reduce stress levels and be
of large benefits to the health of the participant.5-7
The purpose of the study was to examine the possible
correlation between physical fitness scores and job
satisfaction for Athletic Trainers.

It is important to

examine this relationship because if a correlation exists
it will show the necessity for Athletic Trainers to make
physical fitness a part of their daily regimen.
Additionally it is beneficial to look into the physical
fitness habits of Athletic Trainers in a variety of
settings and see if there are significant differences
between them.

55

Definition of Terms
The following definitions of terms will be defined for
this study:
1)

Physical Fitness – bodily movement that is produced by
the contraction of skeletal muscle and that
substantially increases energy expenditure.5

2)

NATA – National Athletic Trainers‟ Association, the
professional membership association for certified
Athletic Trainers

4)

Job Satisfaction- the extent that one is fulfilled and
content with their occupation.21-23

5)

Quality of Life- an individual‟s perception of their
personal well-being as influenced by their culture and
surrounds.19,20

6)

Burnout- reaction to chronic stress that causes a
state of physical and emotional depletion.24

Basic Assumptions
The following are basic assumptions of this study:
1)

All survey questions were answered honestly and to the
best of the individual‟s ability.

56
2)

The survey sent to these individuals is valid and
reliable.

3)

All individuals participating are in good and regular
standing with the NATA.

Limitations of the Study
The following are possible limitations of the study:
1)

The sample of this study may not be an accurate
generalization to the entire population of Athletic
Trainers.

2)

A large enough portion of sampling may not be received
to collect accurate data due to refusal to
participate.

Significance of the Study
As an allied healthcare professional, Athletic
Trainers typically work with a population where health and
physical fitness are important and can be vital for
individuals to meet their goals. While working with these
individuals it might be assumed that advice being given to
athletes and patients is well-known and practiced by the
Athletic Trainer themselves. Unfortunately due to the
nature of the job Athletic Trainers may have a schedule
that changes daily which makes a routine hard to follow.

57
When balancing work, family, friends, and other
commitments, Athletic Trainers may find that exercising is
impossible to do consistently or at all. Past research has
shown that the stress of an Athletic Trainers job can be
heavy and is not always without consequence. If one is
stressed or unhappy then job satisfaction will ultimately
suffer.
There has not yet been a study that specifically looks
for a correlation between physical fitness and job
satisfaction for Athletic Trainers. If a direct correlation
is found between physical fitness and jobs satisfaction
scores for Athletic Trainers the implications can be
important for the field. If it is found that a few hours a
week set aside to perform physical fitness could raise
individual‟s job satisfaction then the entire field of
Athletic Training could benefit from more positive and
motivated individuals at work. Athletic Trainers may be
inspired to find the time for physical fitness and become
more satisfied with their job and better able to thrive in
the work place.

58

APPENDIX C
Additional Methods

59

APPENDIX C1
Institutional Review Board –
California University of Pennsylvania

60

61
Wednesday, February 02, 2011 1:15 PM

Institutional Review Board
California University of Pennsylvania
Psychology Department LRC, Room 310
250 University Avenue
California, PA 15419
instreviewboard@cup.edu
instreviewboard@calu.edu
Robert Skwarecki, Ph.D., CCC-SLP,Chair

Ms. Defenbaugh,

(1)

(2)
(3)
(4)

Please consider this email as official notification that your proposal titled
“Correlation between Physical Activity and Job Satisfaction among Athletic
Trainers” (Proposal #10-025) has been approved by the California
University of Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board as amended.
The effective date of the approval is 02-02-2011 and the expiration date is
02-01-2012. These dates must appear on the consent form.
Please note that Federal Policy requires that you notify the IRB promptly
regarding any of the following:
Any additions or changes in procedures you might wish for your study
(additions or changes must be approved by the IRB before they are
implemented)
Any events that affect the safety or well-being of subjects
Any modifications of your study or other responses that are necessitated
by any events reported in (2).
To continue your research beyond the approval expiration date of 02-012012 you must file additional information to be considered for continuing
review. Please contact instreviewboard@calu.edu
Please notify the Board when data collection is complete.
Regards,
Robert Skwarecki, Ph.D., CCC-SLP
Chair, Institutional Review Board

62

APPENDIX C2
Survey Cover Letter

63

Dear Fellow Certified Athletic Trainer:
My name is Kristin Defenbaugh and I am a master’s degree candidate at
California University of Pennsylvania, requesting your help to complete part of
my degree requirements. Please follow the link at the end of this letter to an
online survey titled: Correlation between Physical Activity and Job Satisfaction
among Athletic Trainers.
The questionnaire will take about twenty minutes to complete.
One thousand randomly selected certified NATA members with a listed email
address are being asked to submit this questionnaire, but you have the right to
choose not to participate. The California University of Pennsylvania Institutional
Review Board has approved this study for the Protection of Human Subjects.
This is a completely anonymous questionnaire and upon submission, neither
your name nor email address will be attached to your answers. Your information
will be kept strictly confidential.
As a fellow certified athletic trainer, your knowledge and opinions regarding this
topic makes your input invaluable. Please take a few minutes to fill out the
anonymous questionnaire you will find by clicking on this link and submit at your
earliest convenience.
(http://www.surveymonkey.com/s/ThePhysicalActivityandJobSatisfactionQuestio
nnaireforAthleticTrainers)

Thank you for your time and consideration.
Sincerely,
Kristin Defenbaugh, ATC
California University of Pennsylvania
250 University Ave
California, PA 15419
DEF7150@calu.edu

64

APPENDIX C3
The Physical Activity and Job Satisfaction Questionnaire
for Athletic Trainers.

65

66

The Physical Activity and Job Satisfaction Questionnaire for

67

Questionnaire for

68

69

70

71

72

73

74
References
1.

The National Athletic Trainers Association.
http://www.nata.org/athletic-training. Updated 2010.
Accessed October 6, 2010.

2.

Miles L. Physical Activity and Health. British
Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin.
2007;(32):314-363.

3.

Board of Certification for the Athletic Trainer.
Defining Athletic Training.
http://www.bocatc.org/index.php?option=com_content&vie
w=article&id=31&Itemid=33. Updated 2007-2010. Accessed
October 6, 2010.

4.

Scriber KC, Alderman MH. The Challenge of Balancing
Out Professional and Personal Lives. Athlet Ther
Today. 2005;10(6):14-17.

5.

McChesney JC, Peterson M. There is No Off-Season
Anymore. Athlet Ther Today. 2005;10(6):6-10.

6.

Pollock ML, Gaesser GA, Butcher JD, Després J, Dishman
RK, Franklin BA, Garber CE. ACSM Position Stand: The
Recommended Quantity and Quality of Exercise for
Developing and Maintaining Cardiorespiratory and
Muscular Fitness, and Flexibility in Health Adults.
Med Sci Sport Exer. 1998;30(6) Accessed October 6,
2010.

7.

American Heart Association. Physical Activity AHA
Scientific
Position.http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?
identifier=4563. Updated 2010. Accessed October 6,
2010.

8.

Gauerke RD. Fitness and Stress Levels in Registered
Nurses. Masters Thesis Drake University. 1991.

9.

Guszkowska M. Physical Fitness as a Resource in Coping
with Stress among High School Students. J Sport Med
Phys Fit. 2005;451(1):105-11.

75
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16208298. Accessed
October 6, 2010.
10.

Hamer M, Stamatakis E, Steptoe A. Dose Response
Relationship Between Physical Activity and Mental
Health; The Scottish Health Survey. Brit J Sport Med.
April 10, 2008. Accessed October 6, 2010, Physical
Activity for Athletic Trainers.

11.

Groth JJ, Ayers SF, Miller MG, Arbogast W D. SelfReported Health and Fitness Habits of Certified
Athletic Trainers. J Athl Train. 2008;43(6):617-623.

12.

Oki Y. Physical Activity Levels of Certified Athletic
Trainers. Masters Thesis California University of
Pennsylvania. 2006.

13.

Cuppett M, Latin R W. A Survey of Physical Activity
Levels of Certified Athletic Trainers. J Athl Train.
2002;37(3):281-285.

14.

Budruck M, Cowen LJ, Yoshioka CF, Kulinna P. Physical
Activity Participation Constraints among Athletic
Trainers: A Profession Based Assessment.
Leisure/Loisir. 2009;33(2):563-587.

15.

Chevan J, Haskvitz EM. Do As I Do: Exercise Habits of
Physical Therapists, Physical Therapist Assistants,
and Student Physical Therapists. Phys Ther.
2010;90(5):726-734.

16.

Galzer-Waldman HR, Hart JP, LeVeau BF. Health Beliefs
and Health Behaviors of Physical Therapists. Phys
Ther. 1989;69(3):204-210

17.

McKenna J, Naylor PJ, McDowell N. Barriers to Physical
Activity Promotion by General Practitioners and
Practicing Nurses. Brit J Sport Med. 1998;32:242-247.

18.

McDowell N, McKenna J, Naylor PJ. Factors that
Influence Practice Nurses to Promote Physical
Activity. Brit J Sport Med. 1997;31:308-313.

19.

Irazusta A, Gil S, Ruiz F, Gondra J, Jauregi A,
Irazusta J, Gil J. Exercise, Physical Fitness, and
Dietary Habits of First- Year Female Nursing Students.
Biol Res Nurs. 2006; 7(3):175-186.

76

20.

Kaiser DA. Finding Satisfaction as an Athletic
Trainer. Athlet Ther Today. 2005;10(6):18-24.

21.

Pitney WA. Organizational Influences and Quality-ofLife Issues During the Professional Socialization of
Certified Athletic Trainers Working in the National
Collegiate Athletic Association Divisions I Setting. J
Athl Train. 2006;41(2):189-195.

22.

Mazerolle SM, Bruening JE, Casa DJ, Burton L, Van
Heest J. The Impact of Work-Family Conflict on Job
Satisfaction and Life Satisfaction in Division I-A
Athletic Trainers. J Athl Train. 2006;41(2Supplement):S72-S74.

23.

Milazzo SA, Miller TQ, Bruening JE, Faghri PD. A
Survey of Division I-A Athletic Trainers on
Bidirectional Work-Family Conflict and Its Relation to
Job Satisfaction. J Athl Train. 2006;41(2Supplement):S72-S74.

24.

Greco JS, Powell JW. Job Satisfaction of High School
Athletic Trainers. J Athl Train. 2006;41(2Supplement):S72-S74.

25.

Hendrix AE, Acevedo EO, Hebert E. An Examination of
Stress and Burnout in Certified Athletic Trainers at
Division I-A Universities. J Athl Train.
2000;35(2):139-144.

77
ABSTRACT
TITLE:

CORRELATION BETWEEN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND
JOB SATISFACTION AMONG ATHLETIC TRAINERS

RESEARCHER:

Kristin Defenbaugh, ATC

ADVISOR:

Shelly DiCesaro, PhD, ATC, CSCS

DATE:

May 2011

RESEARCH TYPE: Descriptive research design
PURPOSE:

The purpose of this study was to measure
physical activity levels and job
satisfaction scores of certified
Athletic Trainers and look for a potential
correlation, then compare scores to
employment settings and other variables.

METHOD:

Two hundred eighty six certified Athletic
Trainers who were members of the NATA
voluntarily participated in a descriptive
type of research study. The Baecke
Questionnaire of Habitual Physical Activity
invented by Jos Baecke and the Job
Satisfaction Survey© invented by Paul E.
Spector were used. The data was analyzed by
a Pearson Product Moment Correlation and a
factorial MANOVA. Significance was set at
alpha level .05.

FINDINGS:

There was an insignificant weak positive
correlation between physical fitness scores
and job satisfaction scores. There was no
significant difference between job settings
for fitness and job satisfaction scores.

CONCLUSION:

Athletic Training is a field that carries
a higher burnout rate and lower job
satisfaction than other allied healthcare
professions. It is imperative that
individuals in this field find time in their
schedule to care for themselves and their
health. Further research needs to look into
other variables that may be causing high
burnout and low job satisfaction.