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An Overview of the Effectiveness of Animal-Assisted Therapy with Children who have Experienced
Sexual Abuse
Emily Breitenbach
Slippery Rock University
Animal-Assisted Therapy
Child Sexual Abuse
Operational Definition (Miller-Perrin, Perrin, & Renzetti,
2021; RAINN, 2021)
Ø Child Sexual Abuse is any completed or attemped sexual act,
sexual contact with, or exploitation of of a child
Ø Examples: anal/oral/vaginal penetration, touching of the
genitals, sex trafficking, fondling, masturbation in the
presence of a minor, exposing a child to pornography
Prevalence
Ø In 2017, 3.5 million children were reported to Child Protective
Services (CPS).
Ø 8.6% of those children reported being sexually abused.
Ø Difficult to provide accurate prevalence rates as child
maltreatment and abuse is underreported.
Consequences of Child Sexual Abuse
Ø There are several consequences that can arise from sexual
abuse. Children are at a higher risk for emotional and
behavioral difficulties, cognitive distortions, and
interpersonal problems.
Ø This population is also at a higher risk for developing several
psychiatric disorders, such as PTSD, eating disorders,
Borderline Personality Disorder, Major Depressive Disorder,
and Substance Use Disorders.
Intervention for CSA
Ø Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavior Therapy (TF-CBT)
Ø TF-CBT is a trauma-focused intervention that involves
psychoeducation, skill development, processing the trauma,
and involving the parents in the session. This intervention
can help both the child and parent/s overcome the
consequences that developed out of the trauma.
References
Dravsnik, J., Signal, T., & Canoy, D. (2018). Canine co-therapy: The potential for dogs to improve the acceptability of trauma-focused
Human-Animal Relationship (Fine, 2010)
Canine-Assisted Therapy
Ø Humans tend to view their animals in a humanistic way. It
has also been shown that touching an animal has a
biological effects on humans that can produce a calming
feeling by reducing heart rate and increasing production
beta endorphins and dopamine. Animals have also been
shown to decrease loneliness as the animal can provide a
sense of support and companionship.
Ø Using Canine-Assisted Therapy, in cases of child sexual
abuse, as an adjunct for TF-CBT produced higher
acceptability rates in caregivers (Dravsnik, Signal, & Canoy,
2018).
Ø Significant reduction in all symptoms of PTSD reported by
children
Ø Caregivers reported positive changes in behaviors and mood
at home (Signal, Taylor, Prentice, McDade, & Burke, 2017).
Theoretical Background
Ø Attachment Theory
o The theory states that humans are healthy and
functioning when they have attachments to others.
o The theory supports that animals can be strong
attachments for humans and promote healthy
functioning.
Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT)
Ø Definition: A goal-directed interventions in which the animal
has a therapeutic purpose in the treatment process that has
specific objectives.
Ø Must be directed or delivered by a specialized professional
Ø AAT can produce a calming effect in clients, decrease heart
rate and blood pressure, decrease feelings of depression
and anxiety, act a catalyst for conversation, and provide
clients with a non-judgmental and unconditional approach.
Equine-Assisted Therapy (Signal, Taylor, Botros, Prentice,
& Lazarus, 2013; Kemp, Signal, Botros, Taylor, & Prentice, 2014).
Ø Equine-Assisted Therapy is incorporating a therapy horse
into the intervention. There has been research to support
that using a horse can produce similar results in therapy as
using a therapy dog. Equine-Assisted Therapy can be used
in different client populations to promote physical and
emotional change in treatment. For example, horses can
promote positive psychosocial behaviors, increase
problem-solving skills, and increase feelings of
empowerment.
Fine, A. (2010). Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: Theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice (3rd edition). Elsevier Inc.
Krause-Parello, C. A. & Friedmann, E. (2014). The effects of an animal-assisted intervention on salivary alpha-amylase, salivary
immunoglobin A, and heart rate during forensic interviews in child sexual abuse cases. Anthrozoös, 27(4), 581-590.
https://doi.org/10.275/089279314X4072268688005
Krause-Parello, C. A. & Gulick, E. E. (2015). Forensic interviews for child sexual abuse allegations: An investigation into the effect of
animal-assisted intervention on stress biomarkers. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 24, 873-886.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2015.1088916
Miller-Perrin, C. L., Perrin, R. D., & Renzetti, C. M. (2021). Violence and maltreatment in intimate relationships (2nd edition). SAGE.
Parish-Plass, N. (2008). Animal-assisted therapy with children suffering from insecure attachment due to abuse and neglect: A method to
lower the risk of intergenerational transmission of abuse. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 13(1), 7-30. https://doi.org/
10.1177/135910450708338
Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network. (2021). Child sexual abuse. https://www.rainn.org/articles/child-sexual-abuse
Signal, T., Taylor, N., Prentice, K., McDade, M., & Burke, K. J. (2017). Going to the dogs: A quasi-experimental assessment of animalassisted therapy for child who have experienced abuse. Applied Developmental Science, 21(2), 81-93.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2016.1165098
Signal, T., Taylor, N., Botros, H., Prentice, K., & Lazarus, K. (2013). Whispering to horses: Childhood sexual abuse, depression, and the
efficacy of equine facilitated therapy. Sexual Abuse in Australia and New Zealand, 5(1), 24-32.
Forensic Interviews
Ø Having a canine present and being able to pet the canine
during a forensic interview reduced heat rate, decreased
levels of salivary alpha-amylase, and increased levels of
salivary immunoglobin A (Krause-Parello & Friedmann,
2014).
Ø Having a therapy dog present can act a buffer for children
and reduce feelings of discomfort (Krause-Parello & Gulick,
2015).
Effects of AAT
therapies for children. Australian Journal for Psychology, 70, 208-216. https://dor.org/10.1111/ajpy.12199
Kemp., K., Signal, T., Botros, H., Taylor, N., & Prentice, K. (2014). Equine facilitated therapy with children and adolescents who have been
sexually abused: A program evaluation study. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 23, 558-566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9718-1
Treatment Outcomes
Examples of Goals and Objective in AAT (ParishPlass, 2008)
Ø
Ø
Ø
Ø
Ø
Ø
Ø
Aiding in developing a therapeutic alliance/ gaining trust
Establishing normalcy and safety
Self-esteem
Empathy
Physiological sensation
Facilitate change in cognitive representations
Aid in processing
Equine-Assisted Therapy
Ø Using it as an adjunct to a Child Abuse Intervention
Program (Kemp, Signal, Botros, Taylor, & Prentice, 2014)
o All children had a significant decrease in anxiety,
depression, and other trauma-related symptoms.
Ø Children who experienced sexual abuse reported a
significant decrease in depressive symptoms (Signal,
Taylor, Botros, Prentice, & Lazarus, 2013).
Considerations
Limitations
Ø There is not enough research to support AAT and the use of
AAT in child sexual abuse cases.
Ø Research has shown that AAT, both canine and equine, to
be effective in reducing a range of symptoms and
promoting positive change in children’s lives.
Animal Welfare (Fine, 2010)
Ø Stress on the animal
o Sweaty paws, increase in salivation, panting, muscle
tension, shaking, restlessness, yawning, aggression,
hypervigilance
Sexual Abuse
Emily Breitenbach
Slippery Rock University
Animal-Assisted Therapy
Child Sexual Abuse
Operational Definition (Miller-Perrin, Perrin, & Renzetti,
2021; RAINN, 2021)
Ø Child Sexual Abuse is any completed or attemped sexual act,
sexual contact with, or exploitation of of a child
Ø Examples: anal/oral/vaginal penetration, touching of the
genitals, sex trafficking, fondling, masturbation in the
presence of a minor, exposing a child to pornography
Prevalence
Ø In 2017, 3.5 million children were reported to Child Protective
Services (CPS).
Ø 8.6% of those children reported being sexually abused.
Ø Difficult to provide accurate prevalence rates as child
maltreatment and abuse is underreported.
Consequences of Child Sexual Abuse
Ø There are several consequences that can arise from sexual
abuse. Children are at a higher risk for emotional and
behavioral difficulties, cognitive distortions, and
interpersonal problems.
Ø This population is also at a higher risk for developing several
psychiatric disorders, such as PTSD, eating disorders,
Borderline Personality Disorder, Major Depressive Disorder,
and Substance Use Disorders.
Intervention for CSA
Ø Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavior Therapy (TF-CBT)
Ø TF-CBT is a trauma-focused intervention that involves
psychoeducation, skill development, processing the trauma,
and involving the parents in the session. This intervention
can help both the child and parent/s overcome the
consequences that developed out of the trauma.
References
Dravsnik, J., Signal, T., & Canoy, D. (2018). Canine co-therapy: The potential for dogs to improve the acceptability of trauma-focused
Human-Animal Relationship (Fine, 2010)
Canine-Assisted Therapy
Ø Humans tend to view their animals in a humanistic way. It
has also been shown that touching an animal has a
biological effects on humans that can produce a calming
feeling by reducing heart rate and increasing production
beta endorphins and dopamine. Animals have also been
shown to decrease loneliness as the animal can provide a
sense of support and companionship.
Ø Using Canine-Assisted Therapy, in cases of child sexual
abuse, as an adjunct for TF-CBT produced higher
acceptability rates in caregivers (Dravsnik, Signal, & Canoy,
2018).
Ø Significant reduction in all symptoms of PTSD reported by
children
Ø Caregivers reported positive changes in behaviors and mood
at home (Signal, Taylor, Prentice, McDade, & Burke, 2017).
Theoretical Background
Ø Attachment Theory
o The theory states that humans are healthy and
functioning when they have attachments to others.
o The theory supports that animals can be strong
attachments for humans and promote healthy
functioning.
Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT)
Ø Definition: A goal-directed interventions in which the animal
has a therapeutic purpose in the treatment process that has
specific objectives.
Ø Must be directed or delivered by a specialized professional
Ø AAT can produce a calming effect in clients, decrease heart
rate and blood pressure, decrease feelings of depression
and anxiety, act a catalyst for conversation, and provide
clients with a non-judgmental and unconditional approach.
Equine-Assisted Therapy (Signal, Taylor, Botros, Prentice,
& Lazarus, 2013; Kemp, Signal, Botros, Taylor, & Prentice, 2014).
Ø Equine-Assisted Therapy is incorporating a therapy horse
into the intervention. There has been research to support
that using a horse can produce similar results in therapy as
using a therapy dog. Equine-Assisted Therapy can be used
in different client populations to promote physical and
emotional change in treatment. For example, horses can
promote positive psychosocial behaviors, increase
problem-solving skills, and increase feelings of
empowerment.
Fine, A. (2010). Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: Theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice (3rd edition). Elsevier Inc.
Krause-Parello, C. A. & Friedmann, E. (2014). The effects of an animal-assisted intervention on salivary alpha-amylase, salivary
immunoglobin A, and heart rate during forensic interviews in child sexual abuse cases. Anthrozoös, 27(4), 581-590.
https://doi.org/10.275/089279314X4072268688005
Krause-Parello, C. A. & Gulick, E. E. (2015). Forensic interviews for child sexual abuse allegations: An investigation into the effect of
animal-assisted intervention on stress biomarkers. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 24, 873-886.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2015.1088916
Miller-Perrin, C. L., Perrin, R. D., & Renzetti, C. M. (2021). Violence and maltreatment in intimate relationships (2nd edition). SAGE.
Parish-Plass, N. (2008). Animal-assisted therapy with children suffering from insecure attachment due to abuse and neglect: A method to
lower the risk of intergenerational transmission of abuse. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 13(1), 7-30. https://doi.org/
10.1177/135910450708338
Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network. (2021). Child sexual abuse. https://www.rainn.org/articles/child-sexual-abuse
Signal, T., Taylor, N., Prentice, K., McDade, M., & Burke, K. J. (2017). Going to the dogs: A quasi-experimental assessment of animalassisted therapy for child who have experienced abuse. Applied Developmental Science, 21(2), 81-93.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2016.1165098
Signal, T., Taylor, N., Botros, H., Prentice, K., & Lazarus, K. (2013). Whispering to horses: Childhood sexual abuse, depression, and the
efficacy of equine facilitated therapy. Sexual Abuse in Australia and New Zealand, 5(1), 24-32.
Forensic Interviews
Ø Having a canine present and being able to pet the canine
during a forensic interview reduced heat rate, decreased
levels of salivary alpha-amylase, and increased levels of
salivary immunoglobin A (Krause-Parello & Friedmann,
2014).
Ø Having a therapy dog present can act a buffer for children
and reduce feelings of discomfort (Krause-Parello & Gulick,
2015).
Effects of AAT
therapies for children. Australian Journal for Psychology, 70, 208-216. https://dor.org/10.1111/ajpy.12199
Kemp., K., Signal, T., Botros, H., Taylor, N., & Prentice, K. (2014). Equine facilitated therapy with children and adolescents who have been
sexually abused: A program evaluation study. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 23, 558-566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9718-1
Treatment Outcomes
Examples of Goals and Objective in AAT (ParishPlass, 2008)
Ø
Ø
Ø
Ø
Ø
Ø
Ø
Aiding in developing a therapeutic alliance/ gaining trust
Establishing normalcy and safety
Self-esteem
Empathy
Physiological sensation
Facilitate change in cognitive representations
Aid in processing
Equine-Assisted Therapy
Ø Using it as an adjunct to a Child Abuse Intervention
Program (Kemp, Signal, Botros, Taylor, & Prentice, 2014)
o All children had a significant decrease in anxiety,
depression, and other trauma-related symptoms.
Ø Children who experienced sexual abuse reported a
significant decrease in depressive symptoms (Signal,
Taylor, Botros, Prentice, & Lazarus, 2013).
Considerations
Limitations
Ø There is not enough research to support AAT and the use of
AAT in child sexual abuse cases.
Ø Research has shown that AAT, both canine and equine, to
be effective in reducing a range of symptoms and
promoting positive change in children’s lives.
Animal Welfare (Fine, 2010)
Ø Stress on the animal
o Sweaty paws, increase in salivation, panting, muscle
tension, shaking, restlessness, yawning, aggression,
hypervigilance