“The Responsibility of Communities: Caring for Feral Felines”

An Honors Thesis

by

Michaela G. Tubbs

California, Pennsylvania
2022

Michaela Tubbs
Biology: Pre-Veterinary Medicine
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Jessica Swords
Second Reader: Dr. Keat Murray
HAB Member: Dr. Craig Fox
Librarian: William Meloy
Key words: community, stray, cat(s), (over)population, advocate

Abstract
The growing concerns regarding the overpopulation of feral felines in local communities and the
need for more involvement to control the situation was the reason for writing this research paper.
Arguments to members of the community were given as to why more people should get
involved, a few reasons being it will improve the welfare and health of felines and humans, one
can obtain a strong sense of accomplishment and camaraderie with neighbors, and there are
many consequences to the whole ecosystem with one species being overpopulated. Suggestions
for ways to control the feral feline population were also provided. In conjunction with this
research-based argument essay, an event was hosted to raise more awareness for a local cat
rescue with all members of the community being invited to support the rescue and provide funds
for them to continue their work of trapping local strays and getting them vetted, sterilized, and
adopted. Many attended to show their support and we received a vast variety of donations for the
gift basket raffle. The bingo fundraiser event brought in $1405 for the California, PA based cat
rescue named Cali Cats.

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Michaela Tubbs
April 2022
UHP Thesis

The Responsibility of Communities: Caring for Feral Felines
During an Honors course at California University of Pennsylvania, much
discussion was had about the topic and field of human-animal studies. Human-animal
studies, defined by DeMello in Animals and Society, is the study of the interactions and
relationships between human and nonhuman animals. This field is both interdisciplinary
and multidisciplinary and is a newly recognized scholarly discipline. Human lives are
intricately intertwined with the lives of animals and it is through the field of HAS that we
can better understand this relationship and what it means for humans. I, personally, have
always had a passion for animals and plan to pursue a career in the animal care field. I
believe that members of their respective communities have a responsibility for improving
the welfare of all animal species that inhabit it. In California specifically, my attention
has been drawn to the alarming number of free-roaming felines and the far and few
efforts that have been made to control this population. For the purpose of this
research-based argument essay, focus will be placed on the history of animal
domestication and the responsibilities local communities and society as a whole have
regarding feral animals such as felines. Also, it will be argued that communities, such as
that of California, PA, must work together to control local feline populations humanely
by combined methods of trap, neuter, and introduction to community made sanctuaries,
trap-neuter-release (TNR), and fostering to lead to adoption. The reasonings behind this

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is due to the bond between human and animal, the relationships that can be built when
working toward a common goal, and the many consequences of a species’
overpopulation.
The domestication of animals began with the dog approximately 15,000 years ago
during the Mesolithic period, also known as the Middle Stone Age. In order for an animal
to be considered domesticated and more than just tamed, they must be kept for a distinct
purpose, their breeding must be controlled by humans, their survival is dependent on
humans, and they must develop genetic traits not found in the wild (DeMello 84).
Different species of animals were domesticated for different purposes to humans. Dogs
were domesticated from wolves to hunt with humans and also to protect livestock. Sheep,
goats, pigs, and cows were domesticated for their meat, milk, and coats/skin. Horses were
originally domesticated to feed other animals but later for riding and as ‘beasts of
burden’, or animals used to pull carts and other heavy equipment. Even honeybees were
domesticated for their honey production (Lear 2012). Cats specifically descended from
types of wildcats to control mice and rat infestations. This unique relationship with
humans began about 10,000-12,000 years ago in the geographic region known as the
Fertile Crescent, where some of the earliest developments of human civilization occurred.
With the rise of agriculture, stored grains for farming attracted rodents. Middle Eastern
wildcats took advantage of this new food source and scavenged the freshly built towns.
Over thousands of years, Felis catus evolved, known as the domesticated cat species. The
first archaeological evidence of humans and cats living in close proximity was seen in a
burial site in Cyprus from 9,500 years ago. Cats traveled the globe on ships as mousers
throughout history, and it was toward the end of the 19th century that more Americans

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began to keep cats for their company and utility. It was by the end of World War I that
cats were widely accepted as house pets in the United States. Biologically, cats are the
same as they were thousands of years ago and haven’t undergone many evolutionary
changes. Scientists suggest that cats actually domesticated themselves, but still have a
place in the natural environment (Alley Cats).
All animals able to be domesticated had to meet six criteria according to evolutionary
biologists:
1.

Flexible diet

2.

Reasonably fast growth rate

3.

Ability to breed in captivity

4.

Pleasant disposition

5.

Temperament that makes it unlikely to panic

6.

Modifiable social hierarchy

Because of this criteria, not all animal species have been able to be domesticated by
humans. Some species are too aggressive, such as zebras. Others have very specific diets
that are not economically/financially beneficial to take on, such as pandas and koalas.
Driscoll et al. states that commonly, mammals that have been domesticated undergo
physical and physiological changes that differ greatly from that of their wild ancestors
such as being dwarfs or giants, having piebald coat color, wavy or curly hair, fewer
vertebrae, shorter or rolled tails, floppy ears, or other manifestations of the retention of
juvenile features into sexual maturity, also known as neoteny. In regards to behavior, they
go on to state that, “Domestication is not a single trait but a suite of traits, comprising
elements affecting mood, emotion, agnostic and affiliative behavior, and social

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communication that…modified in some way…. Domestication is permanent genetic
modification of a bred lineage that leads to, among other things, a heritable predisposition
toward human association” (Driscoll et al., 2009).
As a result of this genetic predisposition towards humans, and the outward need to rely
on humans for survival, domestication has shifted over the years and while animals are
still kept for social, agricultural, and economic gain to fit societies needs, they have also
become a comfort. Some creatures we keep around solely for their companionship and
loyalty. In the 1980s, awareness of the human-animal bond sparked a large study on the
roles animals play in our lives, showing that pets provide significant benefits to the
emotional, physical, and social well being of humans. With the outpour of billions of
dollars that animal-lovers are willing to spend on animals each year, it comes as a
surprise that animal cruelty and neglect is still rising at an alarming rate. With the
paradoxical treatment of companion animals, it brings the topic of animal rights and laws
into question and the call for reform and action is still unwavering (Case 2008).
Different states and the different counties within each state all hold different laws
regarding the care and treatment of animals, especially those like feral cats. According to
Google, “feral” is defined as “in a wild or natural state; especially after escape from
captivity or domestication.” The nationwide law in regards to animal cruelty is this: “A
person commits cruelty to animals if he or she intentionally, knowingly, or recklessly ill
treats, overloads, beats, abandons, or abuses an animal” (PA Statutes). For the state of
Pennsylvania, however, there are no distinct laws about the treatment of unowned cats.
There has been much debate on online forums as to whether or not feral cats can be shot
if they are on private property, and the ability to differentiate a feral cat from a

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domesticated one. Because of the gray area that feral cats fall into under the law and no
codes that are clearly upheld or enforced, it falls into the communities’ hands to reach out
to the state game commission, local animal control, and county officials to give clear
order on what is and isn’t prohibited for the humane treatment of these creatures. For
those that are animal lovers, it can sometimes be disheartening to try to help local strays
because of costs, and possible legal trouble that they could fall into if they get caught.
The best thing to do in this scenario is to work with local shelters and organizations that
have all the appropriate licensing to do things such as trap-neuter-release (TNR) or
catching animals deemed to be in poor living conditions to treat them and try to adopt
them out (Bickel 2004).
With the information that has already been laid out and what will be provided in
coming paragraphs, it will be argued why communities, especially that of California, PA,
need to come together to control the overpopulation of feral/stray cats and also ways in
which this can be accomplished. Many of the feral cats around the California campus are
there as a result of being abandoned by their original owners without being spayed or
neutered, and they then reproduce and the colony number skyrockets. Much of the
hesitancy to help them is because of not only the costs, but also the uncertainty of legal
trouble one could get in to. With more advocacy and involvement, legislations could be
put into place to ease this confusion.
For example, in a Utah community there is legislation in place called Utah’s Community
Cat Act that was adopted in 2011. It protects citizens that attempt to give care to
“community cats”, or cats that are feral or free-roaming without any kind of owner
identification. This relieves those good Samaritans of any “custody”, meaning that when

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they return a cat to its original habitat they cannot be charged with abandonment. This
also exempts community cats from needing to be licensed and prohibits feeding bans,
supplying the caretakers with more legal protection to continue to feed and look after
their local furry friends (Fresno Humane Animal Services). Having legislation like this in
our community could help to encourage participation from a large number of citizens.
Another reason more communities should come together to humanely control
feral cat populations is because of the connection and camaraderie that comes out of
working together toward a common goal. In coming together for group activities such as
trapping the cats, holding fundraisers to cover costs of vetting and food, building colony
shelters/sanctuaries, and having adoption events, individuals can see that they have more
in common with their neighbors other than just the area in which they live. Pride for the
place that everyone calls home is gained. Whether it be for purely altruistic reasons or a
bit of egoism, joining forces within the community to make it a better place and have a
hand in controlling feral cat overpopulation by giving those cats better lives sounds like a
great decision nonetheless. The number of organizations committed to helping stray and
feral cats have better lives is an ever growing institution, with some of the more
recognizable names being Alley Cat Allies, Best Friends Animal Society, and For the
Love of Cats. Local to California in particular, one organization is known as Cali Cats.
This increase in cat rescue organizations is because of an increase in interested members
of a community wanting to give back and volunteer/work for a good cause. It is
scientifically proven that spending time with animals is good for one’s emotional,
physical, and mental health (Robinson and Segal, 2020). By working with an
organization to care for local feral cats, not only will one be solving a problem affecting

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the lives of everyone in the community, but they’d also be helping improve their own
overall health. Also, people are able to expand their social circle and gain professional
and life experiences through these connections.
The final claim for why local communities need to better address feral cats is
because of the paramount concern of overpopulation. As is true with any species that is
overpopulated, the ecological balance is thrown off by having too many cats and not
enough food resources. Visitors walking through CalU’s campus might notice there are
few if any squirrels roaming about. It’s not because the squirrels chose not to live here,
it’s a result of the feral cats hunting and killing them. Many bird and small mammal
populations are suffering at the hands of the booming cat population. A study on cat
predation conducted by the Smithsonian’s Migratory Bird Center and U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Center stated that the death rate of small mammals by felines is 6.3-22.3 billion
annually. Also, 2.4 billion birds are killed in the US each year as a result of feral and
outdoor cats(Frantz, 2017). From a study abstract of a 2013 edition of Nature
Communications, the researchers claimed “Our findings suggest that free-ranging cats
cause substantially greater wildlife mortality than previously thought… single greatest
source of anthropogenic mortality for U.S. birds and mammals. Scientifically sound
conservation and policy intervention is needed to reduce this impact” (Frantz, 2017). By
intervening to reduce the cat population, ecological balance can be restored and other
species can begin to thrive again.
One way to accomplish this is by a well-managed trap-neuter-release program
(TNR). TNR is a humane, non-lethal alternative to the trap-and-kill method of controlling
cat populations. It is a management technique in which homeless and/or free-roaming

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community cats are humanely trapped, evaluated and sterilized by a veterinarian,
vaccinated, and released back to their original habitat (Fresno). A three decade long study
was conducted on a college campus in Florida and results showed that the campus
community cat population declined by a total of 85% from 1996-2019. This success rate
is not completely as a result of TNR alone, however. Volunteers also coordinated
adoptions of a large number of the cats, even those deemed feral. Great effort and
dedication was needed in order to socialize cats in a foster care setting. Those that were
deemed adoptable were then placed in loving homes (Hanneken, 2020). TNR programs
are only effective when other measures are used along side it, such as adoption, prompt
sterilization, and careful feeding station placement in an attempt to avoid newly
abandoned cats from appearing. Another possible program would be to trap and vet the
animals and build a community cat sanctuary. This would give the animals shelter while
also being able to roam outside in a safe, fenced in area. This would require more labor,
upkeep, and money, but some believe that this is a more effective method than simply
trap, neuter, and release back to the original environment. As stated from a study
advocating for cat rehabilitation and community-made sanctuaries, “… much to the
benefit of cat welfare, wildlife protection, and public health…. 85% were eventually
adopted out. The 15% who do not become socialized and adoptable were given
permanent sanctuary” (Fox, 2020).
Also, by trapping and sterilizing the cats, there would be a decrease in howling,
spraying, mounting, fighting, biting, aggressive behavior, and the urge to roam. Whether
it be house pets or feral, the behavior of these animals would improve simply by getting
sterilizing them (Paw Works, 2019). By doing this, nuisance complaints would go down

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and there would be less male fighting over territory and mates, and less females having to
go through the stress of child rearing each mating season. Not to mention, many of those
born in each litter will not survive past infancy due to illness or harsh living conditions.
Another concern of cat overpopulation that can be ameliorated with more community
involvement is overcrowding of animal shelters and preventable euthanasia. In the US,
every 13 seconds a healthy and adoptable dog or cat is euthanized in a shelter (Paw
Works, 2019). There are more stray animals than there are beds in a shelter, so millions of
cats each year have to be euthanized in an attempt to make room for more, regardless of
health, age, or sociability. In a California state area in 2016, it was estimated that more
than $2.5 million would be spent by taxpayers to fund animal services or to trap and
“remove” stray/feral animals (Paw Works 2019). While some may argue that TNR is
more costly than trap and euthanasia, taxpayers are still giving their money to these
programs. Wouldn’t it be better to fund the more humane option, knowing that it is more
suited to actually stop the issue over time, than just simply slapping a bandaid on it with
no real improvement? TNR reduces animal shelter admissions and in turn reduces
operation costs, more space is available for the adoptable animals, and the public health
also benefits with the decrease in unvaccinated cats that could spread diseases to other
animals or people (Fresno Humane Animal Services). By controlling the feline
population through vetting, spaying, and neutering, other species will begin to thrive
again, reproduction will be lowered and less kittens will perish, more space will be
available in animal shelters, less money will be spent by taxpayers, cruel euthanasia will
decrease, and nuisance complaints will decrease with less animals getting sick and
unwanted behaviors subsiding post-sterilization.

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There is no one “cure all, fix all”. Taking on a responsibility like this is hard work
and time consuming, but through what has been outlined in this essay, the benefits appear
to outweigh the costs. Communities should come together to control the current numbers
of the feline population and advocate for their humane treatment. Better laws protecting
feral cats need to be established, neighbors can come together and build strong
relationships while improving the area in which they live, and lastly overpopulation is a
serious issue with many branching consequences such as preventable euthanasia and
ecological upsets to other species are a small list of reasons more people should get
involved in these efforts. Much of the feral cats’ suffering is a result of human negligence
and ignorance throughout time, so it falls on us to correct the mistake of the wrongdoings
we’ve caused to animals we chose to domesticate and consider our companions. If more
people spoke up and educated others, not only would the lives of the cats be improved,
but also those of the ones who gave them a better chance.

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Works Cited
Bickel, Heidi. “TNR and the Law: What Feral Caretakers Need to Know.” Stray Pet
Advocacy, 2004, http://www.straypetadvocacy.org/tnr__the_law.html.
Case, L. “Perspectives on Domestication: The History of Our Relationship with Man's
Best Friend.” PubMed, Journal of Animal Science, vol. 86, no. 11, 3 July 2008,
pp. 3245–3251., https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2008-1147.
DeMello, Margo. Animals and Society: An Introduction to Human-Animal Studies. New
York, Columbia University Press, 2012.
Driscoll, Carlos A., et al. “From Wild Animals to Domestic Pets, an Evolutionary View
of Domestication.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 106,
no. Supplement 1, 16 June 2009, pp. 9971–9978,
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0901586106.
“Fast Facts About the ‘Feral Cat Problem.’” National Feline Research Council, National
Feline Research Council, 2020,
https://www.felineresearch.org/fast-facts-about-feral-cats.
Fox, Michael. “Cat lovers: Stop cruel trap-neuter-release.” Herald Standard Uniontown,
Herald Standard, 6 Sept. 2020, https://www.heraldstandard.com/columns/nation
aladvice/michael_fox/cat-lovers-stop-cruel-trap-neuter-release/article_e93c
10cc-eec7-11ea-b3a4-e33199e9c5c0.html.
Frantz, Tyler. “Feral cats pose threat to Pennsylvania wildlife species, but what can
anyone do about it?” Outdoor News, Outdoor News, 21 Dec. 2017,
https://www.outdoornews.com/2017/12/21/feral-cats-pose-threat-pennsylvaniawildlife-species-can-anyone/.

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“Frequently Asked Questions About TNR.” Fresno Humane Animal Services, Fresno
Humane Animal Services, https://www.fresnohumane.org/frequently-asked
-questions-about-tnr.
Hanneken, Sarah. “TNR Programs for Community Cat Populations: An Updated Look.”
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https://faunalytics.org/long-term-success-of-tnr-programs-for-community-catpopulations-an-updated-look/.
Lear, Jessica. “Our Furry Friends: The History of Animal Domestication.” Journal of
Young Investigators, Journal of Young Investigators, 17 Feb. 2012,
https://www.jyi.org/2012 -february/2017/9/17/our-furry-friends-the-history-ofanimal-domestication.
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Robinson, Lawrence, and Segal, Jeanne. “Volunteering and it’s Surprising Benefits.”
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“The History of the Domestic Cat.” Alley Cat Allies, Alley Cat Allies, 2017,
https://www.alleycat.org/resources/the-natural-history-of-the-cat/.
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https://www.pawworks.org/pet-overpopulation/.
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Change in the History of Humanity and the Biosphere.” Comptes Rendus

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Biologies, Elsevier Masson, 2 Feb. 2011, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/
article/pii/S1631069110002982#fig0005.