"Asian Hate Crime: An Analysis of Past and Present and a Glimpse Into the Lives of
Those Affected"

An Honors Thesis
by

Natalie H. Wiest

California, Pennsylvania

2022

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Abstract
The Asian community has recently become victim to hate crimes considering
the COVID-19 pandemic. However, this is not the first time the Asian population
in America has experienced this type of crime. Dating back to the 1800s, Asian
people have historically been the targets of oppression and discrimination. This
thesis will analyze the similarities between the hate crimes against the Asian
population in the past and how they relate to the ones happening today. Some
themes include xenophobia, sinophobia, Yellow Peril, the model minority myth,
and Yellow Fever: The Lotus Flower/China Doll stereotype. Descriptions of past
Anti-Asian policies will be included as well as a discussion on the cross-race
effect theory. Additionally, this thesis will include five transcribed interviews of
Asian women ages 18-25 and their individual experiences with Asian hate to
humanize the faces behind the quantitative reports of Asian hate crimes.

Keywords:
Asian hate crime, hate crimes, Japanese, Chinese, xenophobia, sinophobia, thecross race effect, interviews, oppression, discrimination, stereotypes, Yellow
Fever, Yellow Peril, immigration, Anti-Asian policies, COVID-19, Coronavirus,
injustice, model minority myth, United States, communities

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Part One: Historical Analysis
Description of the Problem
Minority groups in the United States have a long history of experiencing
discrimination and oppression. The injustice they face is something that has
occurred time and time again in the past and still arises to this day. Hate crimes
are a prime example of the inequality and outright violence against people of
color. Hate crimes can be defined as violent crimes that are motivated by a bias
against individuals or groups based on characteristics such as race, ethnicity,
religion, sexual orientation, gender, disability, etc (United States Department of
Justice, n.d.).
In this thesis, a historical analysis of hate crimes will be examined with a
specific focus on the Asian community in America. Today, Asian individuals
make up about 5.7% of the nation’s population. Since the late 1800s, Asian
individuals have been immigrating to the United States, but not without facing a
multitude of challenges. Asian people, from the beginning, had to battle for
equality and basic human rights and still do today. Anti-Asian hate crimes have
been on the rise since the end of 2019 due to the spread of the Coronavirus, a
virus that would cause the world to enter a global pandemic (Yellow Horse, et.
al., 2022).
During the 1850s America experienced the largest wave of immigration from
countries like China, Japan, and South Asia. This scared many Americans as
they believed that Asian people were a danger to the United States in that they

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would bring over disease, immorality, and economic competition (Lee, 2007).
This led to some of the earliest reported hate crimes toward Asian communities.
Just one instance of this was the Chinese Massacre of 1871. This event left 18
Chinese men dead after a mob of 500 people ran ramped through Chinatown,
Los Angeles killing and robbing Asian individuals in their wake (Wallace, 2019).
Unfortunately, this would not be the last Anti-Asian hate crime to occur in
America and throughout this thesis, many more will be discussed.
There is a strong misconception that society have evolved from these barbaric
hate crimes, however, there are many patterns from that past that are showing
up in society today. Hate crimes towards the Asian population are still occurring
and are on the rise due to the COVID-19 virus. An article posted by NBC New
York states that there has been an increase of hate crimes towards Asian people
during the pandemic. Just in New York alone, Anti-Asian hate crimes have
increased 361% from January 2021 to December 2021 (Yam, 2021). Many AntiAsian hate crimes are being committed based on the notion that Asians are to
blame for the creation and spread of COVID-19. NBC New York details Asian
people being spit on, verbally harassed, assaulted, and barred from public
services (Song & Vázquez, 2021).
Importance of the Topic
As mentioned previously, Anti-Asian hate crimes have been rising at
astronomical rates since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. While
the hate they are facing is horrific, this is not the first time the Asian community

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has experienced this type of discrimination and oppression. This topic is
important because now more than ever, education on the history of Asian hate
crimes is necessary to understand what is happening in our society today. With
knowledge of the hate crimes that have happened in the past, hopefully society
can prevent these hate crimes from occurring in the future. The Center for the
Study of Hate & Extremism at California State University, San Bernardino found
hate crimes across America had decreased in 2020 by 6%, while Asian hate
crime increased by 145%. In New York City alone, Asian people only made up
14.5% of the city’s population, yet the amount of Anti-Asian Hate in 2020 had
risen by 833% (Center for the Study of Hate and Extremism, 2021). Behind each
of these statistics are real people that are being threatened, attacked, and even
killed just for looking a certain way. #StopAsianHate has become a trending
hashtag but for real change to happen, preventing Asian hate crimes must be
more than a trend that comes and goes, but real systemic change.
Xenophobia and Sinophobia
To fully understand the discrimination Asian communities have endured and
still endure today, there are specific definitions and concepts that underlie AntiAsian hate that must be comprehended. The intersection between xenophobia
and society’s fear of illnesses plays a large role in the hate crimes that are being
committed today. Typically, people often experience fear when they feel
threatened by an illness that is perceived to be coming from another country;
therefore, the idea of xenophobia is perpetuated, which is the fear of people from
foreign countries (Litam, 2020).

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In relation to the Coronavirus, being afraid of the people from foreign
countries rather than an actual disease itself is what is really damaging to
specific groups and what can fuel hate crimes. Instead of a person trying to keep
themselves healthy and protected from illness, they try to hurt or get rid of the
population they believe is responsible for their fear. Xenophobia is an important
factor when understanding the motivations behind the Anti-Asian hate crimes
happening today because it also directly correlates to sinophobia: the hatred and
fear of people specifically from China (Litam, 2020).
One of the first occurrences of sinophobia in America was the Chinese
Exclusion Act of 1882. Before this policy was enacted, a large wave of Chinese
immigrants came to America during the 1850s due to the poor economy in China
and the promising prospects of the California gold rush. America saw the
Chinese as cheap labor after the gold rush ended and they used them to build
the Transcontinental Railroad in 1860 (PBS, 2014). Americans began to fear that
Chinese immigrants would bring illness and disease from China as well as ruin
the American economy and began to accuse them of stealing American jobs.
John F. Miller, senator of California in the 1880s is quoted saying the Chinese
are an inferior race, describing them as “rats, swine, and beasts that are
incompatible with the United States” (Lee, 2016). Eventually, these fears rooted
in prejudice and racism led to one of the first legal oppressions towards Asian
communities in the United States: The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. This was
a law that restricted Chinese immigrants from coming to the United States and
Chinese people would be imprisoned or deported if they did enter the U.S. This

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was one of the earliest laws in United States history that excluded immigrants on
the sole basis of race and nationality, and it would set the standard for many
other exclusion policies to come (Kil, 2012).
This is an important example of sinophobia in American history because the
fear of China and the Chinese is still prevalent in the 21st century. In 2003, the
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) outbreak occurred in China and
later spread to Europe and the United States. SARS is a respiratory illness that
causes symptoms such as fever, coughing, difficulty breathing, and headaches. If
left untreated, SARS can potentially lead to death. It is an easily contagious
disease that can be transmitted through the air via coughing (World Health
Organization, 2019). Even though no citizens of the United States died from
SARS, Asian people were still discriminated against, and experienced some of
the same discrimination happening today (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2005). Many Chinese owned businesses struggled as patrons and
consumers refused to visit their restaurants and shops out of fear that they would
catch the disease. Asian communities began to experience so much stigma and
hostility that the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) released
outreach teams to dispel rumors and myths as well as support Asian
communities during the SARS outbreaks (Campbell & Ellerback, 2021).
Former President Donald Trump announced on March 16th, 2020, the threat
of the “Chinese Virus” to the United States. He has since used this term multiple
times unbeknownst to the fact that he was perpetuated extremely xenophobic
and sinophobic ideologies, in which many of his followers listened to and

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internalized. Donald Trump ignored the guidelines set by the World Health
Organization (WHO) who stated that naming viruses after geographic location is
inappropriate and bolsters negative connotations with Chinese Americans
specifically. In a press conference afterwards, reporters confronted Donald
Trump on his racist language to which he denied any such thing (SomvichianClausen, 2020).
March 23rd, 2020, Trump tweeted, “...They are amazing people, and the
spreading of the Virus is NOT their fault in any way, shape, or form. They are
working closely with us to get rid of it...” in response to the global pandemic and
the backlash he faced using the term “China Virus.” On the surface, while this
tweet may seem heartfelt, it continues to damage the Asian community. He
specifically identifies that there is an “us” and a “them” creating the notion that
Asians are not included in the collective “us” (Somvichian-Clausen, 2020).
Despite whatever intentions Donald Trump had in tweeting his so-called
allegiance to the Asian community, it is a prime example of how Asians are seen
as outsiders in the United States and the normalization of xenophobia. By coining
terms such as Chinese Virus, Kung Flu, and Wuhan Virus it feeds into public
hysteria and can insight racist attacks. Racist aggressors will go after anyone
they perceive to be Asian making any Asians and Pacific Islanders potential
victims (Kambhampaty & Kang, 2020).

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Cross-Race Effect
The cross-race effect is a theory that can potentially explain why all Asian
communities are being targeted for sinophobia and are experiencing Asian hate
crimes. Also called the other race effect or own race bias, the cross-race effect
theorizes that people can more easily recognize others within their own race
(Trawiński, et al., 2021). Throughout many psychological analyses and studies,
individuals can identify faces of their own race much better compared when they
are asked to recall faces of another race. This phenomenon was originally
studied for the purpose of facial recognition bias in eyewitness identification;
however, this theory can also be utilized for understanding the phrase, “all Asians
look the same” and how it relates to Anti-Asian hate crimes (Meissner & Brigham,
2001).
Everyday instances of the cross-race effect for Asian individuals include being
mistaken for another Asian person or being asked if they are the sibling of
another Asian person. What can look like just a small discrepancy can be a
building block for implicit bias and prejudice toward Asian people (Perencevich,
2019). The misconception that all Asians look alike can put any Asian person at
risk for an Asian hate crime motivated by sinophobia. Many blame the Chinese
for the creation and the spread of the Coronavirus yet, multiple Asian ethnicities
are victims of Anti-Asian hate crimes. According to the National Report published
by the Stop Asian Hate database, 16.1% of hate crimes are reported by Korean
ethnicities, 8.9% Filipinx, 8.2% Japanese, and 8.0% Vietnamese (Yellow Horse,
et al., 2022). This data shows that even though many people blame the Chinese

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for the Coronavirus, it is more than just Chinese individuals being affected, it is all
Asian ethnicities.
An example of an Anti-Asian hate crime in which the cross-race effect can be
seen is the infamous murder of 27-year-old, Vincent Chin in 1982. Chin was out
with his friends celebrating his bachelor party when he got into an argument with
two men, 43-year-old Ronald Ebens and 22-year-old Michael Nitz, over a
stripper. The altercation escalated to the point where the two men and Chin went
outside and chased Chin with a baseball bat. One of the patrons of the club
recalled Ebens shouting at Chin that “it is because of you motherfuckers that
we’re out of work.” Ebans had just recently lost his job as a Chrysler foreman
and, at the time, many people blamed Japanese car manufacturing for decline in
the automotive industry in America. Ebens and Nitz had ended up beating Chin
to death to which they were later tried in court, and served no jail time (Little,
2021). It is important to note that Ebens and Nitz were provoked by Japanese
manufacturing, and they thought it fit to murder Chin even though he was
Chinese American. It is crimes like these that bring to light that no Asian
population is safe. Even if you are a person with an ethnicity that has nothing to
do with a political, economic, or global conflict, in America, it does not matter.
The cross-race effect blurs the individuality amongst all types of Asian ethnicities.
For any Asian person, it is a very real possibility for someone to commit an Asian
hate crime against you even if you are not the ethnicity that they are racist
toward.

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Yellow Peril
Xenophobia can also be closely associated with Yellow Peril, which is a
metaphor that describes the threat of the Asian population to western civilization.
The most notable example of Yellow Peril in American history is the oppression
and discrimination of Japanese Americans during the time of Japanese
interment. In 1942 after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, President Roosevelt
enacted Executive Order 9066. This Executive Order forced anyone of Japanese
descent to be pushed out of their homes and in internment camps due to the
perception that the Japanese were a public danger. Out of the 112,000 Japanese
individuals that were interned over 70,000 of them were American citizens.
Japanese families lost their homes, their properties, their businesses and had to
endure poor living conditions for three years until World War II was over (National
Archives, 2022).
Additionally, Yellow Peril was most widely spread through media, it was very
common to have Asian people written as villains in television and movies. They
were often portrayed with exotic features such as narrow eyes and overly yellow
pigmentation. The Yellow Peril trope in the media is especially damaging to the
Asian community because it is responsible for the spread of a lot of racist
stereotypes that are still seen today (Bowling Green State University, n.d.).
A popular example of the Yellow Peril trope in media is Ming the Merciless in
the Flash Gordan film franchise during the 1930s. The actor that played Ming
was not even Asian and, in playing his character, reinforced the idea that Asian

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people are alien-like and tyrannical. It paints the Asian community onedimensionally, as the enemy to the often white hero and from this, gives Asian
individuals less of an opportunity to play in more diverse roles as they can only fit
into one category (Bowling Green State University, n.d.). The Yellow Peril not
only creates harmful stereotypes but also reinforces the idea of us vs them
mentioned previously. Asians are shown as uncivilized barbarians that do not fit
in with American culture and will never be compatible with American standards.
These Anti-Asian media tropes are reflected in the hate crimes that are being
committed today because society fears the Chinese and therefore wants to
blame and paint them as the villain responsible for the global pandemic. These
ideologies are reinforced through social media and spread amongst many
different groups. Memes in social media are what is being used to perpetuate
these negative stereotypes and due to the comedic nature of a meme, they are
not seen as harmful depictions toward the Asian community. Many make the
excuse that memes are a joke and should not be taken seriously, however, this
dangerous imagery is no joke to the Asian community. Shown below are four
examples of harmful memes that perpetuate Yellow Peril.

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Figure One

Figure Two

Left Exit 12 Off Ramp

Untitled

Meme

Pictured is the text “If we could
Pictured to the left is a car

just go ahead and start calling the

swerving to an exit

Chinese Coronavirus Kung Flu

labeled, “eating bats for a

that would be great” (WGN TV,

virus” away from the road

2020).

labeled “eating normal
food” (Left of Exit Ramp
12, n.d.).

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Figure Three

Figure Four

Untitled

Untitled

Pictured is a man cocking a gun
under text that reads “when I see
a Chinese boy coughing, me: kill
the virus” (Anti-Defamation
League, 2020).

Pictured are multiple panels of
Oprah Winfrey with the text
“China” over her face shouting
and pointing “You get
Coronavirus” (Molly, 2021)

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Regarding Figure two, it is important to note that this image was posted as a
response to a WGN TV News tweet, a Chicago news station’s twitter account
with over 300,000 followers. WGN TV tweeted when they had the first case of
COVID-19 in Chicago to which there were many responses on their page
afterward. While WGN TV did not post this meme directly, the person who
responded and tagged them instantly made this image correlated with their page.
Figure two just goes to show how quickly and easily it is to spread harmful
imagery about Asian people and how it can promote the resurgence of Yellow
Peril. Even accounts like WGN TV’s Twitter who had never posted anything
about Anti-Asian related are still associated with this negative meme due to the
traffic on their page (WGN TV News, 2020).
These are just some of the many harmful examples of the type of media that
is being created and distributed for anyone to see and share. When searching for
“China Virus memes” there was a bevy of images that appeared ranging in a
severity of inappropriateness. Nonetheless, they all perpetuated Yellow Peril in
some way by creating the perception that Chinese people are to blame for the
global pandemic.
Model Minority Myth
In contrast to the phenomenon of Yellow Peril, the model minority myth is a
stereotype that describes Asians as the model race. A race that works hard, is
highly educated, wealthy, family oriented, and excels at everything. In less than
one generation, society went from portraying Asians in the media as dirty,

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barbaric, and despised to doctors, lawyers, and nerds (Lam & Hui, 2016). Part of
the reason why this stereotype is so widely accepted is that many people in their
daily lives see Asians in these successful roles and their biases become
confirmed. An explanation as to why society’s biases are often confirmed can be
in part to special stipulations of past United States Anti-Asian immigration laws.
Before the Chinese Exclusion Act was even established, the United States
revised their treaty they held with China in the 1880s stating that they would no
longer endorse free migration between China and America. However, there were
certain groups of Chinese individuals that were exempt from this barring that
included merchants, merchant family members, diplomats, students, tourists, and
returning laborers (The University of Texas at Austin Department of History, n.d.).
Some of these groups were allowed to stay in the United States and their
successful lives in America were able to pave the way for the creation of the
model minority myth.
Shortly after the treaty was broken, all Asian populations were banned from
immigrating to the United States for decades due to the Immigration Act of 1917
(Equal Justice Initiative, n.d.). This was until the 1952 McCarran Walter Act which
allowed a small quota for all people from Asian countries to immigrate to
America. While this seems like a significant stride for the Asian community, the
McCarran Walter Act allowed an Attorney General for the first time to admit
refugees based on a preference system (The University of Texas at Austin
Department of History, n.d.). The preference system favored Asian immigrants
that were more skilled and knowledgeable workers that also had family already

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residing in the United States, and those who were not as skilled had a
significantly less chance of being allowed to immigrate to America (Office of the
Historian, n.d.). Moreover, this could potentially be one of the factors that
contribute to the model minority myth. The intentional segregation of those who
were considered “skilled” and “not skilled” by American standards plays into the
model minority myth because the United States cherry picked the Asian
immigrants that they thought were worthy of settling in the United States (Kalven,
1987).
Another example of the government handpicking which of the Asian
population they want to advance in American society is the creation of the HB-1
visa programs. In the 1990s work visas were granted to “skilled” workers that
could result in permanent citizenship. Most of the HB-1 visas were granted to
tech workers overseas in India as they were cheaper to employ (Christian
Science Monitor, 2000). As a result of these visas, the model minority myth was
enhanced in the fact that only smart, savvy Asian immigrants were gaining
citizenship and employment in the United States, and those living in America
took notice. What they saw was a rapid increase in the Indian population that
was highly skilled, educated and work oriented because that was the only portion
of the Indian population that was able to immigrate to the United States
(Vengopal, 2021). What transpired from this occurrence is the emergence of the
stereotype that all people from India are model workers. Eventually, the
stereotype expanded throughout the years to incorporate all Asian populations,
not just the Indian community, and it still stands to this day.

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The model minority myth contributes to the hate crimes happening today on
the basis that society has glossed over the fact that the Asian community
experience hate crimes because they are “perfect.” This myth prevents society
from thinking that Asians face any hardship (Namkung, 2021). Additionally, this
could be one of the reasons why Anti-Asian hate crimes are so under-reported
and not often shown in the media. Due to the perception that Asian people “have
it good,” the discrimination and oppression that they face can go overlooked
(Namkung, 2021).
Some might hold the position that there is nothing wrong with being portrayed
as perfect and successful and these views are regarded as a positive stereotype.
However, if an Asian individual does not meet these standards, they are at risk
for being seen as less than, or a defect. Additionally, it forces Asian people to
reach unattainable inflated expectations and it can put pressure on them to fit in
such a narrow category (Joo, et, al. 2022). The Asian community is put into a
comparable position in which they must be passive and quiet to be tolerated
(Zhang, et. al., 2021). The culmination of these elements is important to
understand as they are extremely relevant in studying Anti-Asian hate. It can
potentially be the reason why it is so under-reported (Zhang, et. al., 2021).
Yellow Fever: The Lotus Flower/ China Doll
Yellow Fever is another stereotype that has greatly affected the Asian
community and still impacts them to this day. Specifically, the fetishization and
sexualization of Asian women makes them easy targets for Anti-Asian hate

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crimes (Wu & Pham, 2020). Yellow Fever is the objectification of Asian women
as submissive beings that are dainty and always do as they are told (Westfall, et
al., 2021). This phenomenon is different from simply “having a type” since Yellow
Fever is more of fetish, or an uncontrollable desire for Asian women. This is not
something that is flattering to Asian women, if fact is a fetish that can put Asian
women in danger (Lu, 2013).
Asian women began to be sexualized by western society as far back as the
17th century when the Japanese geisha was viewed as a decorative and sexual
object that could be fantasized about and easily dominated (Park, 2014).
Furthermore, Madame Butterfly, an opera showcased in 1904, furthered the
image of a dainty, submissive, and doll-like Asian woman. Coupled with the Miss
Saigon musical in 1989, it was commonplace for Asian women to be portrayed
as beings made to serve men (Park, 2014). All these characteristics
encompassed together became what is known as the China Doll or Lotus Flower.
A title that is used to describe an Asian woman as weak, easily controlled, and
docile. The China Doll/ Lotus Flower circulated throughout western culture and
only grew stronger as years passed, making Asian women easy targets as they
are seen as easily dominated and subservient (Wu & Pham, 2020).
Today, Asian women are more often the targets of Anti-Asian hate than men
(Stop AAPI Hate, 2021). More than 61.8% of reports reported between March
2020 and December 2021 were from women alone. The persistence of Yellow
Fever in western society could be a potential reason for why Asian women are
more vulnerable to hate crimes than men. A prime example of Yellow Fever

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coupled with Anti-Asian hate is the murder of six Asian women in throughout
multiple Asian spas in Georgia on March 16th, 2021 (Westfall, et al., 2021).
Robert Aaron Long, the convicted murder, stated that the motive behind his
actions was that he wanted to “eliminate his sex addiction” (Fausset, et al.,
2021).
This was overall a disgusting display of how a man decided that he could
dominate and murder Asian women, yet the Georgia police department and the
media were cautious to determine this event as a hate crime. The Sheriff even
made a statement saying that the reason Long murdered eight innocent people
was because he was “having a bad day” (Pitts, 2021). This odd display of
empathy toward the perpetrator makes Asian women even more vulnerable to
hate crimes. They are left unprotected and exposed when the perpetrators of
Anti-Asian hate are given free passes and the experiences of Asian women are
silenced.
Anti-Asian Policies
Below is a list of policies that have discriminated against and oppressed Asian
communities. Included is a description of each for the purpose of highlighting the
scope of just how many federal policies there have been throughout history that
were Anti-Asian. These policies prove that the Asian hate that is happening today
is not a new occurrence.

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The Anti-Coolie Act of 1862
The Anti-Coolie Act of 1862 placed a monthly tax on Chinese immigrants that
wished to do work in the state of California. The term coolie is a derogatory word
that is used to describe both East and South Asians. White laborers saw Asian
immigrants as economic competition who sought out to steal American jobs so to
appease these workers California only taxed Asian individuals. Officially named
the Chinese police tax, Chinese workers were charged an extra two dollars and
fifty cents. If a person refused to pay the tax, the state of California had the right
to seize any property that person owed and sell it. Overall, the act was only
enacted for eight years, however it would not be the last policy that would target
Asian populations (Xueingf, 2016).
The Page Act of 1875
The Page Act of 1875 was a law that prohibited “undesired” immigrants such
as prostitutes. American officials believed that Asians, Chinese prostitutes
specifically, would bring over sexually transmitted diseases. The Page Act
specifically stated that there shall be no importation of women to the United
States for the purpose of prostitution. Asian women that still wished to immigrate
to America through the Angel Island Immigration Station in San Francisco were
forced to undergo humiliating interrogations, searches, and medical
examinations. This caused a large decrease in the immigration of Asian women
to the United States, skewing the ratio between Asian men and women to
48:1000. Consequently, men wished to work to gain money to go back to their

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home countries to be reunited with their families (Rotondi, 2021). This caused
even more divide between Asians and American society because they were seen
as isolated without families and unfit to integrate into the culture of the United
States. This Act overall was the first step in justifying even more exclusion acts
against Asian countries.
The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882
The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 already touched upon in this thesis is
seen as one of the first laws that has ever been created based on discrimination
against race and ethnicity. This act is much more famous than the Page Act of
1875 as it affected a much wider population rather than just Asian women. This
law was a significant turning point in American history. It restricted all Chinese
immigrants from coming to the United States and existing residents were
forbidden to gain U.S. citizenship (Kil, 2012). Any Chinese laborer that did enter
the United States after this law faced deportation or imprisonment (Library of
Congress, n.d.).
What is shocking about this act is not only how many immigrants it barred
from the United States but how long it took for it to be repealed. The Chinese
Exclusion Act originally was set in place for ten years, and then it was extended
for another ten years by the Geary Act. However, it was only completely repealed
in 1943, meaning it was in place for 61 years. This makes it the longest exclusion
act in American history (National Archives, 2022).

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The Geary Act of 1892
The Geary Act of 1892 was set in place to extend the provisions of the
Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. However, this act added that all existing Chinese
residents carry an identification card with them The Geary Act lasted another ten
years until it was made permanent in 1902. All Chinese residents needed to
register and gain a certificate of residency. If they failed to do so the government
had the right to deport them or imprison them (The University of Texas at Austin
Department of History, 2020a).
The Gentleman’s Act of 1907
In 1894, the Japanese signed a treaty with America stating that all Japanese
were guaranteed the right to immigrate. In 1906 Japan found out that America
was segregating all Chinese, Japanese, and Korean students and placing them
in an “Oriental Public School.” Japan was outraged when they discovered this
information as they thought it violated the treaty that they created (DIVA Team at
San Francisco State University, 2022). The United States and Japan came to an
agreement that if Japan immigration was suspended, then Japanese students
would be allowed to attend public school. Japan, not wanting to end up being
completely excluded from the United States like the Chinese, agreed to the
terms, and ceased immigration to the United States (Turquoise, 2022). The
Gentlemen’s Agreement ended in 1924 but only to be replaced by the National
Immigration Act which put much hasher stipulations on Japanese immigration
(Wallenfeldt, 2019).

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The Immigration Act of 1917 (Barred Zone Act)
The Immigration Act of 1917 was put in place to decrease those who were
able to immigrate to the United States by imposing literacy tests. The literacy
tests, however, did not pertain to the Middle East and Southeast Asian countries,
for they were completely barred from immigrating to the United States entirely.
No one in these designated zones of the globe were allowed to enter the United
States under any circumstances. The literacy tests were only given to those
immigrating from European countries (The University of Texas at Austin, 2020b).
The Immigration Act of 1924 (The Johnson-Reed Act)
The Immigration Act of 1924 was a much stricter immigration policy that
limited the number of immigrants allowed into the United States based on a
quota system. The quota consisted of providing visas to only two percent of the
total number of people of that ethnicity already in the United States. The number
of nationalities already in the United States was based on a 1910 census. This
act basically restricted most Asian immigrants from entering the United States
because in 1910, the Chinese Exclusion Act was largely in effect skewing the
census data to reflect a very low number of Chinese people living in the United
States. Since the census number was very low it did not allow many Chinese
immigrants to come to America based on the quota restrictions (Office of the
Historian, n.d.).

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Executive Order 9066
The Executive Order 9066 was created by President Franklin Roosevelt in
1942 in response to the bombing of Pearl Harbor on December 7th, 1941. All
Japanese people were evacuated from their homes and sent to relocation camps
out of fear that there were secret agents amongst the United States population
(National Archives, 2022). Japanese families were sent to one of twelve camps
throughout the west. The War Relocation Authority was created during this time
specifically for the purpose of using troops to surround and round up all
Japanese individuals and take them into custody (Augustyn, 2020).
For the entire duration of World War II, Japanese families lived in sparse
conditions, in rooms that were poorly insulated, filled with cots and a coal burning
stove. Camps were surrounded by barbed wire and armed guards that had
orders to shoot anyone that tried to leave. Even after the conclusion of War when
the Japanese tried to return to their hometowns after three years of being
imprisoned in the internment camps, a lot of their businesses, homes, and cars
were taken from them and sold to other people They had to integrate themselves
in their communities all over again (Augustyn, 2020). A lot of families did not
have the resources to return to their homes and were forced to relocate and start
lives in towns outside of their internment camp (National Archives, 2022).
The U.S. Patriot Act of 2001
The U.S. Patriot Act of 2001 was created in response to the 9/11 terrorist
attacks. U.S. Patriot standing for Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing

25

Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism. This act has
caused a lot of issues regarding the racial profiling of many Muslims living in
America. The act gave authorities motivation to break the fourth amendment
prohibiting unlawful searches and seizures unless there is “probable cause”.
Many Muslims were the targets of discrimination because they were profiled as
terrorists. This subjected them to a lot of unlawful searches. The items that were
searched based on the U.S Patriot Act were things like their banking,
investments, and even their belongings at airport security checks. Overall, this
policy encourages racial profiling and discrimination based on the justification
that Muslims could be a national security threat (Pitt, 2011).
The Muslim Ban of 2017
The Muslim Ban of 2017 created by President Donald Trump was an
executive order that restricted travel from many Muslim countries. This policy
was criticized as a very blatant display of institutionalized islamophobia,
xenophobia, and racism. At the end of Trump’s term in 2020, he extended this
ban to six more countries in Africa and Asia. This ban was extremely damaging
and dangerous to many people because it prevented them from fleeing their
countries that were experiencing war, natural disasters, or humanitarian crises
(Ibe, 2021). This ban was eventually lifted under the Biden administration, yet the
fear of other people from the Middle East, Africa, and Asia set by the Trump
administration still lingers in the United States. The effect of these bans not only
risked the safety of those looking for refuge but puts those that are currently
residing in the United States at risk of discrimination and oppression.

26

Future Implications
This thesis hopes to impact society’s perspective on Anti-Asian hate crimes
and exhibit how long these hate crimes have been occurring. Hopefully, by
learning about the past it can influence society to change moving forward and
encourage people to protect the Asian population. Now more than ever the Asian
community needs to be heard and understood so that these hate crimes stop
happening. Additionally, the implications of this research are to exhibit the
parallels between the past and the present. This repetition of history is going to
continue if society does not learn from its mistakes. It is important to confront the
bias that was once held in the past as they appear in the hate crimes that are
happening today.
Proposed Solutions
Overall, Asian communities have been victims of Asian hate crimes in the
past, and they still face some of the same discrimination and oppression today.
Over the past couple of years, most Asian hate crimes have been reported by
women according to the Stop Asian Hate database (Yellow Horse, et al., 2022).
Their experiences have many commonalities in the fact that most of them have
faced verbal harassment, civil right violations, and even physical assault. More
shockingly, half of these incidents took place in public places such as parks,
transits, and streets (Yellow Horse, et al., 2022). These crimes can have a
devastating impact on the lives of Asian individuals both physically and mentally.
For the Asian community especially, they are three times less likely to seek

27

mental health services than white Americans (Wong, 2019). There needs to be
more done to protect and support Asian people.
There are already some things that are being done to combat Asian hate such
as the COVID-19 Hate Crimes Act passed on May 20th, 2021. This policy was
enacted to expedite the review of hate crimes to get a more accurate and up to
date picture of where Asian communities are most vulnerable so that the
necessary services can be provided (Hirono, 2021). Whether that be more of a
large police presence in that area, more community outreach services, or more
educational services, the COVID-19 Hate Crimes Act allows state and local
governments to reach those impacted by hate crimes more quickly and
efficiently.
One thing that a person can do to be an ally of Asian people is report an
Asian hate crime when they see it. Often, hate crimes go unreported because
people do not know how to identify a hate crime. There are programs set in place
by the Department of Justice that anyone can attend so that they can learn more
about how to identify a hate crime and how to report one. One of these programs
that is accessible to anyone is the Bias Incidents and Hate Crimes Forum. This is
a half day online training for both community members and law enforcement that
includes methods on how to prevent and respond to bias incidents and hate
crimes, a comprehensive overview on federal, state, and local hate crime laws,
and local tools and resources available to community members to prevent hate
crimes (The United States Department of Justice, 2022). It is crucial for programs
like these to ensure that Asian hate crime does not go unreported. When a

28

person reports a hate crime it allows local communities and law enforcement to
fully understand the scope of the issue, so that a response to these incidents can
be carried out more swiftly and skillfully. When law enforcement has a better
understanding of the Asian communities that are being targeted by hate crimes,
they can respond properly and compassionately, which will hopefully facilitate
more trust between communities and the police (New York State Office of the
Attorney General, 2020).
Even though there are a lot of programs and resources that exist to combat
Asian hate crime, there is still much more that can be done. For Asian women
especially, they are a vulnerable population that experience the most Asian hate
crime to date. A proposed solution could be the creation of more local classes
and activities geared specifically for Asian women to help them navigate hate
crime incidents and what to do when they are faced with racial injustices.
Additionally, a program like this should be centered around empowering Asian
women and giving them the confidence and the tools to transcend Asian hate. A
movement already in place that is like the goals of proposed program is Feminist
Self Defense.
In short, Feminist Self Defense are classes targeted for women to help them
gain the confidence and skills to defend themselves from sexual violence while
also focusing on how they can better handle other types of discrimination with the
strengths that they already possess (Piazza, 2017). Feminist self-defense is
different from typical forms of self-defense such as karate, ju jitsu, krav maga,
etc. in which Feminist Self Defense teaches a woman how to prevent and

29

destabilize situations rather than how to react to them. Not only does Feminist
Self Defense teach boundary setting through “assertive tone of voice, confident
body language, calling out inappropriate behavior, and interrupting escalating
boundary violations” (Piazza, 2017), but it also teaches practical physical fighting
skills that do not take an extended period of time to master.
Feminist Self Defense can be a perfect model for an Asian women’s’ selfdefense class due to the fact that it can teach Asian women the tools to defend
themselves from violence toward women through an Asian perspective. A
cultural history can be shared that includes a background on topics like
xenophobia, sinophobia, Yellow Fever, and Yellow Peril so that Asian women
can get a better understanding on where certain violence is rooted and how to
prevent them in their own lives. This would be a strengths-based program like
Feminist Self Defense so that Asian women are able to enhance the skills and
qualities they already possess to allow them to have more control over Asian
hate. In creating a program for Asian women that can help them transcend Asian
hate, it gives a space for Asian women to go to share their stories and heal with
others from the trauma that they have faced. A class like this would provide a
safe space for Asian women to grow and feel less vulnerable to Asian hate.
Part Two: The Stories of Those Affected
Disclaimer
The names of all participants in the following interviews have been excluded
from the transcript for the sake of their safety and privacy. Each participant has
read and signed a statement and consent form agreeing to the publication of

30

their responses for the purpose of the author’s Honors thesis at California
University of Pennsylvania. The implication of these interviews is to humanize the
faces behind data and statistics of Asian hate crimes. Each participant has
disclosed that they identify as an Asian woman and their ages fall in range
between 18 and 25 years old. Transcriptions have been edited for clarity and
grammar. These are their stories.
Story One:
Natalie Wiest:
Okay, first question, what is your cultural background?
Interviewee One:
Should I say both? Or should I stick to the one in question?
Natalie Wiest:
You can say both.
Interviewee One:
I am half Vietnamese and half Puerto Rican.
Natalie Wiest:
How would you define Asian hate?
Interviewee One:
I think Asian hate has a lot to do with the misconception that follows a lot of
nontraditional Caucasian races and cultures. Where we may look similar to some
people and then the preconceived notion of you must be from XYZ country,
rather than the one we are from. Then furthermore, experience hate comments

31

based on that ignorance and hatred for something that the person may or may
not know anything about?
Natalie Wiest:
What are your experiences growing up with Asian hate?
Interviewee One:
Growing up, even though I am mixed I predominantly look Asian because it is the
side of my genetics that has the least amount of mutations if you will. But,
growing up I definitely received a lot of judgment and hatred when it came to
speaking my language or just existing in a room where no one else looked like
me and feeling as though I didn't belong there to begin with. It felt like the space I
was occupying wasn't meant for me and in addition to that, just the amount of
comments that may or may not be said under their breath or different things that
people might try to constrain to you, because I look a certain way or because I
may or may not be able to speak the language as well as others. It becomes kind
of like, oh, are you really Asian or are you just making a mockery of it and that
kind of stuff. So it becomes like having to constantly prove yourself to people that
you really don't have to.
Natalie Wiest:
Have you experienced any Asian hate crimes in relation to the Coronavirus
pandemic?
Interviewee One:
I definitely think so. No one was ever super verbal, or physical for that matter,
because if it would have gotten physical it would have been a different story. I

32

definitely remember in the beginning of the pandemic, like I said, I am mixed so
going anywhere with my mom's side of the family who is not Asian, but who are
darker than me, became even a bigger deal to people because without a mask,
it's already confusing for people, but with a mask on people also, I think, people
felt a little bit more comfortable to look and stare and make jokes. I remember a
lot of times going out even with my fiancé, who is Caucasian, and going out with
him and I remember me wearing a mask and because I'm immunocompromised,
having people walk past me and fake cough and that would just make me so
mad. Like you're supposed to! You're supposed to wear a mask! I remember
definitely getting dirty stares and I think the biggest thing when the pandemic
started was feeling a lot of anxiety because I did not know how other people were
about to start treating me. It became very terrifying having to go to stores and
knowing that at any moment in time someone could potentially say or do
something. I couldn't even imagine what would happen but I also in my head I
had to be like, be prepared because something may or may not happen and that
anxiety by itself was just horrible.
Natalie Wiest:
What do you do to overcome Asian hate?
Interviewee One:
I think one of the things I do most is just remember who I am or try to remind
myself really of who I am and what my culture is actually like and to try to
eliminate those preconceived notions that others might try to push into your head
about your own culture and your own race. I definitely try to bring myself back

33

and try to center myself even more in my culture every time and just remember
all the good and also acknowledge that while there are some flaws that are there
at the end of the day, there's just so much more positive that comes with it.
There's so much that we couldn't accomplish if there wouldn't have been an
Asian person.
Story Two:
Natalie Wiest:
Okay. So, first question, what is your cultural background?
Interviewee Two:
I am half Filipino and half Caucasian.
Natalie Wiest:
How would you define Asian hate?
Interviewee Two:
What a fantastic question. I guess just any kind of discriminatory attitudes
towards someone of Asian descent.
Natalie Wiest:
What are your experiences growing up with Asian hate?
Interviewee Two:
Um, nothing traumatizing, I guess just very subtle discriminatory judgments and
attitudes about things. Let me think so, a lot of it would be stereotypical stuff like,
you know, kids on the playground thinking that I'm super smart, which I am, but
thinking that I'm super smart without actually knowing who I am or whatever.
Another thing would be like, you know as a kid having those lunches that you

34

bring to school, and kids be like, Oh, what's that? It's not a sandwich and that
smells weird. Yeah, just like little subtle things like that in terms of growing up
and childhood stuff.
Natalie Wiest:
Have you experienced any Asian hate crimes in relation to the Coronavirus
pandemic?
Interviewee Two:
Personally, no, but I have seen it.
Natalie Wiest:
Okay, in what ways?
Interviewee Two:
With friends walking around like in Chinatown and stuff.
Natalie Wiest:
Okay, what have you seen?
Interviewee Two:
I saw there was an older gentleman, and he was coughing or whatever, because
he was smoking cigarettes like obviously that's why he was coughing, he was
just chain smoking them, and a bunch of people started yelling stuff at him like
"close your mouth, you're the one who gave us this. It's your people's fault" and
stuff like that. Just really rude and unnecessary shit that didn't even make sense.
Natalie Wiest:
Then what do you do to overcome Asian hate?
Interviewee Two:

35

Hmm, let me think about that. What do I do? I guess when I do hear people say
stuff, I guess for me mainly when I hear stuff it's basically just fetishization more
than like Anti-Asian hate. I guess usually when I do hear anything along those
lines, I just tell whoever's saying it if I'm close and near contact with them I
usually just tell them, shut up. Like, you're wrong for whatever reason and I try to
educate as much as I can, but a lot of it is ignorance in the way people have
been brought up and the people around them so it's kind of hard to in one
conversation, change someone's mind.
Story Three:
Natalie Wiest:
Okay, so, first question, what is your cultural background?
Interviewee Three:
Chinese and Jamaican.
Natalie Wiest:
How would you define Asian hate?
Interviewee Three:
Basically, any malicious intent because someone's Asian.
Natalie Wiest:
What are your experiences growing up with Asian hate?
Interviewee Three:
Ah, so like Chinese growing up in Jamaica there's a stereotype that all Chinese
are very wealthy, and classism is a very big issue that's currently in Jamaica. So
like, there'll be a lot of slurs and stuff. But then moving to Toronto, Canada

36

specifically, I think that's when I really noticed the Asian hate, like one time I got
thrown onto the street just because I was Asian. So yeah.
Natalie Wiest:
Oh my gosh. I'm so sorry. What happened after that?
Interviewee Three:
I was just shocked. I just was so taken aback and frozen kind of and the person
walked off and I was like, okay, whatever.
Natalie Wiest:
What happened before that that provoked them to throw you on the street?
Interviewee Three:
So they were just walking and that person was just walking really slow on the
street and I was rushing to go to class. So I just basically quickly overtook them
and then they got mad at me. And then he's like, Oh, you think you’re all that,
you're Asian, whatever, whatever. And I was like, whatever. I was ignoring them.
And then he came at me and so basically pushed me onto the street.
Natalie Wiest:
Have you ever experienced any Asian hate crimes specifically in relation to the
Coronavirus?
Interviewee Three:
Yes. There were many times where, mostly white people were like, "oh, you're
the reason, you eat bats and whatever and that's why we have all these illnesses
in the world." Even though I literally only eat chicken.
Natalie Wiest:

37

Last question, what do you do to overcome Asian hate?
Interviewee Three:
I mostly just surround myself with Asians and very open-minded people. So
yeah.
Story Four:
Natalie Wiest:
Okay, so first question, what is your cultural background?
Interviewee Four:
Um, like my ethnicity?
Natalie Wiest:
Yes.
Interviewee Four:
Interesting. I'm Indian.
Natalie Wiest:
How would you define Asian hate?
Interviewee Four:
People who see an Asian person or someone who looks Asian maybe, and then
they'll have negative feelings toward them, just because they're Asian and
nothing else. Then you know, they're mean to them, or they don't provide
services for them because of them being Asian.
Natalie Wiest:
What are your experiences growing up with Asian hate?
Interviewee Four:

38

I have nothing notable really, but they’ll be like, just people giving you a weird
look or like, you know, just staring at you. Or, if you're talking to them, they'll have
an attitude with you or something like that, you know. When I worked at Lowe's
and I worked in North Carolina, and it's like the south, most people are pretty
nice, but then they'll say something like, about my culture or something. It'll be
like a joke. But it's not funny.
Natalie Wiest:
Can you give an example?
Interviewee Four:
I try to forget about them. I don't remember that much.
Natalie Wiest:
Have you experienced any Asian hate crimes in relation to the Coronavirus?
Interviewee Four:
Um, me personally I have not due to Coronavirus, but I know people who have
you know, like my friend. Should I talk about her?
Natalie Wiest:
Yeah sure.
Interviewee Four:
Okay. My friend, she's Chinese and her family owns a Chinese restaurant. So
during that time, people will order food at their place, but then they'll give them an
attitude if they're like, “can you put your mask on while you're waiting for your
order?” Or like “can you put your mask on when you're picking up your order”, but
like you're ordering food from them, but then you can't stand them as people you

39

know, they'd be giving them an attitude. There was this one thing that she said,
they were like, "Oh, this virus we wouldn't have to wear masks if it weren't for
your people" or something. It's just like you're getting their food and then you're
being mean to them.
Natalie Wiest:
What do you do to overcome Asian hate?
Interviewee Four:
I guess calling people out you know, people that are being hateful towards
Asians, obviously, like, "Oh, are you sure you want to say that? Like, that sounds
like you shouldn't say something like that", you know.
Story Five:
Natalie Wiest:
Okay. So, first question, what is your cultural background?
Interviewee Five:
So I am 100% Chinese. I was adopted from China and DNA tests have proven
that my parents are Chinese, their parents before them, etc, etc.
Natalie Wiest:
All right and then how would you define Asian hate?
Interviewee Five:
I would define Asian hate as any act of discrimination or malice or physical or
verbal feelings towards people based on their ethnicities specifically those of
Asian descent. I think it can come in many forms, even today like online or in
different acts or policies that prevent people of Asian descent from moving further

40

or have the same opportunities as other people, white people, or other people of
color.
Natalie Wiest:
What are your experiences growing up with Asian hate?
Interviewee Five:
I know when I was a kid, I got called a Chink a lot which is why my parents
moved to a different neighborhood. I moved from Brownsville to Edinburgh
because of my mom growing up there. I guess in school there were
microaggressions and subtle racism or even just blatant racism, but as a kid I
didn't know how to identify it. So I'm sure my lens as a 12 year old girl is very
different than it is now. So I'm not sure how much or how severe the hate was as
a kid today. I don't think I face as much because we are in a politically or socially
conscious society. On the streets I have been called slurs in the city and gotten
weird things about being a Chinese woman. Obviously not as severe as some
other people might experience.
Natalie Wiest:
Have you experienced any Asian hate crimes in relation to the Coronavirus
pandemic?
Interviewee Five:
I guess not. Like I have had people say stuff to me relating to my place of birth
and my ethnicity around when COVID was really big. I know, not me personally,
but like my sister when she was at Subway, she had this one guy who told her to

41

put her mask on because she was Asian which is horrible obviously, but yeah not
me personally.
Natalie Wiest:
What do you do to overcome Asian hate?
Interviewee Five:
I think connecting with other Asian people has been really helpful. Obviously, I
have friends of Asian descent and to be able to have these conversations and
relate to one another is really helpful. I feel like I read a lot. I follow it closely in
the news. So as much as there is reporting on a hate crime, there's also a lot of
reporting on the resilience of the Asian community. So I find those stories to be
super healing and helpful for me myself.
Conclusion
Figure one, provided on the following pages, is a chart of the interviews
conducted that summarizes the characteristics, experiences, and strategies each
woman used to counter Asian hate.

42

Figure One: Characteristics of Asian Women, Experiences and Strategies for
Countering Asian Hate

Interviewee
One

Ethnicity

Experience with
Hate

Type of
Experience
(Verbal, NonVerbal,
Physical,
Vicarious)

Strategy for
Combating Hate

Vietnamese
and Puerto
Rican

“Judgements and
hatred”

Non-Verbal
Verbal

“Remind myself
of who I am”

“Stares and
jokes”

“Center myself
even more in my
culture”

“Anxiety because
I did not know
how other people
were about to
start treating me”
Interviewee
Two

Filipino and
Caucasian

“Subtle
discriminatory
judgments and
attitudes”

“Remember all
of the good”

Non-Verbal
Verbal
Vicarious

“I just tell them,
shut up”
“Educate as
much as I can”

“Stereotypical
stuff”
Interviewee
Three

Chinese and
Jamaican

“A lot of slurs”
“I got thrown onto
the street
because I was
Asian”
“There were
many times
where, mostly
white people were
like, "oh, you're
the reason, you
eat bats”

Verbal
Physical

“Surround
myself with
Asians and very
open-minded
people”

43

Interviewee
Four

Indian

“Weird looks and
staring”

Verbal
Vicarious

“Calling people
out”

Non-Verbal
Verbal
Vicarious

“Connecting with
other Asian
people and
having
conversations
relating to one
another”

“Attitudes and
jokes”
Interviewee
Five

Chinese

“There were
microaggressions
and subtle racism
or even just
blatant racism”
“Slurs”

“Following the
news and
reading the
resilience of the
Asian
community is
super healing”

44

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