Brittany Brommer
Criminal Justice with a Concentration in Homeland and International Security
Dr. Christopher Wydra, Advisor
Dr. Beverly Ross, Second Reader
Dr. Craig Fox, HAB Member
Mr. Bill Meloy, Librarian
Keywords: college students, school shootings, anxiety, media, target hardening, school
shooting drills

I
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Table of Contents………………………………………………………………I
2. Abstract…………………………………………………………………….... III
3. Introduction: School Shootings in the United States…………………….……..1
4. Mass Shootings at the Collegiate Level……………………….………….…….2
a. College Students………………………………………………….…….3
5. The Media and Moral Panic……………………………………………………5
6. Target Hardening and Training…………………………………….…………..7
7. Methodology…………………………………………………………………..10
a. Introduction……………………………………………………………10
b. Research Questions……………………………………………………10
c. Methodological Approach………………………………...….………..11
d. Data Collection Procedures……………………………………………11
e. Research Question Mapping…………………………………………...12
f. Participant Sample……………………………………………………..13
g. Summary……………………………………………………………….13
8. Survey Questions………………………………………………………………13
9. Data…………………………………………………………………………….13
a. Analysis…………………………………………………….…………..14
b. Findings………………………………………..………………….……14
10. Discussion………………………………………………………………………18
a. Limitations…………………………………….………………………..23
11. Recommendations……………………………………………………………...26

II
12. Conclusion………………………………………………….…………………..25
13. References………………………………………………...…….………………28
14. Appendix I: Survey Questions………………………….………………………31
15. Appendix II: Survey Results……………………………………………………37
16. Appendix III: Institutional Review Board Approval……………………………43

III
Abstract
The rising phenomenon of mass shootings within schools in the United States has
been a prevalent topic in news media and social media outlets. In response to what
seems to be an increase in violence within schools, safety plans and procedures have
been put in place to protect students from the seemingly inevitability of school
shootings. The intent of this research is to gather data on student perceptions of
school mass shootings, specifically at the collegiate level. The feelings of anxiety
within students is debated by many researchers in the criminal justice and psychology
fields. While some believe that the anxious feelings are caused by the projection of
school shootings in the media, others believe that the training and drills conducted to
mitigate school shootings cause unnecessary trauma within students. In this research
project, on-campus college students will be examined on their personal perceptions
towards mass shootings at the university. Additionally, this research project will
delve into the possible anxiety-inducing triggers such as the mass media and active
shooter drills. The goal of the research project is to then provide policy
recommendations to colleges or universities that will help to alleviate the anxiety
within students.
Keywords: college students, school shootings, anxiety, media, target hardening,
school shooting drills

Brommer 1
Introduction: School Shootings in the United States
Columbine, Sandyhook, Virginia Tech, and Stoneman Douglas, are names
familiar to every American. Despite media or other indications that school shootings have
increased, in reality, school violence has overall been declining since 1993 (Twemlow et.
al, 2002). The panic of school shootings seemed to have begun in 1999 with the
Columbine High School shooting. However, in 1997 there were two school shootings at
Pearl High School in Mississippi and Heath High School in Kentucky (Jonson, 2017).
Additionally, in 1998, a shooting occurred at Thurston High School in Oregon. What
made the Columbine High School shooting different from the three shootings in the two
previous years is the media attention it received. The chaos of the scene was nationally
broadcasted to viewers at home, which included visuals of terrified children running for
their lives, the SWAT team running into the building to rescue the others, and
ambulances loading children on stretchers with blood-soaked sheets. On the day of the
Columbine High School shooting, the news channel CNN provided six hours of
uninterrupted live coverage of the scene (Jonson, 2017).
The concern of school shootings is present in news media, social media, and
conversations with legislatures in the United States. Therefore, there is no questioning
that school violence is an issue across the country at all education levels. The answer that
must be sought after is what impact do school shootings have on students and their
perceptions, and what can be done to alleviate potential feelings of worry and anxiety? In
order to answer these questions, a survey was administered to students who attend inperson classes at California University of Pennsylvania. The goal of the survey was to
gauge student perspectives to determine if outside influences such as the media, security

Brommer 2
tactics, and prior experiences impacted student perceptions of mass shootings at the
university. An initial literature review was conducted to provide a baseline of information
on how factors such as the media and mass shooting drills can influence student
perceptions. The findings from the survey were used in order to make recommendations
as to what can be improved upon at the university for the students’ safety and peace of
mind.
Mass Shootings at the Collegiate Level
Much of the media attention and research is directed towards shootings that occur
at the K-12 level, leaving little to be said about school shootings that occur at colleges
and universities across the United States. The most infamous university shooting
occurred at Virginia Tech in Blacksburg, Virginia. The incident occurred on the morning
of April 16th, 2007, with the first shooting at approximately 07:00 with two victims, and
the second shooting from 09:30-09:50 with 30 more victims (Vieweg et. al, 2008). At
12:00, a press conference was held to update the community that there were 21 deceased
and 28 others injured. At 14:13, the final death toll was announced at 32, including the
assailant. Ten months after the Virginia Tech incident, a shooting occurred at Northern
Illinois University (Kaminski et. al, 2010). The shooting at Northern Illinois University
resulted in the deaths of five people, and injured 18 others.
As Kaminski et al. mentions in their article, research on the fear of mass
shootings on college campuses is lacking, as a majority of current research focuses on
secondary school students (2010). However, similarly to K-12 schools, college campuses
have also begun to implement new security services and techniques in response to the
school shootings. Improved emergency communication systems have now expanded to

Brommer 3
alerting students of a campus emergency by text, email, and other phone alerts (Kaminski
et. al, 2010). Additionally, colleges and universities have also enacted campus lock down
drills, increased security personnel, initiated student profiling, and permitted students and
faculty to conceal carry on campus. At face-value, these new security implementations
seem to be well-intentioned with the best interest of students, faculty, and staff at the
forefront. However, research must continue to be conducted to determine effectiveness of
these new initiatives.
College Students
College students’ perceptions of safety must be analyzed specifically as to how
they perceive the effectiveness of the security measures currently in place. While
sometimes new security measures may bring about anxiety or increase perceptions of the
likelihood of victimization, some students feel as if there is not enough security on
college campuses to protect them from crimes, such as mass shootings. A survey
conducted on 20 college students ages 21-25 found that 45% of the students felt that the
security on their campus was inadequate (Chekwa et. al, 2013). When asked what should
be done to make the campus safer, 55% of the students responded that the campus needed
more police or security officials. Therefore, students at every college and university must
be surveyed on their satisfaction of campus security in order to alleviate any anxiety it
may bring about on crime victimization.
Along with the new security standards on campuses, the media must also be
examined in order to determine its relationship with students’ perceptions of fear on
college campuses. According to the Pew Research Center, in 2006, 41% of young adults
between the ages of 18 and 29 utilized social media. In 2008, that percentage rose to 63%

Brommer 4
(Perrin, 2020). Therefore, the impact social media had on college students during the
Virginia Tech and Northern Illinois shootings would have looked much different than if
they were to occur today. To further illustrate this concept, compare social media use in
the early 2000s when the Virginia Tech and Northern Illinois shootings occurred, to 2015
when 90% of 18-29-year old’s were reported to have used social media. Additionally,
76% of individuals with a college or graduate degree utilize social media in 2015, making
them even more susceptible to viewing content about school shootings (Perrin, 2020).
Therefore, these statistics suggest that the increase of social media in students’ lives
would be much different today, concerning the consumption of social media content
directed towards school shootings, than it was in the early 2000s.
In addition to social media, news media also plays a significant role in the
broadcasting of major events such as school shootings. However, in a survey conducted
in 2019 of 1,500 college students, 27% of the students responded that they get their news
from social media rather than print newspapers or television (College Pulse, 2019). The
survey polled students as to which news source they rely on for information about politics
and current events. The New York Times and NPR ranked as students’ favorites, which
was followed by Fox News and CNN. As previously mentioned, when the news about the
Columbine shooting first broke, CNN spent six hours of uninterrupted coverage of the
live scene (Elsass et. al, 2014). After the Virginia Tech shooting, The New York Times
published 138 articles about the incident. Therefore, these examples suggest that some of
college students’ most favored news sources tend to overreport stories about school
shootings. Thus, research must continue to be conducted on how news media impacts
college students’ perceptions.

Brommer 5
The Media and Moral Panic
In society’s current climate, breaking news stories can travel faster than ever. This
can be contributed to the 24-hour live news coverage on television and the new
phenomenon of social media. The narrative that school shootings are on the rise in the
United States can be attributed to the abundant coverage of these events on social media
and news media (Elsass et. al, 2014). A month after the school shooting at Sandy Hook
Elementary, 90% of people reported that they were still following the story somewhat
closely, or very closely (Jonson, 2017). The constant coverage of news stories such as a
school shooting can result in what is called a moral panic. A moral panic is defined as
when a “condition, episode, person or group of persons emerges to become defined as a
threat to societal values and interests” (Jonson, 2017). As time goes on, the panic will
cease or become replaced by a new threat. This can be seen in a poll conducted by Gallup
on parent’s concerns for their child’s safety at school. The parent’s fear peaked at 55% in
1999 after the Columbine High School shooting occurred (McCarthy, 2021). The fear
then dropped to 26%, and ultimately spiked back up in 2001 after reports of the Santana
High School shooting in California (McCarthy, 2021). Another phenomenon that is
related to moral panics is the cultivation effect. A cultivation effect occurs due to people
increasing their media consumption, which prompts them to see the world as the media
portrays it. This occurs predominantly if the topic is being heavily framed by the news
media (Elsass et. al, 2014).
Social media can also play a damaging role in increasing worry and anxiety of
school shootings within students. As previously mentioned, a majority of college students
utilize some sort of social media. This then opens them up to endless possibilities of

Brommer 6
viewing sensitive and often times inaccurate information. In a Pew Research Center
survey given to U.S. adults in 2020, 64% of the respondents stated that social media has
mostly a negative effect on society, and 28% stated that the main reason is because of the
spread of misinformation (Auxier, 2020). Misinformation is essentially “made-up news,”
which can be spread rapidly on social media platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, and
Instagram. Students who are curious and want more information about breaking news
stories of school shooting incidents will typically turn to social media to get the latest
details (Stein, 2021). Information they will look for is if they know anyone who was
impacted, what the death or injury toll is up to, and if the shooter was identified and
captured. Since information on social media is not verified for accuracy, it can become
extremely harmful, especially when users begin to share the misinformation with their
friends and followers on the network.
In addition to inaccurate information, harmful and sensitive details about school
shootings can also be viewed. After the shooting at Oxford High School on November
30th, 2021, the social media network “TikTok” was filled with terrifying videos of
students barricaded in their classrooms or running away from the school. One video in
particular was viewed by over 1.6 million TikTok users (Stein, 2021). Social media also
plays a role in potentially encouraging copy-cat incidents. In December 2021, three
weeks after the Oxford High School shooting, a TikTok school shooting “challenge” had
school districts on high alert after threats were made that school shootings would occur
across the country on Friday, December 17 (Frishberg, 2021). Although after
investigating the threats and deeming them not credible, parents and students were still
fearful about attending school that Friday, and some school districts even opted to close

Brommer 7
school for the day. Therefore, the impact of viewing frightening videos and photos of
active school shooter scenes and constantly reading about new threats on social media
can contribute to the anxiety and fear within students.
Target Hardening and Training
In response to the school shooting incidents, school officials and administrators
began to implement new security measures in order to prevent further incidents from
occurring. Some of these new measures include conducting surveillance to prevent
weapons from entering school premises, hiring armed officers, implementing stricter
access control measures, metal detectors, bullying prevention initiatives, and launching
an improved emergency communication system (Jonson, 2017). These security measures
are put in place based upon the routine activities theory, rational choice theory, and crime
pattern theory (Jonson, 2017). The idea is that an offender will make a rational choice
based upon the opportunities that are available. However, when these security measures
are implemented, it limits or prevents the availability of those options for the offender to
choose from.
Researchers are beginning to question the psychological impact on students when
stricter security measures are implemented in schools. One new measure in particular is
conducting active shooter drills, which are similar to fire drills or extreme weather drills.
The purpose of these drills is to enhance awareness and preparedness of students and staff
in case a shooting occurs (Rygg, 2015). Some researchers question if too many drills
might cross the line of appropriateness. It is important to point out that although
lockdown drills may seem to be a new emergency preparedness technique, they have
actually been around since the Columbine High School shooting (Rygg, 2015). In the

Brommer 8
2017-2018 school year, more than 4.1 million students in the United States participated in
at least one lockdown drill (Walker, 2020). One major drawback of these drills is that
there is no consensus as to what the proper and consistent procedures should be followed
in schools across the United States. For example, some schools insist teachers actually
“lockdown” their classrooms, while other schools encourage students to try and run to
safety as the first option.
One of the most commonly known drills is called the ALICE Training. ALICE is
an acronym that stands for alert, lockdown, inform, counter, and evacuate (National
School Safety & Security Services, (n.d.)). This training was created by the Department
of Homeland Security and initially intended to be used in workplace settings. Many
critics debate the “counter” part of this training, especially for students in the K-12 grades
(National School Safety & Security Services, (n.d.)). Students are instructed to “counter”
the assailant by throwing books, chairs, and any other object that could harm the intruder
in order to mitigate the situation. Some researchers believe that by instructing already
scared and young students to respond in this way, may escalate the situation rather than
neutralize it (National School Safety & Security Services, (n.d.)). Those who advocate for
the ALICE training argue that the “counter” portion is to prepare students for the
unthinkable, so that they are not “sitting ducks” waiting to be attacked. Due to the
differences of opinions, there are inconsistencies with training and drills throughout K-12
schools, and even in colleges and universities across the United States. Since this
research is specifically examining California University of Pennsylvania, it is important
to note that the university organized a voluntary ALICE training in 2017, and has not
addressed the topic of mass shootings with any other training or drills since then.

Brommer 9
Additionally, as school shootings seemed to become more prevalent and extreme,
so did the drills. Lockdown drills went from teachers simply locking their doors and
turning the lights off, to involving the local first responders in order to make the drill
seem more realistic (Rygg, 2015). There are some benefits in making active shooter drills
more realistic. For starters, students will have a more of a concrete idea of what to do in
the event of an active shooter on campus. Second, by involving local law enforcement
and other emergency response services, it provides them with the training they need to
prepare in the event an active shooter incident would occur.
Intensifying active shooter drills can also have negative consequences for
students. One example of this is schools beginning to conduct unannounced active
shooter drills. Additionally, to further intensify the drill, schools will utilize actors as fake
intruders who either fire off blanks or rubber pellets (Walker, 2020). Although the use of
pretend intruders and blanks are not intended to purposely scare students, Janet Shapiro, a
dean of the Graduate School of Social Work and Social Research at Bryn Mawr College,
stated that depending upon the age group, young children have a difficult time separating
fantasy and reality especially in stressful situations (Walker, 2020). Therefore, numerous
drills coupled with realistic effects might begin to take a damaging psychological toll on
students. Students may even begin to unrealistically believe that they are destined to
experience a school shooting at some point in their life. Thus, further research must be
conducted on the ways active shooter drills can impact students.

Brommer 10
Methodology
Introduction
This research study examined California University of Pennsylvania students’
perceptions of school shootings and safety pertaining to the topic. The data was derived
from a survey that was administered to California University of Pennsylvania students
that take on-campus classes. Analysis of the data included an examination of student
responses and compared it to the research collected from the literature review. A
description and explanation of the methodological approach, data collection procedures,
instruments, participant sample, and data analysis processes will be provided.
Institutional Review Board approval was obtained from California University of
Pennsylvania and can be found in Appendix III.
The research design utilized in this study took a traditional methodology
approach. It first began by conducting a literature review to address the two research
questions created. The second step was to develop a survey tool and acquire a population
to utilize in addressing the research questions. Third, data was collected using the survey
tool. Fourth, the data was analyzed and compared to the literature review. Lastly, the
findings were discussed and policy recommendations were made. This study utilized the
web-based software Microsoft Forms as the survey tool to create and distribute questions
through a secure email link. Additionally, Microsoft Forms provided tools to analyze and
review the answers the respondents provided.
Research Questions
The intent of this study was to identify and examine California University of
Pennsylvania student’s perceptions of safety relating to shooting events on campus.

Brommer 11
Additionally, this study sought to discover specific factors that contributed to the feelings
and perceptions students may have. The research questions that directed this study were:
1. How does media and active shooter drills influence student’s perceptions on the
topic?
2. Does the threat of an active shooter impact students' perceptions of safety on
campus?
Methodological Approach
The topic of college students’ perceptions of safety and school shooting events
was chosen due to the lack of research specifically focusing on students at the collegiate
level. Additionally, the researcher chose this topic to provide recommendations and
generate a conversation relating to safety at the university they attend. A quantitative
research design was chosen in order to reach a larger population of respondents to assist
with generalizability, as well as validity and reliability. Additionally, quantitative
research allows for quick collection and assessment of close-ended questions. The sample
population was chosen due to the convenience of the researcher attending the university
being analyzed. Since this study only examined students that attend in-person classes at
California University of Pennsylvania, it only reached a relatively small participant pool
compared to the very large population of college students in the United States. In order to
increase the reliability and generalizability of this research, the study could be replicated
at other college or university campuses across the United States.
Data Collection Procedures
The researcher in this study contacted organizations at California University of
Pennsylvania to assist in distributing the survey through email correspondences that were

Brommer 12
approved by the Institutional Review Board. These organizations included, the University
Honors Program, the University Housing Office, the Criminal Justice Department, and
the Criminal Justice Club. These organizations agreed to support the study and assist in
distributing the survey to their students, residents, and club members. The support and
assistance provided by the organizations included allowing the researcher to speak about
the study during classes or meetings, or sent an Institutional Review Board approved
recruitment letter to their email lists. By utilizing these different organizations, the
researcher was able to obtain a very diverse group of respondents for the survey. All
participants agreed to take the survey voluntarily, and were made aware of the risks,
confidentiality, and purpose of the survey for the research study.
Research Question Mapping
The research questions included in the survey for this study examined students’
perceptions on matters relating to experiences, safety, and security at the university. In
order to address the research questions, the survey questions were mapped in a way that
would address them, and were distributed to the California University of Pennsylvania
students through Microsoft Forms. For example, the survey question, “how many times
have you participated in a mass shooting drill?” corresponds with the research question,
“how does the media and active shooter drills influence student’s perceptions on the
topic?” Additionally, the survey question, “have you ever experienced a threat of a school
shooting in high school or college” corresponds with the research question “does the
threat of an active shooter impact students' perceptions of safety on campus?” This
method was used throughout the creation of all survey questions.

Brommer 13
Participant Sample
This study involved a purposeful convenience sampling of students that attend
California University of Pennsylvania. This population was chosen since the researcher
attends California University of Pennsylvania, and because of their connections with
various organizations at the university. However, since this study only examines students
specifically at California University of Pennsylvania, the study may encounter more
limitations due to the geographical location of the university, the size of the school, and
COVID-19 impacting the number of students who attend in-person classes.
Summary
The purpose of this research was to examine California University of
Pennsylvania students’ perceptions of safety and school shootings at the university. Data
was derived from an Institutional Review Board approved survey and distributed to
various groups, clubs, organizations on campus. 218 responses were collected, including
one outlier response. The outlier response was from a student who reported that they
were not taking in-person classes at the university. The survey questions included
multiple choice and Likert scale on topics such as demographics, experiences, safety, and
security.
Survey Questions
See appendix I for the complete list of survey questions.
Data
The data section will present the findings of the participant responses derived
from the survey. The data identified limitations and factors of students’ perceptions of
safety and security relating to school shooting events on campus. Additionally, the data

Brommer 14
provided a deeper examination of students’ past experiences, which can be used to
identify reasons for feelings of concern or anxiety. The data will be analyzed in the
following section, followed by a presentation of the significant findings.
Analysis
The online survey tool Microsoft Forms includes data analysis tools such as pie
charts and graphs. Information submitted by participant responses were directly inputted
into the pie charts and graphs for categorization. Pie charts and graphs derived from the
Microsoft Forms survey will be used to illustrate the significant findings in the Findings
section. A complete list of the results from the survey can be found in Appendix II.
Findings
After reviewing the data collected and organized into pie charts and graphs,
specific findings stand out the most. In the matter of demographics, all except one
respondent was between the ages of 18 to 25. The outlier respondent was between the
ages of 26 to 35. Additionally, 72% of the survey respondents were female:

Concerning ethnicity, 88% of the respondents were white, 7% were African American,
3% were Latino or Hispanic, and only one respondent was Asian. Lastly, with regard to

Brommer 15
major, 19% of the respondents were Education majors, 17% were Social Science majors,
and 20% were an unlisted or undecided major.
Student’s responses to safety questions provided a good insight to their feelings
and perceptions on the topic of shootings on campus. For instance, 29% of respondents
reported that the topic of school shootings makes them very anxious, and 26% reported
that the topic makes them at least a little anxious:

When asked about feelings of safety in specific areas on campus, a majority of
students disclosed that they either feel safe or extremely safe in classrooms, the student
union, residence halls, and generally walking around campus. For example, 48.6% of
students stated they feel somewhat safe in classrooms whereas 7.8% of students said that
they feel unsafe. Additionally, 53.7% of students reported that they feel somewhat safe
walking around campus, and 9.6% reported that they feel unsafe. In all four instances
when students were asked about their feelings of safety in classrooms, the student union,
residence halls, and walking around campus, less than 1% of the respondents stated that
they felt extremely unsafe.

Brommer 16
In addition to safety and demographics, survey questions also asked students
about their prior experiences with potential threats of a school shooting. When asked
about experiencing a school shooting in either high school or college, 98% of the
respondents reported no. However, when asked about experiencing a threat of a school
shooting in either high school or college, 79% of the respondents reported yes:

Survey questions then asked students about their experiences of reading or hearing about
school shootings on social media. 44.5% of students stated that they read about school
shootings somewhat often on social media, and 48.2% stated that they hear about school
shootings on news media somewhat often. When asked how they primarily obtain
information about current events, 76% of students reported social media, while only 13%
reported watching the news on TV:

Brommer 17
Additionally, 31% of students stated that they view the most content on school shootings
on Facebook, while Instagram and Twitter tied for second.
Students were then asked questions about their experiences with mass shooting
drills. Notably, 89% of students reported that they have participated in a mass shooting
drill, and 50% of students stated that they have participated in mass shooting drills four or
more times:

When asked how the topic of mass shooting drills makes them feel, 39% answered a little
anxious, while 24% stated that there was no effect. Finally, students were asked how
often they discuss school shootings during class time. Remarkably, 41% of students
responded not very often and 36% reported never. Only 2% of students stated that they
discuss school shootings extremely often during class time:

Brommer 18
The last category of questions students were asked, were based on the physical
security of the campus. Students were asked how familiar they were with what to do in
case an active shooter situation would arise on campus. 26.6% of students responded that
were not familiar at all what to do, while only 7.3% stated that they were extremely
familiar with what to do. Additionally, students were asked how familiar they were with
emergency evacuation plans on campus. 39.9% of students responded that they were not
familiar at all with the plans, and only one student responded that they were extremely
familiar with emergency evacuation plans.
Finally, students were questioned on their satisfaction with the physical campus
security. When asked about the overall campus security, 42% of students stated that they
were somewhat satisfied. In addition, a majority of students responded that they felt
indifferent about the location and amount of security cameras on campus. The responses
to the satisfaction questions regarding the location and amount of blue-light emergency
phones on campus were very similar. For example, 23.9% of students stated that they
were unsatisfied with the location of the phones and 23.4% stated that they were
unsatisfied with the number of phones.
Discussion
The survey distributed to California University of Pennsylvania students provided
many helpful insights on generally how they perceive safety and mass shootings on
campus. Specifically, the responses provided important information that can begin to
answer the two research questions: how does the media and active shooter drills influence
student’s perceptions on the topic and does the threat of an active shooter impact
students' perceptions of safety on campus?

Brommer 19
After examining the demographics section, it is no surprise that all but one student
fell into the age range of 18 to 25, since this is the typical age range for undergraduate
students taking on-campus classes. It is important to note that 194 students out of the 218
who took the survey were white students. Therefore, the minority populations were
highly unrepresented within this survey. Additionally, as per instructions of the survey,
students were only supposed to take the survey if they were taking on-campus classes.
However, one outlier respondent answered that they were not taking on-campus classes.
Although miniscule, this outlier response could have skewed the responses slightly.
Within the demographics section, a majority of students were either education,
social science, or another or undecided major. Specifically, 20% of students were another
or undecided major, 19% were education majors, and 17% were social science majors.
Since there was such a high number of students that responded they were another or
undecided major, it is questionable as to if the categories of majors were confusing to
most students. Further, although the results could not have been broken down specifically
between all 11 majors, it is important to note that the major of a student would likely
have altered the way they responded to the safety, experience, and physical security
questions. For example, it could be suggested that the five students who responded they
discuss school shootings extremely often during class were a social science major, such
as Criminal Justice. The 78 students who stated that they never discuss school shootings
during class were most likely a business or biological science major. However, it is
interesting to point out that although Education majors were highly represented
throughout this survey, 36% of students responded that they never discuss school
shootings during class. The reason this is striking is due to the fact that school shootings

Brommer 20
would seem to be a prevalent topic discussed within the Education major. Lastly, to
further expand upon this concept, the survey results would more than likely have been
different if there was a higher representation of the Communications, Engineering, and
Health Professions majors, since the course material in these majors do not relate to the
topic of school shootings at all.
Due to the inability to break down survey answers by major, a discussion on the
findings will be based off of the comparison of the dominant answers. First, it is
important to note that although only 2% of students reported that they experienced a
school shooting in either high school or college, 79% stated they at least experienced a
threat of a school shooting in high school or college. Additionally, 27% of students
responded that they experienced another student bringing a firearm into high school or
college. Therefore, it is irrefutable that a majority of the respondents in some way have
had an experience relating to a school shooting, or potential for one to have occurred.
Since it is evident that a majority of students have had these experiences, it parallels with
the responses regarding mass shooting drills. In response to the experiences the students
reported of either enduring a school shooting, a student bringing a firearm onto school
grounds, or a threat of a shooting, it would begin to explain why 89% of students stated
that they have participated in an active shooter drill, and why 50% of the students stated
they have participated in four or more drills. However, overall, 39% of students stated
that the topic of mass shooting drills only makes them a little anxious, and 24% stated
that the topic has no effect on them whatsoever. Since the students reported participating
in four or more mass shooting drills, the repeated drills could have either desensitized the
students, or made them confident in what to do if a school shooting situation would arise.

Brommer 21
However, the latter could be contradicted, since 29% of students stated that the topic of
school shootings makes them feel very anxious, and 26% reported that it at least makes
them feel a little anxious.
When students were asked how often they heard about school shootings on social
or news media, 46.3%-48.2% of students reported “somewhat often.” Additionally, 76%
reported that they primarily obtain information about current events on social media, and
Instagram and Snapchat tied for being the most used social media network. However,
even more interesting, students expressed that they saw or heard about school shootings
most on Facebook. Therefore, if Instagram and Snapchat are the most used networks, it is
puzzling as to why Facebook would be the network where most students gathered
information about school shootings. Nevertheless, it is important to mention that 76% of
students stated that they obtain information about current events on social media. As it
was presented in the literature review, social media typically contains misinformation and
sensitive details on school shootings, which could correlate to the students reporting that
the subject makes them very or a little anxious. Lastly, it is important to note that these
numbers could have been much higher if a school shooting occurred during the time
period the survey was being distributed.
The last and arguably most important section to discuss is the students’
satisfaction and familiarity with California University of Pennsylvania’s specific security
measures and plans put into place. When students were asked how familiar they were
with knowing what to do if an active shooter situation were to arise on campus, 29.8% of
students stated that they were not very familiar and 26.6% reported that they were not
familiar at all. Similarly, when asked about evacuation plans on campus, 32.1% of

Brommer 22
students stated that they were not very familiar, and 39.9% reported that they were not
familiar at all. Therefore, these responses undoubtedly explain the need for more
communication and training in these areas. However, one reason for the lack of training
and education in these areas could be contributed to the COVID-19 pandemic. Students
were also asked questions on their satisfaction with the overall security on campus, as
well as their opinions on the location and quantity of security cameras and blue-light
emergency phones on campus. In response to the satisfaction of overall campus security,
17.9% of students reported they were extremely satisfied, and 42.7% of students reported
that they were somewhat satisfied. Only 2.8% of students stated that they were extremely
unsatisfied. Questions concerning the amount and location of security cameras were
mainly felt indifferently by students. Reasons for this could be because students normally
do not take notice to security cameras, or they do not recognize the importance security
cameras have in a school shooting event. However, 22-27.1% of students relayed that
they were at least somewhat satisfied with the amount and location of security cameras.
Lastly, responses were varied on the questions regarding the amount and location of bluelight emergency phones on campus. For example, regarding location, 32% of students
stated that they were somewhat satisfied, 19.7% of students stated they felt indifferent,
and 23.9% said they felt generally unsatisfied. An explanation for these insignificant
findings could be due to students’ unfamiliarity with blue-light emergency phones and
what their purpose is.
Limitations
There were two notable limitations with this research study. The first limitation
was due to the limited time in distributing the survey. After applying for Institutional

Brommer 23
Review Board approval, completing the literature review, and creating survey questions
that align with the research questions, it provided a limited amount of time to distribute
the survey and collect data. The survey link was active for two weeks which resulted in
218 participants completing the survey. Additionally, the researcher was limited on time
due to preparing for the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences conference and the
Pennsylvania Association of Criminal Justice Educators conference. In order to have an
adequate amount of research to present at these conferences, the researcher had to limit
the time frame for distributing the survey.
The second limitation was the limited availability of respondents for the survey.
This is greatly due to being restricted in only surveying California University of
Pennsylvania students. In order to have surveyed other southwestern Pennsylvania
college students, or other college students in general, the researcher would have had to
apply for Institutional Review Board approval at those other colleges or universities. Due
to the time constraints, the researcher would not have been able to apply to other
Institutional Review Boards in order to obtain data from other college students. However,
it would have been beneficial to obtain additional perspectives from college students that
attended other institutions.
Recommendations
Based upon the significant findings of this research, recommendations can be
made to California University of Pennsylvania. This first recommendation is to provide
more opportunities for basic education and training on active shooters incidents. The
basis of this training would include information on what to do if there is an active shooter
on campus and evacuation plans for all areas on campus. This training is crucial,

Brommer 24
especially since the COVID-19 pandemic has put a halt to any previous education and
training that was in place. Although there have been no recent school shootings due to
students learning at home, it is important that schools do not become sedentary and
remain proactive. Similarly, the second recommendation is to provide more education
and training on the current campus security measures in place. This would include
educating students on the blue-light emergency phones placed around campus, such as
how to use them and the purpose of them. Additionally, students should be made aware
of the CalU Emergency Alert System and how to sign-up for it. The last educationrelated recommendation would be to provide students with information on the harms of
obtaining current event details strictly from social media. Students must understand the
harms and risks of utilizing social media to search for facts, especially relating to school
shooting events.
In addition to education and training, recommendations can be made to improve
upon the physical security of the campus. One of the ways this can be accomplished is to
encourage professors to create and discuss a plan in the event an active shooter would
enter the lecture halls. This plan would include who to alert, how to evacuate, where to
hide, and how to counter the intruder as a last resort option. It is important to note that
professors in all majors must adopt this recommendation, since the findings from the
survey distributed found that a majority of majors do not discuss the topic of armed
intruders. A second recommendation would be to create an anonymous tip database in
order to encourage students to say something if they see or hear something. This database
could be monitored by the campus police and other appropriate campus groups in order to
determine the credibility of the threats. Additionally, although students could submit tips

Brommer 25
about an active shooter threat, students may also use it for reporting other underreported
crimes such as vandalism, theft, assault, etc. The rules and use of the database would be
covered during the education and training sessions. The last recommendation would be to
have more visible campus police presence throughout the day in the lecture halls, the
Natali Student Union, and residence halls. Not only will this presence serve as a
deterrence for crimes to occur, such as an active shooter, but it will also provide students
with the opportunity to interact with the campus police in a more positive way. The
increase of police presence may cause students to feel even more uneasy or believe that
something is wrong, but this can be eliminated as long as they are intentionally
interacting with the students and communicating the new initiatives they are
implementing.
Conclusion
The goal of this research study was to answer the two research questions: How
does the media and active shooter drills influence student’s perceptions on the topic and
does the threat of an active shooter impact students' perceptions of safety on campus?
The results of the survey concluded that a majority of students in sample population taken
from California University of Pennsylvania obtain current event information primarily
from social media, and that a majority of them have participated in a mass shooting drill.
Additionally, these same students reported that 79% have experienced a threat of a school
shooting, and 27% have experienced a student bringing a firearm onto a school campus.
Therefore, it can be concluded that factors such as the media and active shooter drills
have played a role in a majority of the students’ lives, as well as experiencing some sort
of active shooter threat at a point of time in their lives.

Brommer 26
In order to fully answer the research questions, the degree to which those factors
and experiences play a role in student perceptions must be determined. Specifically
looking at the media, 76% of the students reported that they primarily obtain information
about current events from social media, with the most reported network being Facebook.
Therefore, it can be supported that students at California University of Pennsylvania most
likely obtain a majority of their information about school shootings from social media,
and because of that, a majority of the information they are consuming is likely to be
inaccurate. This greatly impacts students’ perceptions because misinformation can cause
fear and panic within students if they do not have verified information.
Additionally, although the vast majority of students reported that they have
participated in a mass shooting drill, 50% of them stated that they have participated in
four or more drills. Essentially, this could average out to being one drill per academic
year in high school or college. Although half of the students reported participating in four
or more drills, almost 40% of the students stated that the topic of mass shooting drills
alone makes them still a little anxious. Therefore, the number of drills students participate
in clearly impact their perceptions. This could signify that having too many drills can
make students worry more about an active shooter incident actually occurring on campus,
or relay to school administers that there must be modifications made to improve the drills
in order to make students more confident in their safety.
Lastly, almost 30% of the students who took the survey at California University
of Pennsylvania reported that the topic of school shootings makes them very anxious.
Additionally, 26% reported that the topic of school shootings make them at least a little
anxious. This anxiety and concern can come from previous experiences such as the threat

Brommer 27
of a school shooter, or a student bringing a gun onto a school campus. Additionally, the
fear and worry can be derived from not discussing the topics regularly or being
unfamiliar with the current safety measures and procedures put in the place. The point is
that students concerns and anxiety surrounding the topic of school shootings can be
derived from a vast number of reasons. Therefore, there is not one specific reason as to
how outside factors and experiences can impact student perceptions. It can be affirmed
that the media, school shooting drills, and other experiences without a doubt impact
student perceptions, but the way these factors influence perceptions is different for every
student. In conclusion, the primary finding from this research is that students need to be
continuously assessed and evaluated in order to determine how to properly address their
concerns about safety and mass shootings at the university. By developing an open line of
communication, promoting education and training, and regularly reassessing security
measures put in place, students’ perceptions of fear and anxiety can be mitigated
regardless of external factors and prior experiences.

Brommer 28
References
Auxier, B. (2020, October 15). 64% of Americans say social media have a mostly
negative effect on the way things are going in the U.S. today. Pew Research Center.
Retrieved January 19, 2022, from https://www.pewresearch.org/facttank/2020/10/15/64-of-americans-say-social-media-have-a-mostly-negative-effecton-the-way-things-are-going-in-the-u-s-today/
Chekwa, C., Thomas, Jr, E., & Jones, V. J. (2013). What Are College Students'
Perceptions
About Campus Safety? Contemporary Issues in Education Research (CIER), 6(3),
325–
332. https://doi.org/10.19030/cier.v6i3.7903
College Pulse. (2019, August 22). College Students Rank The New York Times and NPR
as Favorite News Sources. College Pulse. Retrieved January 19, 2022, from
https://collegepulse.com/blog/college-students-rank-the-new-york-times-and-npras-favorite-news-sources
Elsass, H. J., Jaclyn Schildkraut, & Stafford, M. C. (2014). Breaking News of Social
Problems: Examining Media Consumption and Student Beliefs about School
Shootings. Criminology, Criminal Justice Law & Society, 15(2).
Frishberg, H. (2021, December 17). Tiktok 'Challenge' warns of alleged school shooting
threats across US. New York Post. Retrieved January 16, 2022, from

Brommer 29
https://nypost.com/2021/12/16/tiktok-challenge-warns-of-alleged-school-shootingthreats/
Jonson, C. L. (2017). Preventing School Shootings: The Effectiveness of Safety
Measures.
Victims & Offenders, 12(6), 956–973.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2017.1307293
Kaminski, R. J., Koons-Witt, B. A., Thompson, N. S., & Weiss, D. (2010). The impacts
of the Virginia Tech and Northern Illinois University shootings on fear of crime on
campus. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38(1), 88–98.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2009.11.011
McCarthy, J. (2021, May 7). Fear for Child's Safety Nearly Back to Pre-Sandy Hook
Levels.
Gallup.com. Retrieved January 15, 2022, from
https://news.gallup.com/poll/174827/fear-child-safety-nearly-back-pre-sandyhook-levels.aspx
National School Safety and Security Services. (n.d.). ALICE & Run-Hide-Fight Training:
Teaching Students to Attack Gunmen. Retrieved January 21, 2022, from
https://www.schoolsecurity.org/trends/alice-training/
Perrin, A. (2020, May 30). Social Media Usage: 2005-2015. Pew Research Center:
Internet,
Science & Tech. Retrieved January 19, 2022, from

Brommer 30
https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2015/10/08/social-networking-usage-20052015/
Rygg, L. (2015). School Shooting Simulations: At What Point Does Preparation Become
More Harmful than Helpful? Children's Legal Rights Journal, 35(3).
Stein, E. (2021, December 24). Oxford school shooting lasted 5 minutes. on social media,
it never ended. Detroit Free Press. Retrieved January 18, 2022, from
https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/oakland/2021/12/23/oxfordschool-shooting-social-media/6436394001/
Twemlow, S. W., Fonagy, P., Sacco, F. C., O'toole, M. E., & Vernberg, E. (2002).
Premeditated mass shootings in schools: Threat assessment. Journal of the
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(4).
https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200204000-00021
Vieweg, S., Palen, L., Liu, S. B., Hughes, A. L., & Sutton, J. (2008). Collective
Intelligence in Disaster: Examination of the Phenomenon in the Aftermath of the
2007 Virginia Tech Shooting. Proceedings of the 5th International ISCRAM
Conference.
Walker, T. (2020, February 25). Unannounced Active Shooter Drills Scaring Students
Without Making Them Safer. NEA. Retrieved January 20, 2022, from
https://www.nea.org/advocating-for-change/new-from-nea/unannounced-activeshooter-drills-scaring-students-without

Brommer 31
Appendix I: Survey Questions
I.

Please select the age range you fall into:
a. 18-25
b. 26-35
c. 36-49
d. 50 and older

II.

Please select your gender:
a. Male
b. Female
c. Other

III.

Please select your ethnicity:
a. White
b. African American
c. Latino or Hispanic
d. Asian
e. Native American
f. Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander

IV.

Are you currently an adult student (18 or older) taking on-campus classes at
California University of Pennsylvania?
a. Yes
b. No

V.

Please select the category that best fits the major you are pursuing:
a. Arts and Humanities

Brommer 32
b. Biological Sciences
c. Physical Sciences
d. Social Sciences
e. Business
f. Communications
g. Education
h. Engineering
i. Health Professions
j. Social Service Professions
k. Other major or undecided
VI.

On a scale of 1 to 5, how anxious does the topic of school mass shootings make
you?
1. No effect
2. A little anxious
3. Indifferent
4. Very anxious
5. Extremely anxious

VII.

On a scale of 1 to 5, regarding mass shootings,
a. How safe do you feel in your classrooms at the college/ university?
b. How safe do you feel walking around campus?
c. How safe do you feel in the student union?
d. How safe do you feel in the residence halls?

VIII.

Have you ever experienced a school shooting in high school or college?

Brommer 33
a. Yes
b. No
IX.

Have you ever experienced a threat of a school shooting in high school or
college?
a. Yes
b. No

X.

Have you ever experienced a student bringing a firearm into school in high school
or college?
a. Yes
b. No

XI.

On a scale of 1 to 5, how often do you
a. Read about school mass shootings
b. Hear about school mass shootings on social media
c. Hear about school shootings on news media
1. Extremely often
2. Somewhat often
3. Indifferent
4. Not very often
5. Never

XII.

Where do you primarily obtain information about current events?
a. Watching the news on TV
b. Social Media
c. Newspapers

Brommer 34
d. From someone you know
e. Another source
XIII.

Which social media network do you use the most?
a. Instagram
b. Twitter
c. Snapchat
d. Facebook
e. TikTok
f. Other

XIV.

Which social media network do you hear/ see the most about school mass
shootings?
a. Instagram
b. Twitter
c. Snapchat
d. Facebook
e. TikTok
f. Other

XV.

On a scale of 1 to 5, how anxious does shootings on TV, movies, or other videos
make you?
1. No effect
2. A little anxious
3. Indifferent
4. Very anxious

Brommer 35
5. Extremely anxious
XVI.

Have you ever participated in a mass shooting drill?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Unsure

XVII.

How many times have you participated in a mass shooting drill?
a. None
b. Once
c. 2-3 times
d. 4+ times

XVIII.

On a scale of 1 to 5, how anxious does the topic of mass shooting drills make
you?
1. No effect
2. A little anxious
3. Indifferent
4. Very anxious
5. Extremely anxious

XIX.

On a scale of 1 to 5, how often do you discuss school shootings during class
times?
1. Extremely often
2. Somewhat often
3. Indifferent
4. Not very often

Brommer 36
5. Never
XX.

On a scale of 1 to 5, how familiar are you with
a. What to do in the case of an active shooter on campus?
b. Emergency evacuation plans on campus?
1. Extremely familiar
2. Somewhat familiar
3. Indifferent
4. Not very familiar
5. Not familiar at all

XXI.

On a scale of 1 to 5, how satisfied are you with
a. The campus security?
b. The location of security cameras on campus?
c. The amount of security cameras on campus?
d. The location of the blue-light emergency phones on campus?
e. The amount of the bule-light emergency phones on campus?
1. Extremely satisfied
2. Somewhat satisfied
3. Indifferent
4. Unsatisfied
5. Extremely unsatisfied

Brommer 37
Appendix II: Survey Results

Brommer 38

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Appendix III: Institutional Review Board Approval

Institutional Review Board
California University of Pennsylvania
Morgan Hall, 310
250 University Avenue
California, PA 15419
instreviewboard@calu.edu
Melissa Sovak, Ph.D.
Dear Brittany,
Please consider this email as official notification that your proposal
titled “On Campus College Student's Perceptions of School Mass
Shootings” (Proposal #21-012) has been approved by the California
University of Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board as submitted.
The effective date of approval is 12/29/2021 and the expiration date is
12/28/2022. These dates must appear on the consent form.
Please note that Federal Policy requires that you notify the IRB
promptly regarding any of the following:
(1) Any additions or changes in procedures you might wish for your
study (additions or changes must be approved by the IRB before they
are implemented)
(2) Any events that affect the safety or well-being of subjects
(3) Any modifications of your study or other responses that are
necessitated by any events reported in (2).
(4) To continue your research beyond the approval expiration date of
12/28/2022 you must file additional information to be considered for
continuing review. Please contact instreviewboard@calu.edu
Please notify the Board when data collection is complete.
Regards,
Melissa Sovak, PhD.
Chair, Institutional Review Board