Running Head: METHODS IMPROVING STEM SUBJECT ACHIEVEMENT
I. ABSTRACT
As students progress through our school system, they must overcome
many learning obstacles as classes become more difficult with the added
pressure of higher expectations for performance abilities. In particular, many
students begin to struggle in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
(STEM) subject areas as they enter high school. Students with learning
disabilities (LD) are oftentimes left behind in STEM areas. The potential for
students with learning disabilities to learn STEM subjects is sometimes
overlooked by teachers and administrators, which results in a lack of their needs
being met in these classes. The conventional methods utilized for teaching STEM
subjects in general education high school classes are broadly known. The
ultimate goal of an educational system should be to meet the learning needs of
all students in order for each student to progress as far as the limits of their native
abilities. With the less frequently evident STEM subject progression in students
with learning disabilities, it is imperative to improve their academic achievement
in STEM subject areas. A detailed framework is discussed that combines a wellknown conventional method utilized to teach STEM subjects to students without
disabilities with an additional methodology designed to meet the general needs of
students with learning disabilities. Each of these combined methods falls under
the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) guidelines, which can help students with
learning disabilities achieve a higher level of success in general education STEM
subject classrooms without negatively impacting the quality of education for their
classmates without disabilities.

METHODS IMPROVING STEM SUBJECT ACHIEVEMENT

II. INTRODUCTION
A) STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES AND STEM SUBJECT
ACHIEVEMENT
As defined by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2004), a
specific learning disability is “a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that
may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell,
or to do mathematical calculations.” Of all students who receive special education
services, students with learning disabilities make up the largest group. According
to OSEP's Reports to Congress on the Implementation of IDEA (2019), 3.5% of
the entire student population aged 6-21 years is LD, which is 38.2% of the special
education student population. Students with learning disabilities are also the
second most likely group of special education students to spend the majority of
their school day in general education classes (with the first being speech or
language impairments). According to OSEP's Reports to Congress on the
Implementation of IDEA (2019), 71.6% of students with learning disabilities
spend 80% or more of the school day inside the regular classroom. As shown by
the data, students with learning disabilities are the majority of special education
students, and the majority of students with learning disabilities spend most of
their school day in the general education classroom. This means that students
with learning disabilities are likely to take general education classes in
challenging STEM subject areas where they particularly struggle.

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Students with learning disabilities struggle more in STEM subject areas in
comparison to their peers without disabilities, meaning that students with learning
disabilities perform significantly lower in these areas (Hwang & Taylor, 2016).
Because students with learning disabilities perform even lower than students who
do not require special education services on STEM-related standardized tests,
they often give up on STEM studies as early as middle school (Basham & Marino,
2013). This sets them up for failure as they navigate high school. Students with
learning disabilities are significantly more likely to drop out of high school than
their non-disabled peers. For instance, approximately 18.1% of students with
learning disabilities dropped out in the 2013-14 school year, which is about three
times the rate of the general student population (6.5%) (National Center for
Learning Disabilities, 2014). To help mitigate the dropout rate of students with
learning disabilities and general STEM subject avoidance among these students,
it is imperative that methods be developed that improve achievement of students
with learning disabilities in general education STEM subject classes.
To improve achievement of students with learning disabilities in STEM
subject classes, it is important to understand the different types of LDs and the
difficulties associated with them. “Learning disabilities” is a general term used to
describe one or more of the specific learning disabilities, including disorders such
as dyslexia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia, and dysphasia (Scheffel & Wiznitzer, 2009).
Dyslexia is a reading disability that results in difficulties with word recognition,
spelling, and decoding abilities (Scheffel & Wiznitzer, 2009). This LD can cause
problems for dyslexic students in STEM subject classes as challenging reading

METHODS IMPROVING STEM SUBJECT ACHIEVEMENT

assignments are often required in these classes. Since approximately 80% of all
students diagnosed with an LD have dyslexia (Scheffel & Wiznitzer, 2009), it is
crucial that methods be developed to assist students with dyslexia.
Dyscalculia is a mathematics disability that results in difficulties with
reasoning mathematically or calculating in general (Scheffel & Wiznitzer, 2009).
Students with dyscalculia miss major milestones in mathematic skill development
in comparison to their non-disabled peers (Scheffel & Wiznitzer, 2009). This
makes it particularly difficult for high school students with dyscalculia to keep up
with their non-disabled peers in STEM subject classes that are math intensive.
Therefore, methods need to be developed to assist dyscalculic students in these
classes.
Dysgraphia is a writing disability that results in communicative difficulties
in the use of written language (Scheffel & Wiznitzer, 2009). This can include
problems with recalling and writing appropriate names, sequencing or
remembering the major parts of written paragraphs, and/or addressing
mechanical or conceptual writing aspects (Scheffel & Wiznitzer, 2009). This LD
can cause problems for students with dysgraphia in STEM subject classes as
completion of technical writing assignments, such as lab reports, are often
required in these classes. Therefore, methods need to be developed to assist
them in these classes.
Dysphasia is an oral language disability that results in difficulties with
understanding and processing linguistic information and using language for
communication (Scheffel & Wiznitzer, 2009). Students with dysphasia may have

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problems with sound discrimination, sequencing, and comprehension of
language concepts (Scheffel & Wiznitzer, 2009). This often affects other
language-related functions, resulting in poor oral reading performance, reading
comprehension, spelling, written expression, and arithmetic reasoning (Scheffel
& Wiznitzer, 2009). Because students with this LD are disadvantaged in STEM
subject classes from their language deficits, new methods need to be developed
to assist these students. Since students with learning disabilities have at least
one (if not multiple) specific LD diagnoses, understanding the difficulties
associated with each diagnosis can result in effectively addressing and meeting
their needs in STEM subject classes. However, discussing how to meet the
needs of individual students with learning disabilities in the context of a general
education STEM subject classroom setting cannot be explored further without
discussing the entire high school student population.
For this paper, the high school student population of STEM subject
classes is broken into three major groups: students identified as gifted, students
without disabilities, and students with learning disabilities. Students identified as
gifted are defined as those who are highly talented with learning the content
matter and academically perform at a high or advanced level. Students without
disabilities are defined as those who have an average capability of learning the
content matter and academically perform at an average or proficient level.
Students with learning disabilities are those diagnosed with one or more specific
LDs, meaning they have difficulties learning the content matter and academically
underperform at the basic or below basic level. Of all three groups listed,

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students with learning disabilities are the biggest issue among achieving
acceptable academic performance in general. Since all high school STEM
subject teachers will have students with learning disabilities in their classes at
some point, it is imperative that methods be developed to improve achievement
among these students.

B) UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING (UDL) GUIDELINES: USES FOR
STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
One of the possible solutions to mitigate these learning disparities among
students with learning disabilities is by employing a form of differentiated
instruction. Differentiated instruction occurs when a teacher factors students’
individual learning styles and levels of readiness before creating a lesson plan
(Robb, 2008). The form of differentiated instruction that will be discussed and
utilized in this framework is called Universal Design for Learning (UDL). UDL is a
set of guidelines that can be used to develop curriculum that gives all students a
fair opportunity to learn (Meyer, Rose, & Gordon, 2014). This allows learning to
be customized for an individual student’s needs. Since UDL allows
accommodations to be integrated into regular instruction, the overall goal is to
allow general education inclusion of all students to the fullest extent possible
(Meyer, Rose, & Gordon, 2014). It should also be noted that these
accommodations are meant to suit the needs of all learners, not just those who
are involved in special education services.

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The term “Universal Design for Learning” was developed by the Center for
Applied Special Technology (CAST), which then led to the refinement of a formal
framework outlining the principles of UDL and specified guidelines for its
application (Rose et al., 2014). There are three major guidelines of UDL: 1)
provide multiple forms of engagement (represents the "why" of learning), 2)
provide multiple forms of representation (represents the "what" of learning"), and
3) provide multiple forms of action and expression (the "how" of learning) (CAST,
2018). Each major guideline is then divided into 3 subcategories that represent
the ways in which teachers can provide multiple options for their students’
learning. Each subcategory then lists more specific ways that teachers can
provide learning options within that subcategory.
The first guideline of UDL, “provide multiple forms of engagement,”
includes the three subcategories “provide options for recruiting interest,” “provide
options for sustaining effort and persistence,” and “provide options for selfregulation” (CAST, 2018). The options within the subcategory of “provide options
for recruiting interest” include: “optimize individual choice and autonomy;”
“optimize relevance, value, and authenticity;” and “minimize threats and
distractions” (CAST, 2018). The options within the subcategory of “provide
options for sustaining effort and persistence” include: “heighten salience of goals
and objectives,” “vary demands and resources to optimize challenge,” “foster
collaboration and community,” and “increase mastery-oriented feedback” (CAST,
2018). The options within the subcategory of “provide options for self-regulation”
include “promote expectations and beliefs that optimize motivation,” “facilitate

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personal coping skills and strategies,” and “develop self-assessment and
reflection” (CAST, 2018). These options allow for students to become engaged
and motivated to learn via avenues that best suit their learning needs. Because
the framework developed and discussed in this paper will focus on methods that
will help students with learning disabilities overcome their individual learning
struggles, this set of guidelines will not be featured. This set of guidelines could
be used to help noncompliant students with learning disabilities participate in and
complete STEM subject class work, but this framework will focus on the
developing methods that will improve how students with learning disabilities can
learn material instead of the motivation behind their learning.
The second guideline of UDL, “provide multiple forms of representation,”
includes the three subcategories “provide options for perception,” “provide
options for language & symbols,” and “provide options for comprehension”
(CAST, 2018). The options within the subcategory of “provide options for
perception” include: “offer ways of customizing the display of information,” “offer
alternatives for auditory information” and “offer alternatives for visual information”
(CAST, 2018). The options within the subcategory of “provide options for
language & symbols” include: “clarify vocabulary and symbols;” “clarify syntax
and structure;” “support decoding of text, mathematical notation, and symbols;”
“promote understanding across languages;” and “illustrate through multiple
media” (CAST, 2018). The options within the subcategory of “provide options for
comprehension” include: “activate or supply background knowledge;” “highlight
patterns, critical features, big ideas, and relationships;” “guide information

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processing and visualization;” and “maximize transfer and generalization” (CAST,
2018). These options allow for students to receive information in avenues that
best suit their learning needs.
The third guideline of UDL, “provide multiple forms of action & expression,”
includes the three subcategories “provide options for physical action,” “provide
options for expression & communication,” and “provide options for executive
functions” (CAST, 2018). The options within the subcategory of “provide options
physical action” include: “vary the methods for response & navigation” and
“optimize access to tools and assistive technologies” (CAST, 2018). The options
within the subcategory of “provide options for expression & communication”
include: “use multiple media for communication;” “use multiple tools for
construction and composition;” and “build fluencies with graduated levels of
support for practice and performance” (CAST, 2018). The options within the
subcategory of “provide options for executive functions” include: “guide
appropriate goal-setting,” “support planning and strategy development,” “facilitate
the management of information and resources,” and “enhance the capacity for
monitoring progress” (CAST, 2018). These options allow for students to navigate
a learning environment effectively and express their knowledge via avenues that
best suit their learning needs.
These UDL guidelines can be used to develop instruction that is tailored to
the needs of students with learning disabilities, which give these students the
potential to improve achievement in STEM areas. However, there has been little
research conducted for any specific educational framework to effectively improve

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achievement among students with learning disabilities in STEM environments
(Hwang & Taylor, 2016). Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to provide a
possible framework in which general methodologies for teaching students with
learning disabilities can be applied to the general education STEM subject
classes by using the UDL guidelines. As the UDL guidelines suggest, the goal of
this framework is to allow for improvement in achievement for students with
learning disabilities without negatively affecting the education of the non-disabled
students. If anything, UDL guidelines suggest that these methods have the
potential to improve the achievement of all students regardless of a special
education label.
Among the three major groups of students that this paper concerns
(students identified as gifted, students without disabilities, and students with
learning disabilities), students identified as gifted will have no true need for
methods that utilize UDL guidelines, as they will perform at a high level
regardless. However, teaching methods that utilize UDL guidelines may allow
students identified as gifted to become more engaged in learning the material,
which may help them learn the material well enough to store in their long-term
memory as opposed to their short-term memory. Students without disabilities
have some need for methods that utilize UDL guidelines as this may allow them
to improve their achievement from an average to possibly an above-average
level. However, it is imperative to note that all students with learning disabilities
need methods that utilize UDL guidelines so that they can perform at an
adequate level and pass STEM subject classes. These classes are a requirement

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for all students with learning disabilities, so it is crucial that these students pass
these classes. Otherwise, they will be left behind and possibly unable to graduate
high school. Therefore, determining methods to improve achievement among
students with learning disabilities (such as utilizing UDL guidelines) will allow
these students to have a greater chance of meeting proficiency in STEM subject
classes without hindering the overall education of their non-disabled peers.

III. METHODOLOGY
This framework consists of three major parts: the Conventional Methods,
the General LD Methods, and the New Methods. The "Conventional Methods"
section includes well-known methods and strategies for teaching general
education STEM subject classes to students identified as gifted and students
without disabilities. A list of ten examples of these methods will be numbered #110 and discussed in Part A of this framework. The "General LD Methods" section
includes interventions and strategies for effectively teaching students with
learning disabilities. A list of ten examples of these methods will be numbered #110 and discussed in Part B of this framework.
The "New Methods" section will be created as follows: one of the
Conventional Methods will be added to one of the General LD Methods to create
a New Method. Although I have labeled this section as “New Methods,” the
methods created are not necessarily brand-new to education. However, they are
not widely present in high school STEM subject classes and should be
considered becoming more mainstream in these subject areas to improve LD

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achievement of students with learning disabilities. Each New Method will meet at
least one of the UDL guidelines to serve the needs of both students with learning
disabilities and education students (including both students identified as gifted
and students without disabilities). Therefore, as stated by the UDL guidelines,
these New Methods should effectively improve the achievement among students
with learning disabilities. A list of ten examples of these New Methods (numbered
#1-10), created from the previous ten Conventional Methods and the previous ten
General LD Methods, will be presented and discussed in Part C of this
framework.

A) CONVENTIONAL METHODS TO TEACH STEM SUBJECTS TO STUDENTS
IDENTIFIED AS GIFTED AND STUDENTS WITHOUT DISABILITIES
1. Lecturing involves the teacher giving an educational talk about the
content matter of the class to the students (Buff, 2020). Typically, students take
notes of lectures for study material needed later in the class. Lecturing is utilized
in STEM subject classes because the teacher can share large chunks of
information crucial for the understanding of topics in these areas.
2. Concept Attainment uses an inquiry process in which students must
determine the attributes of a certain group that the teacher has formed (Kilbane &
Milman, 2014). The students must then compare and contrast the different
attributes in a list of examples to determine which examples belong in the
designated group (Kilbane & Milman, 2014). This allows students to form an

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understanding of a specific concept learned, which works particularly well in
concept-heavy STEM subject classes.
3. Project-Based Learning organizes student learning around projects. The
projects are the central part of the curriculum (Hugerat, 2016). Characteristics of
the projects involved in project-based learning include: driving students to
discover the central concepts and principles of the studied topic and applying
these concepts to real-life scenarios (Hugerat, 2016).
4. Context-Based Instruction demonstrates how concepts are related to
students’ real-world experiences. The goal of this strategy is to make the material
relevant to students and provide them reasons why they should know it (Ewen &
Walan, 2016). Students are more motivated and better understand scientific
principles after using context-based activities in science classes
(Fakcharoenphol, et al. 2017). This demonstrates the effectiveness of ContextBased Instruction in STEM subject classes.
5. A slideshow presentation is a series of pages of information usually
displayed via a projector onto a whiteboard or large screen (Hunsberger, 2017).
This format allows lecture material to be presented to students in a teacherdriven classroom environment. Great quantities of information can be
disseminated to students via this method, so it is particularly useful in contentheavy STEM subject classes.
6. Giving handwritten notes onto a whiteboard/Smartboard includes writing
lecture material onto the board. This allows students to copy down the teacher's
notes during the lesson (Gonzalez, 2018). Great quantities of information can be

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disseminated to students via this method, so it is particularly useful in contentheavy STEM subject classes.
7. An experiment or lab is a procedure completed to make a discovery,
test a hypothesis, or demonstrate a known fact (Pedagogy in Action). This
includes applying a concept learned in class to demonstrate a known principle or
law. This kind of work in the classroom enables students to measure the effects
of one changed variable on a controlled variable. This allows students to assess
cause-and-effect relationships.
8. An assigned reading is a reading task given to a student, typically for
individual study (Reeves, 2004). These readings are typically assigned either
before a class to prepare the students for a lesson or after a class to reinforce the
material learned. Assigned readings allow teachers to provide enrichment to their
classes, which is particularly helpful in difficult STEM subject classes.
9. Practice problems are typically word problems or other types of mathbased problems that students must learn how to work though to succeed in the
class (The Learning Center). Practice problems are often assigned as either
required homework or suggested work for the students to complete. Teachers will
then typically review the assigned problems during the next class period.
10. A worksheet is a piece of paper that lists questions or tasks for a
student to complete (TEFLnet). Teachers typically give worksheets during their
lessons for in-class enrichment or assign them as homework to practice a new
set of skills learned during the lesson. Since worksheets can provide enrichment

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for new skill acquisition and can cover a broad variety of subjects and skills, this
method is particularly helpful in STEM subject courses.

B) METHODS DESIGNED TO MEET THE GENERAL NEEDS OF STUDENTS
WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
1. Assistive technology is defined by IDEA (2004) as " any item, piece of
equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf,
modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the
functional capabilities of a child with a disability." Examples of assistive
technology that are beneficial to students with learning disabilities include
portable word processors, speech recognition programs, talking calculators,
talking spell checkers and dictionaries, and tape recorders (Walters State
Community College). These devices help students with learning disabilities
because it allows them to learn/provide output via multiple modes (such as both
auditory and visual means).
2. Providing for repetition during initial skill acquisition means that once a
student learns a new skill, they should have to practice that skill repeatedly to
ensure that the skill is learned (Walters Community College). Students with
learning disabilities learn skills at a slower pace in comparison to their general
education peers. Therefore, this method is particularly useful for them since it
allows for plenty of practice to fully learn a new skill.
3. Task analysis or breaking learning into smaller steps means that a
teacher will give a multitude of clear, concise steps on how to complete a large

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learning task (Learning Disabilities Association of America, 2013). When given
complex learning tasks (such as projects), students with learning disabilities may
have a difficult time understanding/getting started, so they are unwilling to work.
However, breaking the learning into smaller steps clarifies understanding of the
task at hand, which helps students with learning disabilities.
4. Using diagrams, graphics, pictures, illustrations, and other visuals is an
effective method for teaching students with learning disabilities (Learning
Disabilities Association of America, 2013). The purpose of using any kind of
visual aid is to augment understanding of the material being taught in class.
Some students with learning disabilities particularly struggle with comprehension
of words or numbers in comparison to their general education peers. Therefore,
this method is particularly useful for them since it allows for learning through
visual aids that don't rely heavily on reading.
5. Combining visual and auditory learning approaches is an effective
method for teaching students with learning disabilities (Bender, 2007). This
means that the route a teacher takes to teach a class should include auditory
means (such as a lecture) along with visual means (such as a presentation).
Students with learning disabilities struggle when they are given only one of these
avenues to learn through (Bender, 2007). Therefore, this method helps them
learn via multiple avenues, which improves their overall learning.
6. Color coding techniques is an effective method for teaching students
with learning disabilities (Walters Community College). Color coding involves
using different colors to identify and organize different pieces of information.

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Color coding allows students to visually identify and organize information. This is
particularly helpful to students with learning disabilities since they struggle with
the organization of ideas and how these ideas are interconnected (Walters
Community College).
7. Developing memory games and memory devices is an effective method
for teaching students with learning disabilities (Bender, 2007). Implementing this
method includes (but is not limited to) creating flashcards and mnemonic devices
for the students to utilize. Students with learning disabilities often struggle with
retaining memory and comprehension (Bender, 2007). Therefore, this method
allows them to receive aid in memory and comprehension, which improves these
areas for students with learning disabilities.
8. Teaching new vocabulary prior to reading text is an effective method for
teaching students with learning disabilities (Bender, 2007). This practice can be
done by going over all the new vocabulary words that will be present in the
reading before giving the text to the students. Students with learning disabilities
often skip assigned readings because they do not have the prior knowledge to
understand the reading. Therefore, this practice allows for improved literacy
among students with learning disabilities.
9. Supplying regular, quality feedback is an effective method for teaching
students with learning disabilities (Learning Disabilities Association of America,
2013). This means that teachers will give detailed, timely feedback to their
students on any type of student work, including in-class assessments,
worksheets, projects, quizzes, tests, etc. Due to their reading and writing

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disadvantages, students with learning disabilities have a difficult time completing
their work correctly in comparison to their general education peers. Therefore,
this method is particularly useful for them since it allows these students to realize
where they are going wrong early in the learning process and can positively
reinforce them when they do something correctly.
10. Using 2D and 3D objects that students can manipulate is an effective
method for teaching students with learning disabilities (Walters Community
College). Some examples include giving students cut-out terms and definitions to
sort, counting chips, or 3D models to work with. Students with learning disabilities
struggle more with concept visualization than their non-disabled peers (Bender,
2007). Therefore, this method is particularly useful for them since providing a
tactile learning supplement allows for students with learning disabilities to more
easily visualize concepts.

C) NEW METHODS DERIVED FROM THE COMBINATION OF A
CONVENTIONAL STEM SUBJECT TEACHING METHOD WITH A GENERAL
NEEDS METHOD FOR STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
1. For this New Method, the previously discussed Conventional Method of
"lecturing" (#1 in section III. A) will be combined with the previously discussed
General LD Method of using "assistive technology" (#1 in section III. B). As
technology such as tablets and laptops become more commonplace in the
classroom setting, students have more opportunities to learn via different
avenues. Many schools now have 1:1 technology access for their students,

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meaning that each student is supplied their own electronic device for learning
purposes. For instance, students can use their school-issued technology (tablets,
laptops, etc.) to record audio or video of a lecture that a teacher presents. Doing
so allows students to later re-watch parts of the lesson they struggled to learn.
This will be particularly helpful for students with learning disabilities who may
struggle with understanding the lecture the first time hearing it. This can also be
particularly helpful for students with learning disabilities who struggle with
language processing and writing comprehension (such as dysgraphic or
dysphasic students), as this will give them an opportunity to re-watch the lecture
and take better notes. Also, this gives students the ability to manipulate the audio
or video file, so students with learning disabilities have the option to slow down or
speed up the lesson as needed. However, since some schools do not let students
take home their devices or do not yet have 1:1 technology, allowing students to
use their personal mobile devices (smartphone, tablet, etc.) to record lectures
should also be considered an option.
This New Method discussed falls under the UDL guidelines of “providing a
different option for comprehension,” specifically for “guiding information
processing and visualization” (CAST, 2018). As stated prior, this method could
theoretically be integrated into a class's curriculum for all students (including
students identified as gifted and students without disabilities), so it is imperative
that this method does not hinder the quality of education for these other types of
students. Because this method falls under UDL guidelines, this method has the
potential to improve the achievement of all students, not only those with an LD

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label. Therefore, allowing students to record audio or video of lectures would be
appropriate to integrate into a STEM subject class.
2. For this New Method, the previously discussed Conventional Method of
"Concept Attainment" (#2 in section III. A) will be combined with the previously
discussed General LD Method of "providing repetition" (#2 in section III. B). Using
the Concept Attainment teaching strategy in STEM subject classes allows for
students to form an understanding of a concept by comparing and contrasting
certain attributes in a list of examples to determine which examples belong in the
designated group. Because students with learning disabilities learn at a slower
pace in comparison to their non-disabled peers, they may have a more difficult
time grasping the concepts learned from this exercise right away. This
demonstrates the importance of providing opportunities for repetition so that they
can fully learn a new concept. This suggests that the teacher should provide
multiple lists of examples to differentiate so that students can have plenty of
practice with this exercise to understand the concept being taught.
This New Method discussed falls under the UDL guidelines of “providing a
different option for comprehension,” specifically for “highlighting patterns, critical
features, big ideas, and relationships” and “maximizing transfer and
generalization” (CAST, 2018). As stated prior, this method could theoretically be
integrated into a class's curriculum for all students (including students identified
as gifted and students without disabilities), so it is imperative that this method
does not hinder the quality of education for these other types of students.
Because this method falls under UDL guidelines, this method has the potential to

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improve the achievement of all students, not only those with an LD label.
Therefore, this method would be appropriate to integrate into a STEM subject
class using the concept attainment model.
3. For this New Method, the previously discussed Conventional Method of
"Project-Based Learning" (#3 in section III. A) will be combined with the
previously discussed General LD Method of "breaking learning into smaller steps"
(#3 in section III. B). In recent years, high schools have initiated Project-Based
Learning classes that combine all aspects of STEM. Because classes like these
revolve around creating or completing major projects, these tasks can be
particularly overwhelming to students with learning disabilities who lack the ability
to easily understand or get started with such complex tasks. Therefore, by
breaking each project into smaller steps, they will be able to find these projects
more manageable, which may lead them to be more willing to complete the
projects and even perhaps at a higher level than initially anticipated.
This New Method discussed falls under the UDL guidelines of “providing a
different option for executive functions,” specifically for “guiding appropriate goalsetting,” “supporting planning and strategy development,” and “enhancing
capacity for monitoring progress” (CAST, 2018). As stated prior, this method
could theoretically be integrated into a class's curriculum for all students
(including students identified as gifted and students without disabilities), so it is
imperative that this method does not hinder the quality of education for these
other types of students. Because this method falls under UDL guidelines, this
method has the potential to improve the achievement of all students, not only

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those with an LD label. Therefore, this method would be appropriate to integrate
into a STEM-oriented Project-Based Learning classroom.
4. For this New Method, the previously discussed Conventional Method of
"Context-Based Instruction" (#4 in section III. A) will be combined with the
previously discussed General LD Method of "using visual aids " (#4 in section III.
B). Using Context-Based Instruction allows students to learn via real-life
examples. However, if the students do not have a frame of reference for any of
the examples given, it can be particularly challenging for the students to learn via
the real-life examples. Due to their disability, students with learning disabilities
will especially face challenges understanding examples with no prior frame of
reference. Therefore, adding many visuals to real-life examples and scenarios
given during Context-based Instruction will help them visualize these scenarios,
which will aid in their understanding of the concepts presented. Also, even if
students with learning disabilities are familiar with scenarios presented during
Context-Based Instruction, adding visuals prevents these students from relying
heavily on reading when examples are presented via text. This will help them
comprehend concepts without needing to solely rely on reading, which many
students with learning disabilities struggle with.
This New Method discussed falls under the UDL guidelines of “providing a
different option for language & symbols,” specifically for “illustrating through
multiple media” (CAST, 2018). As stated prior, this method could theoretically be
integrated into a class's curriculum for all students (including students identified
as gifted and students without disabilities), so it is imperative that this method

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does not hinder the quality of education for these other types of students.
Because this method falls under UDL guidelines, this method has the potential to
improve the achievement of all students, not only those with an LD label.
Therefore, this method would be appropriate to integrate into a STEM subject
class using Context-Based Instruction.
5. For this New Method, the previously discussed Conventional Method of
"using a slideshow presentation" (#5 in section III. A) will be combined with the
previously discussed General LD Method of "combining visual and audio
approaches" (#5 in section III. B). A slideshow presentation usually consists of a
series of pages of information that is displayed onto a whiteboard or screen. In a
typical classroom, these presentations tend to only include text with some
pictures or visuals interspersed throughout the slideshow. This means that
slideshows often only appeal to visual learners. However, learning through only
one avenue may cause students with learning disabilities to particularly struggle
in class in comparison to their non-disabled peers. Therefore, by combining the
visual aspect of slideshows with an auditory aspect, their overall learning should
effectively be improved. The following is an example of how this New Method can
be applied to a STEM subject class, Biology: If students learn about evolution via
slideshow presentation, the teacher could include both pictures and audio of
evolutionary changes between species of birds. The use of pictures allows
students to see the physical evolutionary changes (such as beak size and shape)
between species of birds, and the use of audio allows students to hear the

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evolutionary changes of bird calls between species of birds. This improves and
enriches the overall learning experience for students with learning disabilities.
This New Method discussed falls under the UDL guidelines of “providing a
different option for perception,” specifically for “offering an alternative for auditory
information” and “offering an alternative for visual information” (CAST, 2018). As
stated prior, this method could theoretically be integrated into a class's curriculum
for all students (including students identified as gifted and students without
disabilities), so it is imperative that this method does not hinder the quality of
education for these other types of students. Because this method falls under UDL
guidelines, this method has the potential to improve the achievement of all
students, not only those with an LD label. Therefore, using a combination of
visual and audio means in a slideshow presentation would be appropriate to
integrate into a STEM subject class.
6. For this New Method, the previously discussed Conventional Method of
"giving handwritten notes onto a whiteboard/SmartBoard" (#6 in section III. A) will
be combined with the previously discussed General LD Method of using "color
coding techniques" (#6 in section III. B). This will be particularly helpful to
students with learning disabilities as color coding allows for a clearer, more
organized approach to learning. Typically, notes written on the board are in the
same color, with maybe using other colors for emphasis at certain places.
However, using color coding to organize notes, particularly example problems in
STEM subject classes, can help students better follow along and understand the

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material. Therefore, this New Method would be particularly helpful to students
with dyscalculia.
This New Method discussed falls under the UDL guidelines of “providing a
different option for perception,” specifically for “offering ways to customize the
display of information” (CAST, 2018). As stated prior, this method could
theoretically be integrated into a class's curriculum for all students (including
students identified as gifted and students without disabilities), so it is imperative
that this method does not hinder the quality of education for these other types of
students. Because this method falls under UDL guidelines, this method has the
potential to improve the achievement of all students, not only those with an LD
label. Therefore, color-coding handwritten notes on a whiteboard/SmartBoard
would be appropriate to integrate into a STEM subject class.
7. For this New Method, the previously discussed Conventional Method of
giving "laboratory work or experiments" (#7 in section III. A) will be combined with
the previously discussed General LD Method of "using memory games or
devices" (#7 in section III. B). Laboratory or experimental procedures often
involve several steps to complete a hands-on learning task. Students with
learning disabilities may particularly struggle with remembering the steps
involved with these procedures. Therefore, using memory games or devices can
be used to help them remember lab and experimental procedures. One of the
most important aspects of laboratory or experimental work in STEM subject
classes is lab safety. Oftentimes, students will forget to wear the appropriate
clothing during lab days. Students are typically not allowed to participate in labs if

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they do not follow the lab safety procedures, which makes lab participation
difficult if not impossible. Since some students with learning disabilities
particularly struggle with memory, using a memory device for lab safety could
help ensure that they will wear/bring the appropriate attire to the lab. This helps
allow them to more frequently be able to participate during labs and experiments,
which enriches their learning. Therefore, developing memory devices for students
to use for laboratory or experimental procedures will help improve their learning
experiences.
This New Method discussed falls under the UDL guidelines of “providing a
different option for comprehension,” specifically for “maximizing transfer and
generalization” (CAST, 2018). As stated prior, this method could theoretically be
integrated into a class's curriculum for all students (including students identified
as gifted and students without disabilities), so it is imperative that this method
does not hinder the quality of education for these other types of students.
Because this method falls under UDL guidelines, this method has the potential to
improve the achievement of all students, not only those with an LD label.
Therefore, using memory devices and games to help students remember
laboratory or experimental procedures would be appropriate to integrate into a
STEM subject class.
8. For this New Method, the previously discussed Conventional Method of
giving "assigned readings" (#8 in section III. A) will be combined with the
previously discussed General LD Method of "teaching new vocabulary prior to
reading text" (#8 in section III. B). It is common for STEM subject teachers

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(particularly science teachers) to assign pre-reading assignments. These
assignments are meant to prepare students for the next day's lesson. However,
many students, particularly those who struggle to read, skip reading assignments.
This makes it much more difficult for the students who skipped the pre-reading to
understand the next day's lesson. Since some students with learning disabilities
struggle to read, such as those with dyslexia, this typically disadvantages them.
However, to help combat this unwillingness to complete pre-reading
assignments, teachers could review new vocabulary presented in the pre-reading
before giving the reading assignment. Many students are unwilling to complete
pre-reading assignments, especially in STEM subjects, because they do not
know or understand the words presented in the reading. This occurs because the
students are introduced to unfamiliar vocab words during the reading, which
confuses them. Since they have never seen the words before, they cannot make
meaning out of the text and give up on the pre-reading assignment. Adding this
extra challenge on top of their reading disability increases difficulties with prereading assignments. Therefore, teaching new vocab words prior to giving
reading assignments will help them finish their reading assignments and better
prepare them for their STEM subject classes, which will help improve their overall
learning.
This New Method discussed falls under the UDL guidelines of “providing a
different option for language & symbols,” specifically for “clarifying vocabulary
and symbols” (CAST, 2018). As stated prior, this method could theoretically be
integrated into a class's curriculum for all students (including students identified

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as gifted and students without disabilities), so it is imperative that this method
does not hinder the quality of education for these other types of students.
Because this method falls under UDL guidelines, this method has the potential to
improve the achievement of all students, not only those with an LD label.
Therefore, teaching new vocabulary prior to a pre-reading assignment would be
appropriate to integrate into a STEM subject class.
9. For this New Method, the previously discussed Conventional Method of
"assigning practice problems" (#9 in section III. A) will be combined with the
previously discussed General LD Method of "supplying regular, quality feedback"
(#9 in section III. B). In many STEM subject classes, teachers will assign a series
of practice problems during the class period to check for student understanding.
Oftentimes, teachers will assign the problems and wait for students to complete
each problem before reviewing the solution. However, students with learning
disabilities may particularly struggle to complete the problems with little to no
guidance from the teacher. Therefore, supplying regular, quality feedback as the
students complete each practice problem should effectively improve their
learning. This means that the teacher should be moving around the room from
student to student and offer feedback as they are completing work. That way, the
teacher can determine areas where the students are struggling. This will also
help them stay on-track and complete problems with better understanding prior to
reviewing the solutions.
This New Method discussed falls under the UDL guidelines of “providing a
different option for “expression & communication,” specifically for “building

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fluencies with graduated levels of support for practice and performance” (CAST,
2018). As stated prior, this method could theoretically be integrated into a class's
curriculum for all students (including students identified as gifted and students
without disabilities), so it is imperative that this method does not hinder the quality
of education for these other types of students. Because this method falls under
UDL guidelines, this method has the potential to improve the achievement of all
students, not only those with an LD label. Therefore, supplying regular, quality
feedback while students complete in-class practice problems would be
appropriate to integrate into a STEM subject class.
10. For this New Method, the previously discussed Conventional Method
of "assigning worksheets" (#10 in section III. A) will be combined with the
previously discussed General LD Method of "manipulating 2D and 3D objects"
(#10 in section III. B). Students with learning disabilities may lag behind their nondisabled peers when completing STEM subject worksheets. Students with
learning disabilities may particularly struggle due to the challenging concepts
presented in these worksheets. Therefore, allowing students to manipulate
2D/3D objects while completing worksheets will allow them to more easily
visualize the concepts presented in worksheets. This should aid in their
understanding of concepts, which should help them complete worksheets more
efficiently. For example, a worksheet about probability may be easier to
understand if students are given chips of different colors or shapes. This will
allow students to physically count out the number of chips necessary to complete
the problem. Since some students with learning disabilities struggle to process

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numbers accurately, they may struggle to complete problems accurately and
efficiently without the use of chips. Therefore, giving students the opportunity to
manipulate 2D/3D objects while they complete STEM subject worksheets should
effectively improve their learning.
This New Method discussed falls under the UDL guidelines of “providing a
different option for comprehension,” specifically for “guiding information
processing and visualization” (CAST, 2018). As stated prior, this method could
theoretically be integrated into a class's curriculum for all students (including
students identified as gifted and students without disabilities), so it is imperative
that this method does not hinder the quality of education for these other types of
students. Because this method falls under UDL guidelines, this method has the
potential to improve the achievement of all students, not only those with an LD
label. Therefore, allowing students to manipulate 2D/3D objects while completing
worksheets would be appropriate to integrate into a STEM subject class.

IV. SUMMARY
As demonstrated, a New Method can be created by combining one of ten
previously stated Conventional Methods with one of ten previously stated
General LD Methods until all of the Conventional Methods and General LD
Methods are matched up to create ten New Methods. Each of these New
Methods is a modified version of one of the ten Conventional Methods by
including a strategy for improving achievement for students with learning
disabilities. By adding a General LD Method to a previously established

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Conventional Method, the needs of students with learning disabilities can
effectively be met in a general education STEM subject classroom. The ten
Conventional Methods and ten General LD Methods are not limited to creating
only the ten previously stated New Methods. This means that other combinations
of Conventional Methods and General LD Methods are possible and have the
potential to improve achievement among students with learning disabilities in
STEM subject classrooms. The New Methods discussed were chosen based on
the most logical combination of Conventional Methods and General LD Methods"
presented in this framework.
All of the New Methods previously stated fall under at least one of the 31
UDL guidelines. Since integrating UDL guidelines into general instruction is
encouraged to help meet the needs of all learners, the discussed framework will
not hinder or disrupt the learning of other types of students, such as students
without disabilities and students identified as gifted. Since the General LD
Methods used to create the New Methods in this framework fall under at least
one of the UDL guidelines, this allows for students to be presented information
and express their knowledge in multiple ways. This differentiation may help break
up the monotony of standard learning procedures for these other types of
students, which allows for a greater attention span during STEM subject classes.
This means that the New Methods could effectively improve the learning of
students without disabilities and students identified as gifted as well. Therefore,
the ten New Methods discussed and any other derivations can be integrated into
a general education STEM subject classroom to improve the achievement of

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students with learning disabilities while also enriching the learning experiences of
other types of students.

V. CONCLUSION
The next direction to take this framework would be to test the New
Methods discussed and any of its derivations in a classroom setting that includes
students identified as gifted, students without disabilities, and students with
learning disabilities. Doing so will allow teachers to determine which methods are
the most effective for students with learning disabilities. This will improve our
overall professional teaching knowledge base on the most effective ways
students with learning disabilities learn STEM subjects. However, it is crucial to
first develop specific examples and plans of how to use the New Methods in
general education STEM subject classes. This will help teachers determine the
effectiveness of each method.
The following three paragraphs will list three specific, detailed examples of
how three of the New Methods discussed in this framework can be used to
improve achievement of students with learning disabilities in STEM subject
classes. Each example will be related to Chemistry and/or Physical Science
classes, as this is my particular subject area specialty. The three New Methods
that will be discussed include #2, #6, and #7, under section III. C.
As discussed in #2 under section III. C., the "Concept Attainment" and
"providing repetition" strategies were combined to create a New Method. This
particular method can be used in a lesson about physical changes of matter. For

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example, the teacher will start the lesson by discussing the properties of physical
changes and how to determine if a physical change has occurred. Then, the
teacher will provide the students the first list of examples of physical changes vs.
non-physical changes. The students will then individually classify the list and the
teacher will review the answers once the students have finished. The teacher
should then provide another list with completely new examples for students to
classify and then repeat the same steps. This sequence should occur several
times until all students demonstrate improvement in their understanding of
physical changes. The next day, the teacher should assign a warm-up exercise
that follows the same sequence but with new examples of physical changes vs.
non-physical changes. This repetition of skill acquisition reinforces the concepts
learned the previous day. Due to the many instances of repetition provided in the
initial lesson and the following day, students with learning disabilities should have
an easier time grasping the concepts involved with physical changes of matter
while their non-disabled peers also gain a stronger grasp of the concepts.
As discussed in #6 under section III. C., the "giving handwritten notes onto
a whiteboard/SmartBoard" and "color coding" strategies were combined to create
a New Method. This particular method can be used in a lesson about unit
conversions in a Chemistry classroom. In this case, the teacher will complete
example unit conversion problems for the class by assigning each unit in each
problem a specific color. For example, a practice problem converting feet to
centimeters will have each unit involved in solving the problem color-coded. Feet
can be color-coded as “blue,” inches can be color-coded as “red,” and

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centimeters can be color-coded as “green.” As the teacher completes the practice
problem, the students (especially those with learning disabilities) will have an
easier time seeing where each unit needs to be placed to “cancel out” the
appropriate units. For every example unit conversion problem that the teacher
completes on the board, the teacher should color code the units in the first step of
the problem for it to be easier to follow. Also, the teacher can suggest or even
provide colored pens/markers for students to take notes. This will help students
take notes in a more organized fashion and facilitate understanding of how to
complete unit conversion problems, which will particularly help students with
learning disabilities as they may struggle in these areas.
As discussed in #7 under section III. C., the "laboratory work/experiments"
and "memory games/devices" strategies were combined to create a New Method.
This particular method can be used to teach first-year Chemistry students about
lab safety requirements and OSHA regulations. For example, the mnemonic
device "HELP" can be used to remind students of appropriate lab attire. "H"
stands for "hair ties," "E" stands for "eye protection," "L" stands for "long sleeves,"
and "P" stands for "pants" (as opposed to wearing shorts or skirts). The teacher
will provide this memory device at the beginning of the school year to help remind
students of what clothing to wear/bring to their lab. Oftentimes, students who do
not wear/bring the appropriate lab attire are not able to participate in the lab due
to safety concerns. Therefore, this memory device can be used to remind
students about the necessary attire so they do not have to miss out on important
hands-on learning experiences. This memory device will particularly help

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students with learning disabilities who may be more prone to forget these
materials than their non-disabled peers. However, this device will still serve as a
helpful reminder to all students, regardless of an LD label.
The three examples above can be used by school administrators and
teachers as a starting place for helping students with learning disabilities improve
their performance levels in their Chemistry and Physical Science classes. Due to
the limited research on improving LD achievement in STEM subject classes
(Hwang & Taylor, 2016), teachers and administrators need to work on developing
more New Methods such as the ones discussed earlier in this framework. By
creating more possible New Methods, there will be more opportunities to increase
higher levels of performance for students with learning disabilities in STEM
subject classes. This increase in opportunities allows teachers to find which New
Methods are the most effective for their students’ learning. By using the most
effective New Methods, STEM subject teachers can help improve achievement of
students with learning disabilities in their classes. In higher-risk situations, this
can help poorly-performing students with learning disabilities pass STEM subject
classes, which could help reduce the long-standing high dropout rate among
students with learning disabilities. Over the course of the last decade, the dropout
rate for students with learning disabilities has remained significantly higher than
the general student population while also remaining the second-highest dropout
rate among the other disability categories (Gottfried & Plasman, 2018).
Therefore, the development and implementation of effective New Methods can be
used to help more students with learning disabilities earn a high school degree. In

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lower-risk situations, this framework has the potential to help some students with
learning disabilities develop an interest in STEM subjects and inspire them to
pursue careers in STEM-related fields. Since certain STEM jobs are in high
demand, this could allow students with learning disabilities more job opportunities
that they otherwise would have never considered pursuing. Therefore, continuing
the development and implementation of New Methods for STEM subject classes
is crucial to giving solid, stable futures to students with learning disabilities and
should be treated as such by school administrators and teachers.

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