Running Head: CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Correlating Cognitive Flexibility and Mental Toughness While Examining the Connection between Failure, Flexibility, and Change Within Spartan Obstacle Course Racers A DISSERTATION Submitted to the Faculty of the School of Graduate Studies and Research of California University of Pennsylvania in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Health Science (DHSc) in Health Science and Exercise Leadership by Melody Gardner Research Adviser, Ellen West, EdD, LAT, ATC California, Pennsylvania 2018 CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITY of PENNSYLVANIA CALIFORNIA, PA CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Acknowledgements  To my husband, Ralph, my support system and sanity check throughout life, who originated this idea when I utilized his lifelong mantra of “Semper Gumby, Always Flexible”.  To my Mom, who taught me to always trust my first instinct, because it was usually right.  To my Dad, who taught me that failing to plan was planning to fail.  To my brother, Jesse, and sister, Mary, who both make me laugh like Hell.  To my niece Amelia, who reminds me that there is no such thing as “too much insurance”.  To Mrs. Detterline, Mrs. Lamb, and my Aunt Tam who showed me how to truly live life.  To Joe and George, who both told me to keep dreaming big and never, ever give up.  To Tiny Bubbles and Kyle who provided a technical assist.  To Ashley, who held my drink while I typed.  To Scott; simply, thank you.  To Drs. Dennis and Vander Wal for the use of the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI).  To Drs. Madrigal, Hamill and Hill for the use of the Metal Toughness Scale (MTS).  To Drs. Daday, Hanes, Heery, Mayrhofer and Shuhler for their wise counsel.  To Dr. Hess, who did her absolute best to bulletproof us as we created our proposals.  To Dr. Sovak, who ensured that no analytical stone was left unturned.  To my dissertation committee members, Dr. Hatton and Dr. Miller, for their helpful input.  To my committee chair, Dr. Ellen West, who supported and encouraged my creative process and personal growth throughout the entire doctoral program.  To Dr. Marc Federico and all the program faculty members for undertaking this nascent program, sailing boldly through completely uncharted territory with their first crew.  To any reader who wonders how they can make a change in life that seems almost completely out of reach, I offer this quote, attributed to Art Berg, but whose true original author is unknown, “While the difficult takes time, the impossible just takes a little longer.” CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Table of Contents Abstract ...........................................................................................................................................1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................2 Methods ...........................................................................................................................................6 Research Design .................................................................................................................6 Subjects ...............................................................................................................................7 Instruments .........................................................................................................................8 Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI) .................................................................8 Mental Toughness Scale (MTS) ............................................................................9 Procedures ........................................................................................................................10 Data Analysis ....................................................................................................................13 Quantitative ..........................................................................................................14 Qualitative ............................................................................................................14 Results ...........................................................................................................................................16 Qualitative ........................................................................................................................16 Qualitative ........................................................................................................................19 Discussion......................................................................................................................................21 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................47 Future Research ...........................................................................................................................50 References .....................................................................................................................................51 Appendix A (Literature Review) ................................................................................................57 Intro ...................................................................................................................................58 Theoretical Construct ......................................................................................................59 Applications ......................................................................................................................64 Sports ....................................................................................................................64 Workplace.............................................................................................................68 Military .................................................................................................................69 Education ..............................................................................................................71 Precursors .........................................................................................................................74 Age & Gender .......................................................................................................74 Hardship & Failure..............................................................................................76 Meaning ................................................................................................................78 Teamwork .............................................................................................................80 Caveats ..............................................................................................................................83 Lack of Support....................................................................................................83 Perfectionism ........................................................................................................85 Costs of Perseverance ..........................................................................................90 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................94 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Appendix B (Problem Statement)...............................................................................................96 Appendix C ...................................................................................................................................99 Appendix C1 (Cognitive Flexibility Inventory)...........................................................100 Appendix C2 (Mental Toughness Scale) ......................................................................103 Appendix C3 (SurveyMonkey Survey) .....................................................................105 Appendix C4 (Interview Logistics) ..............................................................................123 Appendix C5 (IRB Approval) ......................................................................................125 Appendix C6 (Informed Consent) ................................................................................127 Appendix C7 (CITI Certificates) ..................................................................................133 References ...................................................................................................................................138 Supporting Materials .................................................................................................................147 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH List of Figures Figure 1. Number of Spartan Races by Gender - Bar Chart Figure 2. The DNA of Grit – The Intrinsic Components Figure 3. Tree of Life Illustration – The System Figure 4. Venn Diagram – Convergent Elements of Cognitive Flexibility Figure 5. 7 Steps to Transformative Change – The Process Figure 6. Gardner’s Magic Quadrant – The Real-Life Takeaway i CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH List of Tables Table 1. Independent-samples t-test of CFI by Gender Table 2. Independent-samples t-test of MTS by Gender ii CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 1 Abstract Although topical, the nature and function of grit remains incompletely understood, leading to improper applications and misutilization. Employing a mixed methods research design, this research examined cognitive flexibility (CF) and mental toughness (MT), two properties closely related to grit. Quantitative inquiry conducted via SurveyMonkey gathered data from Spartan obstacle course racers (n = 152) via the Dennis and Vander Wal (2010) Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI) and the Madrigal, Hamill, and Hill (2013) Mental Toughness Scale (MTS). Analysis of data demonstrates CF and MT are positively correlated (p < .0001). Too, males display both higher levels of MT (p < .0001) and CF (p = .0015), whereas no such correlations exist in females. Subsequent qualitative personal interviews conducted via Facebook Messenger utilized n = 15 derived from the original Spartan racer participant pool. Transcripts were thematically analyzed to provide high-level insights and interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) demonstrated both variables to be unique complex constructs with a synergistic relationship dynamic. Deeper examination of how CF and MT are cultivated elucidated the unequivocally beneficial impact of each on participants’ lived experiences and overall outcomes. Implications of this research include stronger support for the neurological link between mindset and the changes seen in biological structure (Ng, 2018; Schroder, Moran, Donnellan, & Moser, 2014). Future work may include examination of the efficacy of various mind-body interventions such as bio-feedback, meditation, yoga and other mindfulness practices with the ultimate intent of facilitating autodidactic improvements in physical, mental and emotional outcomes. Keywords: Mental toughness, cognitive flexibility, grit, compassion, empowerment CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 2 Introduction Grit is a term that has seen a surge of popularity in the last decade, its properties being equated with toughness, defiance of hum-drum convention and inherently denoting all-around accomplishment. Clear trends emerge when examining the literature showing it is increasingly considered an important variable in everyday applications such as the workplace, educational forums, high-pressure situations, or fitness-related pursuits. Studies have yielded significant positive links between success in these environments and measures of grittiness (EskreisWinkler, Shulman, Beal, & Duckworth, 2013; Meriac, Slifka, & LaBat, 2015). The generally accepted understanding of the construct of grit as being a ratio of persistence of effort and longevity of interest seems to neatly echo the 2007 findings of Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, and Kelly, who described grit as “the propensity to pursue long-term goals with perseverance and passion” (p. 1100). Yet, when delving into the literature, qualities associated with the grit construct also closely align with characteristics identified as components of mental toughness (MT) in sport (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2007; Madrigal et al., 2013; Perlis, 2013; Stonkus & Royal, 2015). Research explores perseverance as a facet of MT, noting that it is also affected by its own variable sub-components, relying on both the meaningfulness of the action to the actor (Kleiman, Adams, Kashdan, & Riskind, 2013; Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015) and the resilience required to keep working towards a goal when others may have already discontinued their efforts, having deemed the task too daunting or the result not worth the effort (Lundman, Strandberg, Eisemann, Gustafson, & Brulin, 2007; Perlis, 2013; Von Culin, Tsukayama, & Duckworth, 2014). These findings suggest MT is not simply a mix of personality traits assignable only to a lucky few as previously theorized. Instead, MT has been shown to be more of a frame of mind and state of CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 3 being, composed of attributes which may be cultivated and refined over time (Gucciardia, Peeling, Duckera, & Dawson, 2016; Weinberg, Freysinger, Mellano, & Brookhouse, 2016). The concept of resilience is an important facet of MT which Liu, Reed, and Girard (2017) examined as a dynamic construct called the Multi-System Model of Resilience (MSMR). The ebb and flow of the characteristic, as described by this model, speaks to the varied influences on resilience, including personal lifestyle choices, interpersonal relationships and larger scale factors such as geographic location, social groups and socio-economic status. Because the influence that any combination of these factors may exert is constantly changing, our ability to be resilient would logically also be affected as the gravity of each factor increases or diminishes. This more comprehensive MSMR model demonstrates that resilience is also, as MT, not a steady-state characteristic assignable at a fixed value (Liu et al., 2017; Lundman et al., 2007; Martin, Byrd, Lewis Watts, & Dent, 2015; Robertson, Cooper, Sarkar, & Curran, 2015). This expanded understanding of resilience should provide a sense of empowerment in the effort to improve resilience at an individual level and further supports the observation that MT is similarly adaptable in nature. Current literature describes the effects of high-pressure situations on MT, recognizing the potential pitfalls of its employment without maintaining a realistic perspective on outcomes. Displaying perfectionist tendencies (Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Perlis, 2013), or pushing too hard without regard to risk versus gain (Crust, Swann, & Allen-Collinson, 2016; Lucas, Gratch, Cheng, & Marsella, 2015) often result in negative ramifications when there is a singular focus on one perceived definition of success without the potential for flexibility or iterative revisions in the pursuit of a goal. Perfectionism has been linked to a tendency towards a growth-limiting fixed mindset (Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Perlis, 2013; Schroder et al., 2014), whereas the antithesis CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 4 of perfectionism, failure, has been identified as a contributory factor in the cultivation of greater MT (DiMenichi & Richmond, 2015; Lucas et al., 2015). When engaging in maladaptive perfectionism, the affected individuals experience great difficulty or a complete inability to deviate from a singular prescribed definition of success, defined by Flett and Hewitt (2014) as a fixed mindset. In that state, the person cannot or will not recognize any amounts of progress or positive movement as success because it does not match that one ideal they perceive as success. Dennis and Vander Wal (2010) developed the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI) to measure the ability to adapt one’s thought patterns away from fixating on a single definition of success to a less rigid viewpoint which accommodates varied avenues towards stated goals and intentions. This measure of CF indicates that those who exhibit mental rigidity often feel they have very little ability to generate alternatives or to control the outcomes of their endeavors (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010). In contrast, adopting a growth mindset promotes self-compassion and the willingness to employ cognitive flexibility (CF) to generate iterative approaches in the pursuit of goals with the recognition that imperfection and failure still align with progress, achievement, and ultimately, success (Mangels, Butterfield, Lamb, Good, & Dweck, 2006). The judicious application of MT has demonstrated benefits in long-term success across varied life situations. However, in less mentally tough individuals, the practice of quitting when faced with adverse conditions has become a prevalent and acceptable response to handling difficult situations. Experiencing hardship and failure are essential to the process of developing MT and since perfectionists avoid failure, perfectionism and its practices do not contribute to a greater measure of mental toughness. Since quitting removes any possibility for improvement, giving up is clearly not the preferred method of coping with adversity or facilitating personal CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 5 growth in any area of life. With research suggesting that MT is not simply trait-based but a dynamic and adaptable state of being, gaining greater insight into the impact of CF in relation to the purposeful applications of MT would clearly be beneficial and may provide an avenue to reverse that trend (Gucciardi et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2017; Weinberg, et al., 2016). Hardship creates fear of failure and discourages individuals from continuing to pursue their goals. When working toward a meaningful life goal, remaining dynamic enough to persevere through adversity or persist after failure is essential to MT development. However, no research previously existed to directly correlate the impact that CF and failure have within the actual process of developing greater MT. This research quantitatively measures the correlation between cognitive flexibility and mental toughness. Additionally, through qualitative analysis of personal interviews, it is possible to interpret meaning and draw credible conclusions about how maintaining a growth mindset after experiencing a setback fosters greater MT. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 6 Methods This section serves to specifically highlight the variables being studied in this research, cognitive flexibility (CF) and mental toughness (MT), the design of the research, the nature of the participants in this study, the instrumentation proposed to gather data, the procedures by which the research will be carried out, and data analysis. Research Design The purpose of this mixed method design was to first examine the relationship between CF and MT, and then to gather data about individual personal experiences to bolster the theory that the ability to adapt one’s definition of success after failure is paramount to personal achievement. The quantitative research questions are rooted in the negative correlation between CF and perfectionism and utilized valid and reliable measures of MT and CF to further demonstrate a positive correlation between having high CF and high levels of MT. The qualitative research question was based upon the element of failure or hardship and its impact on both the ability to be mentally flexible and the process of cultivating MT. The mixed methods research design allows for a comprehensive approach, pairing data derived through valid and reliable instruments of measurement with the perceptions and viewpoints of those participants who embody the variables we seek to more thoroughly understand. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 7 Subjects The subjects of both the quantitative and qualitative research were selected based upon involvement in Spartan races. This terrain-dependent obstacle race series consists of three main variants, increasing in both course length and number of obstacles included as they progress from Sprint to Super to Beast. Participants may race independently or as part of a team. Inclusion within this population increased likelihood of participant MT due to the challenging nature of these races and made for ideal participants when examining how their measured levels of CF and MT correlate to their personal experiences. Participants were recruited to participate in an online SurveyMonkey survey via purposive sampling method by providing a survey link to members of targeted Facebook groups focusing on participation in Spartan obstacle course races. These included groups such as Spartans of the Northeast, a regional group with 15,000 members or Spartan 4-0, a national group for adults age 30 and over with more than 11,000 members. Qualified participants were adults, aged 18 or older, male or female, who had previously taken part in a Spartan race. As there are a multitude of conditions such as inclement weather, impassible terrain, illness or injury which can cause a do not finish (DNF), subjects need not have completed a Spartan to have taken part in the research and non-finishers were not excluded from the study. Convenience and purposive sampling methods were used, as ideal subjects were those who were already considered to be mentally tough (the desired research condition) and using targeted groups provided salient insight into the participants’ personal journeys and the process of becoming mentally tough. Although it may be assumed that an obstacle course race would naturally attract mentally tough participants, thereby limiting the ability to apply the results of this research to a broader population, it should be stated that this event is not restricted to elite or CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 8 professional athletes and purposely strives to be inclusive in its offerings. In so doing, the participants in adult Spartan races cover a wide range of ages, fitness levels and backgrounds, widening the implication and imbuing meaningfulness to this study’s findings in the context of a more expansive population. The large pool of potential participants in these targeted social media groups yielded a statistically significant sample size for the both the quantitative (n = 152) and qualitative (n = 15) portion of this study. Qualitative participants were selected from the quantitative participants with the minimum number of participants identified as n = 15 for best data analysis outcomes. Instruments This section describes the instruments chosen to measure the variables we will study. Quantitatively, we will measure cognitive flexibility (CF) and mental toughness (MT) and the relationship between them. Qualitatively, in those individuals quantitatively shown to have high measured levels of MT, we further explore links between failure and CF and their implications on cultivating greater levels of MT. Quantitative. Participants completed the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI), a 20item measure utilizing a 7-point Likert scale where 1 = Strongly Disagree and 7 = Strongly Agree which was developed in 2010 by Dennis and Vander Wal (Appendix C1). The CFI demonstrates high face, criterion and convergent validity (α = .90) and measures multiple facets attributed to perfectionist personality traits with high reliability (r = .81). This instrument provides insight into the participants’ propensity to exhibit perfectionism and identifies two factors of CF, feeling able to control outcomes and the ability to generate alternatives. The CFI notes that certain items are reverse-scored so that a higher overall score represents greater CF. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 9 This instrument was originally designed to be administered via a hard copy and scored manually, however it was incorporated into an electronic format to record and reflect answers. Participants also completed the Inventory of Mental Toughness Scale (MTS), which is a valid (α = .86) measure of MT with a test-retest reliability of r = .90 at a 1-week interval. Developed by Madrigal, Hamill and Gill in 2013, this 11-item instrument (Appendix C2) utilizes a 5-point Likert scale where 1 = Strongly Disagree and 5 = Strongly Agree, and is designed to assess respondent scores in MT. The results of this Likert-scale (minimum score = 11 and maximum score = 55) are interpreted with higher scores representing higher levels of MT with no items reverse scored. This instrument was originally designed to be administered via a hard copy and scored manually, however it was also incorporated into an electronic format to record and reflect answers. This SurveyMonkey survey shall henceforth be referenced as one single item, considered to be Appendix C3 of this proposal. Qualitative. Based upon the results of the quantitative data gathering process, semistructured interviews were conducted with 15 respondents who also consented to further participation. Open-ended questions intended to target previous efforts that resulted in initial failures and eventual success were included and further explore to expand upon their individual experiences (Appendix C4). Questions addressed topics such as the participants’ definition of MT and CF, what it means in their daily lives to be mentally tough, their perceptions about failure. Each was also encouraged to share a transformative story from their personal experience which has helped them become the person they are now. Utilizing a phenomenological approach to perceive changes in viewpoint and approach which participants applied during subsequent attempts at goals after an initial failure provided deeper understanding of the process which spurs personal development and greater resilience. Following a loosely constructed framework as a CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 10 guideline while employing an iterative style of questioning ultimately allowed the research findings to interleave, building upon previous answers to create a comprehensive landscape of interconnected experiential data from which we may draw deeper insights about applied CF on resultant MT. First-person researcher presence in conducting interviews increased integrity during the data collection process, ensuring that the participants truly met the requirements for inclusion in the interviews (e.g. 18 years of age or older, former Spartan participant, etc.) Credibility of this experiential data was further supported and strengthened by using Facebook Messenger and email exchanges to ensure that no data was missed, mishandled or misinterpreted when reviewing participant feedback. As the transformative process this research was designed to study is correlated to enduring hardship or failure, exploring research questions from different angles provided clarity. Requesting information in the form of a retrospective summary and analysis of participants’ own experiences elucidated the stimuli which acted as the catalyst for their metamorphosis, lending greater dependability to the resulting responses. Procedures The following sub-section is a step-by-step description of the procedures employed after receiving approval for the study by the California University of Pennsylvania IRB (Appendix C5), as a means of gathering data needed for this research on cognitive flexibility (CF) and mental toughness (MT). Preliminary Survey. The preliminary survey was taken by twelve participants drawn from other cohorts in the Doctor of Health Science (DHSc) program. The average time to finish the survey was recorded as nine minutes. No significant flaws were noted in the functioning of CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 11 the survey itself and only slight cosmetic changes to clarify instructions were suggested and subsequently incorporated into the final version of the survey. Although no analysis was performed on data gathered in this pilot study, all answers were recorded by SurveyMonkey© as anticipated with the gathered data valid for analysis. No malfunctions or unintended instances occurred, and the survey gathered the intended CF and MT data. Quantitative. Participants were recruited to participate in an online SurveyMonkey survey (Appendix C3) via purposive sampling method by targeting Facebook groups which had a focus on participation in Spartan obstacle course races. Groups included those such as Spartans of the Northeast, a regional group with 15,000 members, or Spartan 4-0, a national group for adults age 30 and over. This survey was promoted via Facebook posts within the groups with reminders posted weekly for the 4-week duration of the data gathering timeframe. Participants viewed the informed consent (Appendix C6) and clicked the link to continue, confirming they were both age 18 or over and had previously participated in a Spartan race in order to continue on and access the survey. Potential participants who did not meet the inclusion criteria were directed to a page thanking them for their time while informing them that they did not meet the parameters for participation in the survey. Participants who accepted the informed consent and proceeded were prompted to complete non-identifying demographic questions asking for current age (whole number), state of residence and gender (male or female). Participants had the option to enter their contact information if they consented to participate in the future qualitative personal interview portion of the study. Participants then completed the Dennis and Vander Wal (2010) Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI, Appendix C1) and the Madrigal, Hamill and Gill (2013) Mental Toughness Scale (MTS, Appendix C2), CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 12 both of which were converted to an electronic format (SurveyMonkey) for ease in scoring and analysis (Appendix C3). Qualitative. Based upon the results of the quantitative data gathering process, those participants who consented to volunteer further participation were contacted using the e-mail address, Facebook profile or phone number provided during the quantitative survey to ensure interest and secure participation in the qualitative interviews. Subjects’ informed consent (Appendix C6) would be implied, as an online survey response serves as consent in an adult population. Also, quantitative data gathering was restricted to an electronic format without personally identifying information and all results are reported in aggregate form. However, those who had also consented to proceed further were also sent an informed consent checklist to complete prior to scheduling an interview. A total of 15 interviews were conducted to gather qualitative input, where all but one was conducted via Facebook Messenger with the remaining one completed via e-mail exchange due to scheduling constraints on the participant’s behalf. The instant transcripts provided by the Messenger function ensured that no data was missed during analysis, increasing the integrity of the responses and resultant findings. Also, the propensity for respondent acquiescence bias decreased, as there was no face-to-face interaction where body language or tone of voice would unintentionally guide participant responses. Participants were all self-identifying and by the nature of their interactive communications were deemed to meet inclusion requirements (e.g. 18 years of age, Spartan participant). This identification process increased credibility that the responses would provide salient findings with resultant insights meaningful and applicable to a larger, more universal group. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 13 Semi-structured interviews were conducted employing open-ended questions which pertained to CF and MT, but also extended into inquiry examining how participants’ experiences with failure may have ultimately contributed to their long-term success. The phenomenological interviews delved as deeply as possible into participants’ personal experiences while attempting to identify overlapping elements within the variables being studied. This approach provided a more thorough picture of how failure functions alongside CF and MT, offering the ability to apply the knowledge gained here to a broader population. Deeper insights about applied CF and effects on resultant MT in everyday life provide a broader scope beyond previously studied venues of sport performance, occupational or educational circumstances. Sample interview questions appear in Appendix C Additional Methods as Interview Logistics (Appendix C4). Data Analysis The following sub-section is an outline of the metrics and techniques used to analyze the data collected during the quantitative research on cognitive flexibility (CF) and mental toughness (MT) and the ensuing qualitative interviews which further explored the relationships amongst CF, MT and instances of hardship and failure, with expectations including: • A positive correlation would be demonstrated between measures of CF and MT, meaning obstacle course racers with high MT scores will also report high measures of CF and that age is predictive of MT, with older racers consistently reflecting higher MT scores. • Mentally tough individuals would identify both previous failures and corresponding shifts in perspective allowing them to overcome adversity and achieve success. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH • 14 The significance of enduring failure on the journey to greater strength is expected to align mentally tougher individuals with a greater level of cognitive flexibility in terms of the ability to re-frame the meaning of success after failure. Quantitative. The quantitative portion of the study aimed to provide greater insight into the process of the cultivation of MT, specifically in the context of CF and the ability to re-frame or re-define the meaning of success. Based upon the findings established in previous research, there was an expectation that a positive correlation would be demonstrated between measures of CF and MT, meaning obstacle course racers with high MT scores would also report high measures of CF. There was also support for MT scores of older participants being higher than their younger counterparts and it was thought that this trend might be replicated upon analysis of MTS scores compared to stated age. A significance level of α = p ≤ 0.05 was used for all quantitative analyses comparing total CFI and MTS scores while considering the variables of age, gender and number of Spartan races run. Analysis types included Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient, Spearman rank-order correlation coefficient, linear regression analysis and the independent-samples t-test. Qualitative. Designs of this nature may be categorized as qualitative inductive content analysis in that the outcomes of the research inform the hypothesis formation after the data has been collected, analyzed and interpreted. More specifically, the aim of this research aligned well with interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA), a technique which seeks to comprehend not only the meaning of the data collected in relation to the variables studied, but also the underlying meaningfulness of the events to participants themselves (Kidd & Eatough, 2017). Individuals CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 15 were expected to identify both previous failures and corresponding shifts in perspective allowing them to overcome adversity and achieve success. Systematic content analysis is a method of gaining insight from interview findings by thoroughly evaluating the data collected via personal interviews and coding the data by identifying repetitive thematic similarities (Dudovskiy, 2017). Iterative categorization of the findings in terms of the catalytic events recalled during the development of greater MT allowed deconstruction and closer inspection of those situations or themes. Creating categories and subcategories to demonstrate the incidence of answers sharing similar content supported validity across the entirety of the findings. Digital transcripts were utilized to remove recall bias by serving as a permanent record of the interview content not subject to memory gaps and provided useful reference documentation during further analysis. Employing methodological triangulation by comparing conclusions drawn from the analysis of qualitative interviews with the results of quantitative data provides greater support for findings and lends increased credibility to outcomes and findings. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 16 Results This section describes the findings of the study and includes supporting documentation in the form of tables outlining the findings. Quantitative. Over a 4-week data collection period, survey responses were collected via SurveyMonkey® survey distributed via link in Spartan racer Facebook groups. Demographics & Summary Statistics. The quantitative survey gathered 152 complete surveys for analysis (25 responses were excluded from analysis due to incomplete surveys). Of the total participants, 91 were female (average age 40.4) and 61 were male (average age 42.5). The mean age of all participants was 41.2 years. Respondents also identified state of residence and a total of 30 different U.S. states and Canada were represented across the 152 participants. CF & MT. Once all survey data had been gathered and recorded, SAS Studio 3.7 (Enterprise Edition) statistical analysis software (Cody, 2015) was utilized to determine the strength and direction of the relationship between the two ordinal variables being studied, in this case, the reported CF and MT scores (Hurley, Denegar, & Hertel, 2011). A significance level of α = p ≤ 0.05 was used for all quantitative analyses. The average score for the CFI was 117.2 + 10.2. The average score for the MTS was 43.2 + 5.3. In performing a Pearson Correlation of Coefficients analysis, a moderate positive correlation was shown between CF and MT (r(150) = .391, p < .0001), indicating a significant linear relationship between the two variables. Based on these findings, participants with higher CF would be expected to exhibit higher MT. No significant relationship or weighting was seen when more closely examining the two sub-scales of the CFI, Ability to Generate Alternatives and the Feeling in Control of Outcomes. Both instruments demonstrated high internal reliability, with CFI (α = .86) and MTS (α = .84). CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 17 Age. In performing a Pearson Correlation of Coefficients analysis, no significant correlation was shown between age and either of the variables CF (r(150) = 0.02, p = 0.81) or MT (r(150) = 0.05, p = 0.58). Gender. In examining the data through the lens of gender, there was roughly a 3:2 ratio of women to men who participated in this quantitative survey. Figure 1 shows the three categories of races broken down by gender with the number of participants shown in each. Figure 1. Bar chart of total participants split by gender, based upon number of Spartan races run. When examining the summary statistics for CFI and MTS in relation to gender, males scored 5.4 points higher on average on the CFI than females. Similarly, males scored an average of 3.5 points higher on the MTS than females. Using SAS Studio 3.7 (Executive Edition), the variables of CF and MT were more closely examined to explore the implication of gender on outcomes. Results are outlined in Tables 1 and 2. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 18 Independent-sample t-tests examining the CF and MT variables in the context of gender demonstrated a strong positive correlation in males for both qualities. As shown in Table 1, an independent-samples t-test comparing mean scores of the female and male groups for the CFI found a significant difference between the means of the two groups’ CFI scores (t(123) = -3.25, p = .0015). Table 1. Independent-samples t-test of CFI by Gender. Gender N M SD SE Females Males 91 61 115.1 120.5 9.6 10.3 1.01 1.31 t -3.25 p .0015 As shown in Table 2, an independent-samples t-test comparing the mean scores of the female and male groups for the MTS found a significant difference between the means of the two groups’ MTS scores (t(126) = -4.10, p < .0001). This shows scores are significantly different between the genders, with men scoring higher than women on both the CFI and the MTS. Table 2. Independent-samples t-test of MTS by Gender. Gender N M SD SE Females Males 91 61 41.8 45.2 5.0 5.2 0.53 0.66 t p -4.10 < .0001 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 19 Additional Findings. Based upon the summary statistics showing both CFI and MTS scores when accounting for number of Spartan races run, minimum scores of CF are highest in the group who ran only one race (M = 118.4, SD = 7.7) versus for two to five races (M = 116.0, SD = 9.4) or for five or more races (M = 117.6, SD = 10.8). However, the highest CFI scores were found in those reporting the most races run (five or more). Qualitative. Fifty-six Spartan racers initially volunteered to take part in the qualitative interview. Of those, one could not be identified as no contact information was provided. Further, two Spartan racers returned their informed consent checklists but did not schedule interviews and one racer returned a blank informed consent checklist and did not respond to follow up requests for a completed form. A further thirty-seven racers did not respond to the requests made for further participation, making the total of participants in the qualitative data collection group n = 15. Demographics & Summary Statistics. Over a 6-week data collection period, interviews were conducted with 15 participants (6 females, 9 males) ranging in age from 23-67 years (M = 40). Interview duration ranged between 36 minutes to 133 minutes, with a mean duration of 76 minutes. Gender had no bearing on either response length or interview duration. Participants’ CFI scores ranged from a minimum of 94 and a maximum of 140 out of 140 possible points (M = 120). Participants’ MTS scores ranged from a minimum of 29 to a maximum of 52 out of 55 possible points, (M = 42). Findings. As postulated, all 15 participants related instances of failure or hardship as an impetus to develop greater MT through the use of CF. Specific instances of this process included revising definitions of success, generating alternative approaches to previous failures, CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 20 enduring difficult circumstances without giving up and demonstrating the ability to be accept uncertainty while maintaining a positive attitude. The dynamic approach to difficult problems advised for CF work beyond the issue instead of halting the growth process by focusing on the initial failure itself. This finding corresponds to research indicating that fixed mindsets do not allow room for growth and cause difficulty when pursuing achievement (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Mangels et al., 2006; Perlis, 2013; Schroder et al., 2014). CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 21 Discussion Quantitative CF and MT. Because there is strong evidence highlighting the usefulness of flexibility and compassion in combating perfectionist tendencies, a negative correlation between perfectionism and MT (DiMenichi & Richmond, 2015; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Lucas et al., 2015), and showing that MT development is supported by the qualities of CF (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010), findings were expected to reflect a positive correlation between the variables of CF and MT. This expectation was supported by data analysis outcomes and was clearly reflected in the significance level of p < .0001 returned when examining the relationship between these two constructs. Age. Due to the influence of resilience on MT (Liu et al., 2017) and the demonstrated increase in resilience over time (Lundman et al., 2007), older participants were expected to reflect higher MT scores when comparing MTS scores to stated age. However, no significant results were shown when analyzing either MT or CF in terms of participant age. This finding did not align with the expectation of findings stated at the outset of the research. Because resilience, a key component of MT, is shown to increase steadily year-over-year (Lundman et al., 2007), the finding that no significant relationship existed between age and MT was initially surprising. However, upon reflection, resilience must be considered as a multi-faceted construct (Liu et al., 2017) and everyone may have a different "start point" or may experience mitigating factors which affect resilience levels. Although there is evidence demonstrating that resilience increases linearly with advancing age (Lundman et al., 2007), not every individual will reflect the same initial level of resilience nor have the same life experiences or personal support network. Therefore, the results of a single-instance general population sample will be inconclusive, CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 22 representing current individual measures whereas an individual may show linear progression in levels of resilience by utilizing a repeated measures methodology of examining their personal survey results over time. Spartans. Findings indicate the minimum CF levels of Spartan races who have completed a single race are higher than those who have completed 2-5 races or 5 or more races. While initially counter-intuitive on the surface, it is logical to propose that the decision to take on the challenge of something new and intimidating requires moving into a growth mindset from the previously held fixed mindset and that levels of CF need to be relatively high to enact this change. It is also logical to suggest that one’s maximum capacity for CF would continue to grow over time as experience increases, a conclusion supported by findings indicating the highest measures of CF were found in the most experienced racers. This suggestion is also supported by previous findings that point to toughness accumulating over time with increased aptitude (Fieril, Olsen, Glantz, & Larsson, 2014; Madrigal et al., 2013). It is plausible, then, to suggest that this process of developing greater CF has no arbitrary end nor limits to advancement except those which accompany the termination of effort or the denouement of one’s life. Gender. Findings suggest that male Spartan racers are tougher at a general baseline and may possess a greater ability to adapt than the females partaking in similar conditions. This finding initially appears in conflict with research linking females’ GRIT-S scores to greater academic achievement (Cross, 2014; Zimmerman & Brogan, 2015), increasing toughness through life experiences such as pregnancy that only women undergo (Fieril et al., 2014) and results indicating females become tougher as they age in comparison to the corresponding increase in toughness seen in males (Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2013). However, the implication is that women achieve the same goals as their male counterparts at lower levels of MT and CF. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 23 Although the age range and mean age is very similar within both groups in this participant pool, one factor that may provide insight into this variance is a differing perception of change. In males, once beyond puberty, physical appearance and body functions remain relatively consistent for decades. However, from the onset of puberty, through menstruation, pregnancy, menopause and beyond, a woman’s body chemistry changes constantly, even daily (Hoyt & Falconi, 2015). This inevitability of change is a fact of life for women and may partially explain why this group had a higher concentration of females than males who demonstrated similar achievements while reporting lower levels of MT and CF than male participants. Qualitative This discussion sub-section outlines the important themes and insights gained from a thematic and interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) of the data gathered in interviews. The following sections describe CF and MT in the terms that participants used to identify their meanings and usefulness in every day applications. Mental Toughness. In discussions of mental toughness, participants identified the following three themes in their definitions of MT. Sense of Agency/Empowerment. The ability to continue functioning at a high level when things are difficult and/or ambiguous was identified as crucial to maintaining MT, noted by Participant #14 as “Keeping [one’s] mind in a place to endure stressful or challenging situations.” Participant #2 defined it as “Pushing past the ‘quit’ in your brain” by acknowledging the difficulty that is being faced but making the conscious decision to succeed anyway. One prominent insight included the idea that people have an ability to choose their response to a situation with Participant #9 saying “...to an extent, misery is a choice....” Another suggestion CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 24 mentioned allowing yourself, in the pursuit of a goal, the ability to decide if it is best to persevere on your current path or to take a different path instead. These responses support the theory that a growth mindset versus a fixed mindset is often the only difference between defeat and eventual success (Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Mangels et al., 2016; Ng, 2018). Perspective. Responses suggested that when there is a larger perspective available, a greater comfort level exists to take on challenges and not avoid them. Understanding that similar goals may hold different meaning to each person also provides a broader viewpoint on a situation and more empathy towards others. Lastly, working with present abilities without allowing judgment (either self-imposed or external) to negatively influence your decisions was noted as important. This insight supports the negative correlation demonstrated between social desirability bias, where a person is more concerned with outside judgement than their own priorities and the development of greater MT (Madrigal, Hamill, & Gill, 2013). Logically, this would explain why those who choose a unique path are often referred to as “the black sheep”. Perseverance. This quality was described by participants as the ability to stay focused and motivated over time, having continued dedication or committing to success over time. Other answers included the ability to overcome adverse circumstances when others may have quit or pushing harder towards a goal for a longer time than others might. These responses highlighted the importance of longevity of effort, similarly noted by Duckworth, Eichstaedt, and Ungar (2015) when describing the impact of work duration on the final outcomes of achievement in comparison to the variable of raw talent. Cognitive Flexibility. In discussions of cognitive flexibility, participants identified the following three themes in their definitions of CF. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 25 Openness to Change. Participants identified the need to remain open to alternatives, both self-generated or from external sources of input. Participant #8 mentioned this also possibly meant “…facing uncertain outcomes with an open mind.” The ability to be flexible in approach when outcomes may be ambiguous is how Flett and Hewitt (2014) propose that perfectionists may see beyond their fixed mindset towards a growth mindset where they may continue making progress towards goals. However, Brand et al. (2015b) note that perfectionist tendencies are related to difficulty in identifying, understanding and regulating emotions, logically creating difficulty in altering those emotions and pursuant reactions. The presence of openness seems to be the vehicle allowing for the journey between those two mindsets, a theory supported by findings of Lin et al. (2017) who noted that MT imbues us with the confidence in our own psychological resources needed to cope with strong emotions and conditions which cause them. Adaptability. The concept of adaptability was recognized by Participant #15 as the fact that different days may require different approaches to similar issues because a previous solution may no longer work. Others cited using problem solving skills and creativity to learn and leveraging the ability to improvise in dynamic situations to overcome difficulties. Lastly, adaptability was defined as working with what you have, even if it is not what was originally expected or desired. In examining the literature, CF is partially defined as the ability to generate alternative solutions to challenges (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010). DiMenichi and Richmond show that revising methodology in the pursuit of mastery leads to measurable improvement in sport performance (2015) while Martin et al. (2015) demonstrate that adaptability allows for fulfilling life experiences after sustaining a serious debilitating injury. Flett and Hewitt (2014) present adaptability as a crucial technique in combating perfectionism and Perlis (2013) links non-perfectionism to greater toughness. With previous research showing value in the interactive CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 26 functions of CF and MT in real-life applications, the present findings serve to reinforce the strong link between CF and MT when attempting to achieve success after failure or hardship. Thinking Differently. When responding to interview questions about how using CF potentially provided advantages in life, many respondents mentioned the ability to “think differently” than others. They felt that the ability to see the same question from different angles offered the capacity to consider options beyond the typical and an ability to derive more elegant solutions. Thinking differently also was noted to provide a greater respect for alternative points of view or input from external sources of information. As the ability to generate alternatives is itself a sub-scale of the CFI instrument, this theme or welcoming and respecting additional options clearly aligns with Dennis and Vander Wal’s (2010) definition of CF. Integral Components. The successful measurement of personal experiences hinges on the careful inspection and the subsequent comparison of the entire range of data collected through these participant interviews. To ensure that the conclusions derived here possessed sufficient validity, this IPA analysis employed the double hermeneutic theory which examines both the meaningfulness assigned by participants to personal experiences and the interpretation of the meaning of the qualitative data in the larger context of the phenomena studied in the research (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2012/2014). Thus, the following sub-themes are the roots of the process, combining to feed into the larger concepts of CF and MT. Failure/Adversity. During analysis, it was found that all 15 participants mentioned both navigating circumstances they considered failures or serious hardships and the value of overcoming adversity or persisting after failure in the process of cultivating greater mental toughness. Examples include abusive relationships, failed marriages, climbing (literal) CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 27 mountains, violent encounters, unexpected pregnancies, difficult workplace situations, and physical/mental challenges. These circumstances factored into the cultivation of greater MT and provided perspective into the participants’ priorities in life. Exploring the significance of enduring failure on the journey to become stronger aligns mentally tough individuals with a greater level of CF in terms of the ability to re-frame the meaning of success after failure. Participants repeatedly mentioned the concepts of flexibility in thinking and approach, receptivity to different ideas and an overall dynamic attitude towards change. This finding supports the hypothesis that failure and corresponding shifts in perspective or approach are integral components of becoming more mentally tough (DiMenichi & Richmond, 2015; Lucas et al., 2015) and that perfectionism is contra-indicated in cultivating MT (Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Perlis, 2013). Support. Participants repeatedly mentioned receiving encouragement and feeling a sense of community as a crucial element allowing for sustained effort during times of difficulty. Examples included cultivating support through self-compassion after a personal failure (sporting loss, failed marriage, unsuccessful attempt at an educational goal) or during a period of hardship in life (death of a close family member, serious illness or disability). This was also reflected as receiving support from external sources, such as the instance cited by Participant #1 about climbing Mt. Kilimanjaro with 28 others where group members encouraged one another along the way. An extension of these findings was the propensity to pay it forward by encouraging and supporting others in their pursuit of achievement. These findings support previous research about teamwork in sport performance. Discovered by Otto Köhler, a psychologist and rowing coach who realized his athletes worked harder when they worked together, the Köhler motivation gain effect was found to increase physical output when participants were part of a group versus CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 28 when working alone, even if one’s teammate was virtual in nature (Feltz, Kerr, & Irwin, 2011). Group dynamics in sport performance require buy-in from both the supporting and supported parties, ensuring the commitment to excel will flow in both directions to build a mutually beneficial relationship over time. Mindfulness. Many participants mentioned the concept of mindfulness as an intrinsic part of approaching life and responses fell into one or more of three main categories. Beginner’s Mind. First, the Buddhist concept of Beginner’s Mind, which is to look at situations with fresh eyes instead of feeling as if you already know how things should or will go. Interviewees repeatedly reflected the need to be open to different viewpoints outside of previously held beliefs/approaches and to embracing the unknown instead of fearing or avoiding what is not possible to predict. This finding correlates with the larger CF definition of being flexible enough to adapt your mindset (Flett & Hewitt, 2014) and an ability to maintain equanimity when outcomes are uncertain (Lundman et al, 2007). Self-awareness. Next, participants pointed to the self-awareness that mindfulness offers as crucial to success in life. This property was described as digging deep in hard times to find your “reserves” when you feel tapped out and believing in your own abilities (mental, physical and emotional) so as not to self-sabotage or quit in cases where you truly are capable of success if you decide to keep going. These findings support employment of the knowledge of your own skills as a benchmark to increase personal attributes across various platforms, including sport performance, work efforts, and interpersonal relationships (Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2013; Jones et al., 2007; Stonkus, 2011; Stonkus & Royal, 2015; Weinberg, Freysinger, Mellano, & Brookhouse, 2016). CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 29 Self-respect. Lastly, the concept of self-respect was mentioned many times by participants. Responses to explain its importance included taking the time to assess and adjust, being kind to yourself without quitting, forgiving yourself for failing or not meeting expectations, and knowing when you deserve better. Having the willingness to take time for introspective reflection allowed participants to view self-care as choosing preservation instead of exhaustion. Also, accepting your own point of view and version of 100% at any given time was noted as an empowering practice. These responses about mindfulness draw a close parallel to the methods suggested to address and dismantle the negative effects of perfectionistic fixed mindsets by using kindness to transition unrealistic expectations or preconceived rigid notions to a more flexible and tolerant growth mindset (Flett & Hewitt, 2014). Gratitude. Although similar to mindfulness, gratitude is a unique concept in that while mindfulness sees and accepts what is, gratitude goes one step further and move towards what may be. The repeated sentiment amongst the interviewees was that there is a need to view challenges as opportunities instead of something to be feared or avoided. Participants expressed seeing the value in unanticipated or unwanted situations, but still using them for growth purposes where others may have seen only “hassles” and received no benefit at all because they refused to engage. This approach allows for dynamic decision-making and the ability to guide outcomes instead of being subject to uncontrollable outside forces. This mindset aligns well with the Feeling in Control of Outcomes sub-scale of the CFI instrument (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010). Gratitude links meaningful actions to increased meaningfulness in one’s own life, (Kleiman et al., 2013; Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015) and supports the process of becoming autonomous and unbothered. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 30 Tenacity. A close cousin to perseverance, participants described this quality as maintaining a positive attitude and “never quit” mentality despite failure or adversity. The emphasis was put on drawing from inner strength, but unlike perseverance or hardiness (Bartone, 1995), there was no mention of meaningfulness or larger perspective. Simply, this is a patent refusal to acquiesce. While this may be considered a positive quality in most cases, when exhibited alone, this characteristic can stray into the territory of being “busy” but working without meaningful direction (Meriac et al., 2015; Perlis, 2013; Willingham, 2016), or being too tough for one’s own good (Crust et al., 2016). This difference denotes a lack of the underlying emotional components and meaning which must be present to inspire the continued effort associated with persistence (Von Culin et al., 2014). Because this emotional aspect is found within the greater construct, it is a clear indication that individual elements are not enough on their own and that multiple sub-components must blend together to sustain a larger successsupporting process. Creative Control (Transformation). Much like the openness to change identified in participant definitions of CF, this quality speaks to the presence of possibilities. However, creative control is more specifically the understanding of a personal ability to envision and guide outcomes. Interview responses highlighted this method as autodidactic, meaning a learning process that is both self-driven and self-directed and viewed purposeful change as always entirely possible. One description provided was an acknowledgement that we all have the capacity for change and simply need to commit to working to make desired outcomes occur. The ability to use adversity/failure as the impetus to enact positive change in life also appeared thematically, reinforcing the advocacy for growth mindsets seen in the research of Flett and CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 31 Hewitt (2014) and Mangels et al. (2016) and demonstrating the value of transformation in the development and execution of desired outcomes. Development Process. The following sub-sections describe and illustrate the process of developing greater CF and MT with visually presentations to support textual references and research findings. Intertwined Nature of CF and MT. Many interview participants defined mental toughness and cognitive flexibility as synergistic and intertwined in nature, citing examples of how they work together and suggesting they needed to co-exist to function properly. One participant (#9) specifically referred to strength without flexibility as a “stubbornly static” state of being, with others providing examples of how being too tough had been detrimental when they were not able to see multiple avenues to success and refused to alter their methodology. Conversely, we may point to flexibility which lacks strength as similarly one-sided, without the substance required to sustain great effort over time or stand up in the face of adversity. Another participant (#15) highlighted the relationship dynamic by referencing the famously fixed mindset of the protagonist of the novel Don Quixote, saying “Mental toughness makes sure you keep trying; cognitive flexibility makes sure you’re not tilting at windmills!”. DNA of Grit. Grit was originally defined by Duckworth et al. (2007) as “passion and perseverance for long term goals,” but in considering what the DNA of grit would look like, it seems that the crucial significance of support (Feltz et al., 2011) empowerment and greater perspective were not addressed here. Although the word “passion” alludes to personal relevance, it may be (and often is) misconstrued as “enthusiasm”, which may unfortunately equate to a long grind for someone else’s dream. Previous literature speaks to the element of meaningfulness as a CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 32 required component, as without it, there is no reason to continue to expend effort (Kleiman et al., 2013; Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015). Resilience, an integral part of MT, is a complex construct of dynamic sources of personal support (Liu et al., 2017) and is itself strengthened by the process of CF. Further, the research findings of this study show that CF and MT are intertwined in nature, meaning that their function is enhanced by a synergistic relationship. Processing the original definition of grit through the lenses of MT and CF may yield a more comprehensive statement such as, “Grit is the mindful pursuit (CF) of personally relevant (empowerment) long-term goals via purposeful and sustainable (compassion) perseverance (MT).” Figure 2 identifies the foundational elements crucial to the success of this process. Figure 2. What is DNA? Adapted from Genetics Home Reference, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2018, Retrieved October 20, 2018 from https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/basics/dna. Copyright 2018 by U.S. National Library of Medicine. Adapted with permission. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 33 Cultivation Process. Participants pointed to CF and MT as qualities that grow in a cumulative fashion, requiring both consistent effort and the passage of time. Though they seem to accumulate with increased life experience, CF and MT may vary according to individual personal circumstances and fluctuating external support factors (Liu et al., 2017; Stonkus, 2015). Tree of Life. Figure 3 illustrates the entire system, starting from the roots or underlying elements shown in this research to support CF and MT (creative control, gratitude, mindfulness, self-awareness, self-respect, tenacity), proceeding through the trunk where CF and MT work in concert with support to overcome failure/adversity and concludes with the leaves which represent the subsequent world-facing outcomes of adaptability, empowerment, equanimity, openness to change, perseverance, perspective and thinking differently. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Figure 3. Tree of Life – Systematic Illustration 34 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 35 Equanimity. The ability to remain calm amidst chaos, shown in Figure 3 as an outcome of the cultivation process of CF and MT, was noted by participants as helpful to both self and to others, making challenging situations easier to navigate while still achieving the most beneficial outcomes. Findings suggest that approaching tough circumstances calmly provides the power to thoughtfully direct our responses, a conclusion which reinforces similar findings showing the ability to maintain a sense of serenity during times of turbulence is directly related to resilience (Lundman et al., 2007). Participant #6 related a story about becoming a primary caregiver to a parent as a teenager and stated that difficult situations often help us prioritize that which is important in life versus becoming upset by the things which are just a distraction. This supports research findings of Lin et al. (2017) who state that those with high MT know how to remove or ignore distractions to focus on their goals. Participants also mentioned believing that one’s attitude determines outcomes, a statement supportive of the Feeling in Control of Outcomes sub-scale of the CFI instrument (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010), where it is understood that uncertainty and adverse situations are an intrinsic part of life but that options exist because we make our own decisions. This finding reflects the sense of ease which accompanies greater toughness due to the ability and willingness to courageously, capably and dynamically address whatever arises (Lundman et al., 2007; Perlis, 2013). These findings show a relationship more complex than a simple cycle, with MT shown to be a component of equanimity (Lundman et al., 2007), which is itself both a component and an output of CF and a component of resilience (Dennis and Vander Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014). Resilience is shown to be a component of MT (Liu et al., 2017), which requires CF to function correctly (DiMenichi & Richmond, 2015; Martin et al., 2015; Perlis, 2013). Therefore, CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 36 it is logical to suggest that these elements must blend to create the optimal conditions supporting personal growth and achievement. Figure 4 illustrates these relationships as a Venn diagram with supporting explanations of their inter-related nature and convergent functions. The “sweet spot” denoting area of CF Figure 4. Venn Diagram – Convergent Elements of Cognitive Flexibility Insights. The following sections provide deeper insight into the overall impact that CF and MT application are shown to have on real-life outcomes and the relevance of these findings to the existing body of research on these qualities. Swearing. Roughly two dozen instances of swear words were noted during interviews, all used in non-derogatory fashion. These terms emphasized extremely difficult situations and highlight the importance of passion and self-expression when striving for larger-than-life goals. Research shows using swear words activates a portion of the brain which allows us to withstand pain longer than using regular words and that they also boost strength and power in sport performance (Stephens, Atkins & Kingston, 2009; Stephens, Spierer, & Katehis, 2018; Stephens & Umland, 2011). Effectively, uncomfortable instances become more palatable and our capacity CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 37 for work increases. Because high MT individuals do not avoid difficult circumstances, swearing may be used as a tactic to persevere when extraordinary levels of effort are required to overcome adversity. Logically, those with lower MT may never even encounter these types of demanding situations and may not understand the value in this neurological enhancement strategy. Inevitability of Change. There were many instances of the word “change” within these interviews with participant definitions of both CF and MT reflecting an awareness that uncertainty or adversity is a normal part of life. As such, they were not crippled by fear when those situations arose. Rather, their outlook empowered them to enthusiastically take on challenges, knowing they already possessed the qualities needed to navigate them. Participants also identified a willingness to expand outside their comfort zone and set intentions and confidence in their ability to achieve great things. This sentiment echoes the previous literature regarding equanimity (Lundman et al., 2007; Perlis, 2013) and provides context for the quantitative data showing evidence that females, who encounter biological change at a higher intensity and frequency than males, also possess both a higher minimum level of MT and a higher maximum capacity for CF. Increased Level of Respect. In terms of the value seen in the self, participants identified increased confidence and self-worth, acknowledgement of effort made without regard to results and the ability to be self-directed and make decisions which positively affect outcomes. This aligns with Carol Dweck’s research showing that rewarding students for their level of effort instead of focusing solely on outcomes is the way to teach empowerment at a young age (Mangels et al., 2006). In terms of respect for others, responses noted increased empathy and a greater understanding of other perspectives, enhancing ability to work within groups. This is explained by employing the understanding that everyone’s 100% looks different and that the CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 38 amount of effort put forth is more important than end results. Lastly, this respect was demonstrated through displaying compassion to others and “paying it forward” by offering encouragement and support to others, which supports the research of Feltz et al. (2011) regarding interpersonal dynamics as it relates to teamwork in a sport performance setting. Sacrifice. Those displaying high MT are willing to take risks and accept the outcomes related to their process of “thinking differently”. Participants discussed the willingness to make sacrifices that others do not understand to achieve their desired outcomes. Participant #15 identified a scenario of running a very long and difficult off-road race and giving up a time cushion to aid a fellow racer who had collapsed. Although this choice resulted in a time-related disqualification with the racer receiving a did not finish (DNF), these actions reflected a desire to help ensure another person’s well-being and were more important than a medal or finish time. As that collapsed racer had been ignored by others, this is an excellent example of identifying that which is important enough to make sacrifices for when others do not understand or share our motivations. This example aligns closely with the findings of Lucas et al. (2015) and Ng (2018) who noted that those with higher MT were willing to bear the costs of their choices including those that were interpersonal, monetary or temporal in nature. Participants also mentioned situations where their support or empathy was misunderstood with others becoming hostile or alienated because they could not recognize the support they were receiving. This finding aligns with research about how fixed mindsets may create an inability to see change as positive or even a possible alternative (Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Mangels et al., 2016). One caveat mentioned by multiple participants regarding sacrifice is that while working towards goals requires compromise, purpose must be present to avoid burnout stemming from a meaningless grind. Repetitive motion without meaning deadens us to the real importance of our CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 39 work and removes our reason for continuation of effort which is inherently necessary for eventual success. Participant #17 stated that “Living in the grind can be exhausting.” supporting the observation of Willingham (2016) that, “…sometimes, being the sort of person who does what’s expected, putting one foot in front of the other, just won’t cut it….” (p. 31) because neither work ethic nor conscientiousness addresses the underlying meaning of the activity and, thus, cannot sustain long term positive gains in MT (Meriac et al., 2015; Perlis, 2013). Contra-Indications. Though CF and MT are clearly valuable qualities, there are instances where detrimental results may occur. The instances identified below are examples of ways in which CF and MT are potentially decreased or misused. Poor Mindset. Having a poor mindset was a definite theme when identifying conditions which are detrimental to CF and MT. Three distinct types of poor mindsets were discovered when exploring the transcripts of the qualitative interviews. Fixed mindset. Expecting others to think the same way you do or to understand your viewpoint was identified as a drawback which produces a lack of patience with self or others. Participant #8 referred to this phenomenon as “…[an] old habit of expecting to be immediately good at [something]…” which needed to be re-framed as unrealistic and non-conducive to growth. This practice can create misunderstandings and may damage interpersonal relationships by causing a breakdown in communication. As previously discussed, perfectionism is a maladaptive pattern of behavior which may cause unrealistic expectations of self (Flett & Hewitt, 2014), leading to anxiety or inaction due to overthinking (known as “analysis paralysis”) (Brand, Kirov, Kalak, Gerber, Pühse, Lemola et al., 2015b). Holding a fixed mindset leads to binary thinking such as right/wrong, black/white, all or nothing and tends to be closed off to external CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 40 ideas or better alternatives than ones which have already been considered (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Mangels et al., 2016). Flett and Hewitt (2014) suggest that a fixed mindset may cause an individual to feel trapped in their current situation with no alternatives to explore and warned that unrealistic expectations may also lead to self-destructive behavior instead of growth after failure when people engage in self-harm, criticism of self or “beating up” on themselves. Participant #10 mentioned “despondence” and “disgust” with self after a perceived sport performance failure. This is clearly counter to the development of CF, where generating alternatives is a core element (Dennis & Vader Wal, 2010) and does not support MT, where there is a balance of maximizing natural abilities while respecting personal limitations (Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015). In this case, however, the perceived failure turned out to be a simple misunderstanding and instead of selfdisqualifying, with a little external support and the application of persistence, Participant #10 transformed the circumstance into success and related personal pride in achievement and gratitude for the opportunity to positively affect the outcome of a challenging situation. This directly reflects the idea that kindness is intrinsic to flexibility and development when seeking to move beyond perfectionism towards a beneficial growth mindset (Flett & Hewitt, 2014). Negative mindset. Related to fixed mindset, though distinct, is having a negative mindset. This frame of view equates challenges to “struggles” instead of opportunities to be leveraged for gain. Participants identified the need to not give in to self-doubt or engage in negative self-talk, as they adversely affect performance beyond simple limits of physiological capability. Participant #13 stated that “…self-doubt and loathing…are…terrible diseases spreading through your body.” and related an instance of self-induced failure during sporting competition due to nothing more than having a negative mindset at the time of the event. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 41 Holding onto emotions such as anger or bitterness can fuel miscommunication and misunderstandings with others, often making a difficult situation harder than it truly needs to be. Viewing the world through a lens of negative emotions can make us treat failure as something to fear or hate instead of a vehicle for growth. Looking back to the discussion of transformation, negativity can be an impetus for change, but only in instances where the outcome no longer requires us to hold on to the uncomfortable situation which originally initiated the process. Lack of perspective. Perspective is generally understood to be a view of the bigger picture and a broader view of event significance within the scope of a larger system. In this way, participant responses warned against an inability to relate to or even acknowledge the value of other viewpoints as a limiting position, essentially blinding them to other possibilities. In the design of the MTS instrument, authors Madrigal, Hamill and Hill (2013) highlight the initial recognition of opportunities presented to us and having the gumption, willingness and dedication to take advantage of them as vital factors of MT. Other perils in lacking perspective include a lack of empathy for others, suggesting they “suck it up and deal” or “get over it” when encountering difficulty. Closely related but opposite in orientation is the lack of objectivity where it is possible to care for others too much, to the eventual detriment of self. In both instances, the kindness factor necessary in cultivating a growth mindset (Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Gross-Loh, 2016; Mangels et al., 2016) and the balance and personal well-being which hallmark the successful application of MT (Lin et al., 2017; Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015) are obviously absent. Inappropriate Applications. Applying CF and MT improperly may lead to instances that are damaging or harmful in nature. The following sections describe examples prevalent upon examination of the qualitative interviews. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 42 Comparison. Evaluating self-worth or having envy based upon the perceived attributes of others is a poor application because it spawns needless competition leading to detrimental personal outcomes. As an example, there is a phenomenon known in social media circles as “fear of missing out” (FOMO) where the pictures and posts of others cause envy or dejectedness about one’s own life and achievements, even though what is being shown may not be an accurate representation of the person who posted them. A comparative poor application called the “summit or die” mentality (Crust et al., 2016, p. 608), causes a person to push too hard physically or mentally when pride and a fixed mindset dictate decisions instead of grounding decisions in a self-compassionate outlook. Outcomes of this negative ideation of maladaptive perfectionism may include occurrences as serious as injury or death when the lack of perspective in potentially hazardous circumstances overcomes the ability to make rational alternative decisions such as waiting to proceed, re-defining success or choosing a different path to make progress possible (Crust et al., 2016; Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Lucas et al., 2015). Avoidance. Learned helplessness and inaction to avoid blame or rationalizing others’ behavior to avoid conflict were cited by participants as manifestations of avoidance. The practice of being a loner to prove a point versus simply being a capable person was also noted as a tactic to self-isolate and avoid engaging with others. Though this behavior comes under the auspices of not needing anyone else’s help, this is also non-engagement with others as a mechanism to avoid failure and is counter to the previous findings noting that support is a crucial element of cultivating MT (Feltz et al., 2011; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Gross-Loh, 2016; Liu et al., 2017). CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 43 Another detrimental application includes being too open to the point of not being able to make a concrete decision, suggesting a lack of accountability or unwillingness to make tough decisions. Because the underlying issue in question is never addressed, it is impossible to remedy the situation and individuals are at peril of repeating non-functional behavioral patterns indefinitely. This viewpoint is counter to factors inherent to CF and MT such as thinking differently, taking calculated risks or making sacrifices not well understood by others (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010; Lucas et al., 2015; Ng, 2018). Lack of Support/Stability. Not “fitting in” with others can be difficult to navigate if you are surrounded by those who do not agree with you or understand you. Interview data suggested that tumultuous living conditions and/or the lack of a personal support network makes growth a very challenging prospect compared to when you feel safe and cared for. Personal examples included being discouraged, harassed or abused by those who were considered close friends and family including co-workers, roommates and significant others. In many cases, the participant reached a point where self-respect caused them to leave relationships, living conditions or workplaces where they did not feel valued or loved. This finding aligns with the Multi-System Model of Resilience (Liu et al., 2017) which layers immediate surroundings, social standing and external support factors on top of personal attributes to explain the dynamic nature of resilience. It also aligns with the observations that MT is negatively correlated with social desirability bias (Madrigal, Hamill, & Hill, 2013), making those with higher MT less likely to feel the need to adhere to the norms of larger groups in order to feel accepted or have their viewpoints validated. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 44 Visual Analytics To demonstrate the meaning of the themes, components and overall process of creating CF and MT and how they relate to our approach to life, several figures have been included to express these concepts via graphical representation. 7 Steps to Transformational Change. Figure 5 demonstrates the process of becoming more cognitively flexible and mentally tough in order to evoke transformative personal change. Transformational change is engendered by autodidaxy and the internal desire to create change. This differs from simply doing what you’re told in the case where you have not chosen to change. Each item noted on the left side of the equation is the result of the additive process below it, with the item on the right being the contributory work portion which allows an individual to move from one level to the next in the growth process. The contributions of introspection, gratitude, time, failure, compassion and flexibility reflect the key aspects of CF noted by Dennis and Vander Wal (2010) and correspond to the approaches of Flett and Hewitt (2014) to combat the negative ideations of a perfectionist mindset. This process also aligns with sentiments of growth mindset researcher Carol Dweck who maintained that a supportive teacher was the key to initially cultivating the ability to successfully choose one’s own learning path (Gross-Loh, 2016). To further elucidate each of the seven steps, the text version of the process is also outlined below. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Figure 5. 7 Steps to Transformational Change 7 Steps to Transformational Change        Step 1 – Support + Guidance = Awareness of Potential o Teachers demonstrate the paths and encourage growth Step 2 – Awareness + Introspection = Self-Awareness o You decide what path is correct for you as a person Step 3 – Self-Awareness + Gratitude = Mindfulness o You become grateful for what you learn along the way Step 4 – Mindfulness + Time = Achievement o You continue to work to gain knowledge and success Step 5 – Achievement + Failure/Adversity = Challenge o You accept challenge along your path as a means to grow Step 6 – Challenge + Self-Care/Compassion = Self-Respect o You come to understand your limitations and face your fears to overcome them Step 7 – Self-Respect + Flexibility = Change o You respect the journey enough to understand that the approach you take to the summit requires a different version of you than when you initially began the ascent. 45 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 46 Gardner’s Magic Quadrant. Figure 6 illustrates the takeaway message of how employing CF and MT in real-life situations can provide advantages over those who do not. This graphic, adapted from Gartner, Inc. who predict market industry trends, depicts the sense of agency (also known as empowerment) that this combination provides, supporting the findings of Ng (2018) who noted the power of recognizing one’s own competency. Resultant outcomes are displayed as positive manifestations instead of negative ramifications when the focus is on creating solutions instead of identifying problems (Mangels et al., 2016). This finding is directly reflective of the recommendations of research which indicates mindfully choosing one’s attitude towards challenges encountered along the path towards mastery is imperative to successful outcomes and is clearly meaningful within real life applications (Jones et al., 2007; Madrigal, Hamill, & Gill, 2013; Ng, 2018; Weinberg et al., 2016). Figure 6. Gartner’s Magic Quadrant. Adapted from Gartner, Inc., 2018, Retrieved October 20, 2018 from https://www.gartner.com/en/research/magic-quadrant. Copyright 2018 by Gartner, Inc. Adapted with permission. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 47 Conclusions This research demonstrates evidence that the psychometric properties of cognitive flexibility and mental toughness are contributory to positive personal outcomes and may be utilized to increase a sense of empowerment across all facets of life. Quantitatively, CF and MT were expected to be positively correlated, with survey data clearly confirming this hypothesis. Because resilience is a component of MT (Liu et al., 2017) and is shown to increase over time (Lundman et al., 2007), the second qualitative hypothesis held that older racers would demonstrate greater MT. Findings did not support this hypothesis, with no significant relationship found between chronological age and MTS scores. However, internal and community-based support are factors identified in the Multi-System Model of Resilience (Liu et al., 2017) as variable in nature, changing according to dynamic life conditions. Logically, a deficiency of self-compassion or a lack of external support may negatively affect resilience at any age and may explain why this expectation was not supported. This survey also explored a single point in time, whereas a repeated-measures examination could yield evidence of the projected increase. Additionally, a significant variance was seen in measures of CF and MT between genders, with males reflecting higher CF and MT scores. The participant pool was derived from a group of Spartan racers, with female participants demonstrating an equal ability to engage in similar challenges as their male counterparts while reporting lower CF and MT scores. It is therefore logical to posit that females may outperform males when examining equally matched samples. Because neurological changes are evidenced to be dependent upon one’s mindset (Ng, 2018; Schroder, Fisher, Lin, Lo, Danovitch & Moser, 2017; Schroder et al., 2014), it is logical to CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 48 propose that changing one’s mind would directly affect one’s physiology. The qualitative findings here highlight the evolutionary and intertwined nature of CF and MT, supporting the theory that lived experiences follow mindset changes. Research participants used this understanding to positively affect outcomes across a wide array of real-life applications, create greater satisfaction with the circumstances of their own lives and demonstrate to others that achieving similar improvements was entirely within the realm of possibility. Grit is not a mystical unknown, nor is it a description of constant mindless motion without purpose sometimes referred to as “the grind”. Rather, grit more viscerally describes the outcome of persistent application of effort when attempting to overcome an impasse previously considered insurmountable to achieve a goal above and beyond the norm. In the physical sense, particulate matter demonstrates an iterative dissolution of a seemingly non-permeable structure and evokes the understanding that the continued act of perseverance, not initial power, is the ultimate arbiter of success. A reflection on ancient philosophical directives to regard the fluidity of water as its true strength is based upon the simple scientific observation of the power found in nature which only becomes evident over the course of time. This insight mirrors the conclusions of Duckworth, Eichstaedt, & Ungar (2015) in noting the importance of continued effort as the most important variable when calculating the equation of human achievement. Therefore, progress may be made along any purposeful path, (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014). However, the methodology used to affect that change must be subtle and long-lived enough to influence an ultimately successful outcome (Duckworth, Eichstaedt, & Ungar, 2015). Findings support the hypothesis that CF promotes adaptability and engenders constant improvement for better results without the negativity associated with perfectionistic fixed mindsets. Additionally, the clear importance of a positive and receptive attitude towards newly CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 49 encountered ideas on outcomes directs practitioners to the crucial importance of fostering a growth mindset when introducing new skills of any kind. Facilitation of receptivity and a forward-looking perspective during learning experiences contributes greatly to overcoming fear of failure and exerts a beneficial influence upon both student effort and eventual outcomes. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 50 Future Research This research, along with previous literature, positively link CF with MT (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010), equanimity (Dennis and Vander Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014) and resilience (Lundman et al., 2007). Kindness (both intrinsic and external) has been recommended as a method to combat unrealistic expectations surrounding perfectionism (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Perlis, 2013) and is also shown in this study to be related to the cultivation of CF which unites with MT to enhance life outcomes. These findings may contribute to the unequivocally beneficial further exploration of the synergistic and creative relationship between CF and MT. Immediately accessible applications include measuring the efficacy of various mind-body interventions such as bio-feedback, meditation, yoga and other mindfulness techniques as vehicles to improve the quality of the underlying components of both complex constructs. Additional qualitative inquiry into participant lived experiences would provide insight as to the significance of each intervention. Because teamwork has been shown to enhance sport performance (Feltz, Kerr, & Irwin, 2011), future research comparing CF and MT scores of Spartan racers using the variable of racing individually versus racing as a part of a team would demonstrate if the Köhler motivation gain effect produces a differentiating influence between the two groups. A significant variance was seen in measures of CF and MT between genders, with males reflecting higher CF and MT scores. Further exploration is suggested as differing gender-based viewpoints regarding the inevitability of change through the course of life may partially explain the divergent evidence shown by the data where females are shown to accomplish similar challenging goals while reporting lower levels of both variables than males. Also relevant is an inquiry into effects on CF and MT shown when comparing the type(s) of Spartan race attempted. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 51 References Bartone, P. (1995, July). A short hardiness scale. A paper presented at a meeting of the American Psychological Society in New York, NY. Brand, S., Kirov, R., Kalak, N., Gerber, M., Pühse, U., Lemola, S., …& Holsboer-Trachsler, E. (2015b). Perfectionism related to self-reported insomnia severity, but not when controlled for stress and emotion regulation. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 11, 263–271. https://doi.org/10.2147/ndt.s74905 Cody, R. (2015). 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This literature review originally sought to understand what grit truly is and the relevance it holds on practical daily applications where it has been shown to be beneficial. However, Angela Duckworth, the preeminent modern researcher of grit, was recently interviewed (Dahl, 2016), and stated that she felt as though the public’s enthusiasm for the novel concept of grit had far out-paced the scientific research being performed from which to draw solid, data-backed conclusions about its value as it relates to success in a wide range of daily situations. Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, and Kelly described grit as “the propensity to pursue long-term goals with perseverance and passion” (2007, p. 1100) and it was later postulated that achievement is a ratio derived from persistence of effort and longevity of interest (Duckworth, Eichstaedt, & Ungar, 2015). The construct of mental toughness (MT), defined by Stonkus and Royal as the “…ability to withstand adversity, pressure and stress.” (2015, p. 35) closely parallels this formula as it alludes to continuation of effort in the face of challenges. Further review of the existing literature repeatedly revealed that qualities associated with the grit construct either closely align or directly intersect with components of MT in sport (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2007; Madrigal et al., 2013; Perlis, 2013; Stonkus & Royal, 2015). It is the aim of this review to highlight those shared characteristics and functions, uncover efficient interventions to best leverage the potential of MT to make a significant positive impact and to provide direction for future MT research. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 59 Theoretical Construct MT is widely studied in sport psychology, yet much of the foundational literature has focused mainly on attempting to define the concept itself. Most people associate MT with a feeling of not giving up in the pursuit of a difficult task where the goal or is reward not attainable through half-hearted or less-than-diligent efforts. In the journey towards defining MT, there is a need to examine how it works and deconstruct it into its foundational components to truly understand what “being mentally tough” means. Sport psychologists consider MT a mindset which may be cultivated, reinforced and refined over time (Weinberg, Freysinger, Mellano, & Brookhouse, 2016). A systematic review of MT research outside of traditional sport performance highlights the expanded scope of MT with applications in the workplace, educational forums, fitness-related pursuits or other high-pressure situations (Eskreis-Winkler, Shulman, Beal, & Duckworth, 2013) and yields evidence that MT “entails positive psychological resources” with confidence in one’s own abilities factoring heavily into the equation (Lin, Mutz, Clough, & Papageorgiou, 2017, p. 1). Like the concept of grit, MT can also be described using alternate words which attempt to capture the essence of how putting it to use may affect outcomes. Hardiness is described by Dr. Paul Bartone (1995) as having an inverse correlation to depression and stress-related illness and a positive correlation to the feeling of control over outcomes. This sense of control, noted as one of the four central tenets of MT (Madrigal, Hamill, & Gill, 2013), means that individuals displaying hardiness accept and allow for challenges as a normal and expected part of a fulfilling life (Bartone, 1995). Related, though distinct, is the concept of resilience, defined as “…the capability to cope successfully and recover from substantial adversity.” (Xie, Peng, Zuo, & Li, CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 60 2016, p. 1). Other common synonyms include tenacity, intestinal fortitude or stick-to-itiveness, but do any one of these terms truly encompass what it means to be mentally tough? In a 2015 study, researchers examined the potential question of work ethic and grit being one and the same, assessing levels of work ethic, grit, conscientiousness, job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and stress in employed college students. The research demonstrated a clear overlap in behaviors and traits in those who had a strong work ethic or a high grit score, with other variables providing protection against stress and demonstrating a strong relation to conscientiousness. However, each quality was seen to possess unique core components and display sufficiently divergent mechanisms such that each of them stands alone, making them neither identical nor statistically redundant (Meriac, Slifka, & LaBat, 2015). Perlis (2013) wrote about grit’s five factors, courage, conscientiousness, follow-through, resilience, and non-perfectionism. When Lundman et al. (2007) tested the reliability of a Swedish Resilience Scale on a large group meant to represent the general population of Sweden, researchers identified five similar sub-factors (equanimity, meaningfulness, perseverance, existential aloneness and self-reliance) confirmed to be supportive of the cultivation of resilience. This is an important finding because such overlap of crucial characteristics for each construct demonstrates resilience to be much more closely related to MT than either work ethic or conscientiousness alone. These findings indicate that work ethic or conscientiousness may be missing the emotional aspect shown to be essential in the broader picture of MT construct. As Willingham (2016) states, “…sometimes, being the sort of person who does what’s expected, putting one foot in front of the other, just won’t cut it….” (p. 31). CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 61 In terms of what combination of qualities must coexist for an individual to be considered “tough” or to possess a higher than average level of MT, researchers have examined traits considered well-aligned with the qualities exhibited when it was a variable amongst reasons for success. There are varied ways to approach life so that individual happiness is an outcome, and researchers took that into consideration when they examined: (1) perseverance of effort, and (2) consistency of interests over time in the context of how it affects happiness (Von Culin, Tsukayama, & Duckworth, 2014). The three types of happiness studied were: (1) pleasure in immediately hedonistically positive activities, (2) meaning in activities that serve a higher, altruistic purpose, and, (3) engagement in attention-absorbing activities. In this study, tougher individuals showed interest in the outcomes of their own long-term efforts and wanted to derive involvement and engagement in their pursuits, whereas those who sought happiness through immediate gratification were much less interested in long-term effort and were less tough overall. Schroder, Moran, Donnellan, and Moser (2014) found that there is a strong neural link between employing intrinsic motivation and the growth mindset associated with greater MT. This leads to the question of how much work will mentally tough individuals invest in their longterm pursuits and is that a defining factor when examining the core components of what MT is made up of? Persistence and perseverance were studied, along with continuation of interest in the topic at hand (Credé, Tynan, & Harms, 2016), leading researchers to understand that how long individuals could continue working made only slight differences in success measures when measuring for reaching a goal versus not reaching a goal. However, this meta-analysis demonstrated that small significant differences in additional effort had the potential to equal much larger effects on outcomes. This finding indicates that MT relates to success by allowing CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 62 us to recognize those individuals who clearly stand out over and above those who had simply achieved a set standard for what was considered success. The willingness to apply that little extra bit of effort translated into the difference between only hitting the mark and completely crushing a goal. Duckworth, Eichstaedt, and Ungar (2015) had previously demonstrated this very point by translating theoretical psychological concepts into tangible, physical metrics to produce an innovative experimentation framework meant to elucidate the actual mechanics of those qualities which drive people to succeed and how that success is evidenced in terms of the principles of Newtonian physics. The outcome of this formula-based approach is the equation below. achievement = (½ x talent x effort2) The authors postulated that, because the ultimate outcome of the equation includes the square of the effort (in terms of time spent towards an objective) required to produce that outcome, any incremental additional effort will produce a significant effect on the level of achievement that is not similarly reflected in the ratio of talent to final achievement outcomes. In short, a person possessing raw talent or even developed skills which remain unapplied will never reach the same level of success over an extended time period than a less-talented or lessskilled person who works steadfastly and unflaggingly towards their goals. Because the passage of time has been shown to be a precursor of cultivating greater resilience (Lundman, Strandberg, Eisemann, Gustafson, & Brulin, 2007), it is logical to conclude that, although raw talent and skill are positive attributes to possess and helpful in short-term situations, neither are required components when considering the makeup of MT. Duckworth and Yeager (2015) sought to understand, from an investigation of current measurement methods and instruments, what personality attributes were most valid to indicate CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 63 potential for success. The researchers wanted to determine if there were certain fixed personality traits that are not defined by or tied to intelligence levels which are measurable and definitively comprise the concept of grit. They also sought to examine and understand how best to measure those traits to understand who used them most effectively to leverage situations to successful outcomes. Characteristics such as resilience, hardiness, and self-control were examined (Duckworth & Yeager, 2015), with all traits shown to address a piece of the puzzle, but not completely produce success by standing alone. The authors concluded that there are multiple measurable personality traits involved and to measure only one does not illuminate the entire picture. However, when taken together, these traits contribute to the whole of a person’s propensity to demonstrate overall toughness. Supporting this finding, the authors of a systematic analysis of MT suggest support for a multi-dimensional model of MT to reveal those component elements which allow for specific identification of deficient areas and customized interventions when bolstering the development of MT. A limitation of this systematic review, however, was the focus on quantitative research only, possibly omitting further exploration of those construct qualities (Liu et al., 2017). If the application of MT can be described as a dynamic equation as suggested by Duckworth et al. (2015), testing for only one measure of MT cannot demonstrate the full range of a person’s ability to apply it and can only indicate their strengths in the individual characteristic being tested at the time of the assessment. This conclusion is important beyond the question of what MT is made up of and lends itself to a greater understanding of how it works since personality traits are being measured as opposed to cognitive tests that measure fixed traits. A logical offshoot of this theory may be that personality traits like resilience are malleable over CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 64 the course of life and may be cultivated or downplayed over time, meaning MT itself is not a fixed characteristic and can be and acquired through experience and influenced by surroundings. Applications of MT Moving beyond the initial, general questions of how we define and measure MT, we move to the next logical step; identifying the applications of MT. Discussing the instances and real-life situations in which MT is most widely cited and studied, we can gain insight on how it is being viewed and utilized in educational settings, workplaces, fitness-related situations and high-pressure vocations, such as the military, sports and medical fields. Sports There is not one absolute definition of mental toughness, so in 2007, Jones, Hanton, and Connaughton interviewed super-elite Olympic of world champion athletes, along with coaches and sport psychologists to validate the necessary components of MT as defined at that high level of athletic performance. After participants took part in a focus group, individual interviews and follow up phone calls to provide further clarification, the data was analyzed thematically, and 30 characteristics were identified within the four main areas of attitude/mindset, training, competition and post-competition (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2007). Some of these subthemes are similar in nature to the actions embodied by those who display MT and include the ability to cope and still stay focused under pressure, the belief that one will continue to perform at a high level under adverse conditions, the perception that your actions and emotions are under CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 65 your own control and the ability to handle either success or failure. More recently, Madrigal, Hamill, and Gill (2013) acknowledged the following elements of MT: “control, confidence, commitment [and] motivation” (p. 63) are ones which repeatedly appear in studies testing for this characteristic or discussions of the topic. These also align closely with traits shown to comprise the construct of grit discussed previously (Credé et al., 2016; Duckworth et al., 2015; Duckworth et al., 2007; Duckworth & Quinn, 2009; Duckworth & Yeager, 2015; Gucciardia, et al., 2016; Madrigal et al., 2013; Meriac, et al., 2015; Perlis, 2013; Stonkus & Royal, 2015; Von Culin et al., 2014). To examine those components in a real-life situation, an assessment of football players was conducted, seeking a link between mental toughness and the relative influence of the previously-identified perseverance component (Credé et al., 2016) to ascertain if there was a correlation between them (Gucciardia, Peeling, Duckera, & Dawson, 2016). To ensure their findings were valid and could be applied to the intended audience, the researchers performed their own assessments using physical tasks meant to measure the level of participants’ perseverance. However, instead of simply reporting their results, the researchers incorporated their data along with the outcomes of other studies to create a higher-validity meta-analysis. Results were consistent across the analyzed studies and indicated that higher levels of perseverance demonstrated during demanding physical tasks had a positive correlation to selfreported levels of mental toughness by sport participants (Gucciardia et al., 2016). This finding indicates a reciprocal link between the degree of mental toughness a person possesses and one’s ability to decide not to give up when faced with having to withstand difficult physical conditions over a sustained length of time. These results further support a previous study of collegiate basketball players whose self-reported level of mental toughness on the Mental Toughness Scale CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 66 (MTS), developed in 2013 by Madrigal, Hamill, and Gill, correlated positively with their coaches’ assessments of individual athlete ability, thus establishing a solid link between mental toughness and tangible measures of success in sport (Gucciardia et al., 2016; Madrigal et al., 2013). As this correlation needed more thorough exploration and documentation, validity for the Inventory of Mental Toughness in Sport (IMTF-S), developed by Stonkus in 2011, was strengthened by utilizing the same sample, but processing the data with a more stringent calculation. The four indicators tested were motivation to leverage one’s assets to their best outcomes, identification of one’s own potential, negation of negative thoughts, and determination to succeed (Stonkus, 2011). In the updated study, all were shown to be valid, reliable measures of MT, reinforcing the relationship between MT and measurable success in sports (Stonkus & Royal, 2015). As discussed earlier, fixed personality traits do not accurately predict success (Lundman et al., 2007) with this conclusion supported by research of sport performance in both casual and elite athletes. The Big Five personality traits (neuroticism, extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness to new experience) which appear on the BFI-10 Scale developed by Rammstedt and John in 2007 do not correlate to sporting performance, further suggesting that fixed personality traits are unlikely to influence sport performance or affect one’s level of MT which is not a fixed attribute but more of a work in progress (Elumaro, 2016; Reed, 2015). Special populations. To explore a greater breadth of the significance of MT in sports, we need to examine other populations to understand if the implications on performance extend beyond the typical study populations of elite or collegiate athletes. Martin, Byrd, Lewis Watts, CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 67 and Dent (2015) conducted a study involving wheelchair basketball players, surveying participant attitudes towards engagement in sports activities in the context of coping with hardship and excelling in the face of adversity. It was noted that the positive relationships demonstrated between measurements of hardiness, satisfaction with life and resilience and the participants’ continued involvement in basketball might be attributed to a less-common perspective bestowed upon them as adaptive athletes, which allows them to see opportunities where others only see limitations. This quality, which can be equated to the concept of hardiness, denotes the idea of not quitting or stopping because something in life has not gone according to plan. Physiological effects of grit. To elucidate why MT positively correlates with all aspects of sport performance across multiple populations, a study was conducted which examined the physiological effects of challenges to understand how the human body reacts to situations which recruit a participant’s toughness to achieve an outcome (Silvia, Eddington, Beaty, Nusbaum, & Kwapil, 2013). Measured in this study were autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity and parasympathetic activity (respiratory sinus arrhythmia; RSA). Participants who scored high in the Perseverance of Effort subscale of the Grit-S demonstrated increases in both the biometric markers studied. However, those individuals who showed higher scores on the Consistency of Interest subscale demonstrated lower ANS activity and no change in RSA. These findings could be explained by understanding that perseverance of effort causes a more efficient and immediate cardiac output, allowing for greater effort expenditure on a shorter-term and the continuation of effort in the moment. On the other hand, consistency places more emphasis on completing things correctly and regularly, leading to a relaxing effect to allow for a longer duration of effort CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 68 with less physical stress on the individual when the need for action is not as immediate and expected to be sustained for a longer time. Weinberg, Freysinger, Mellano, and Brookhouse (2016) interviewed 15 sport psychologists to identify and categorize the concepts that they felt were paramount to successfully fostering MT. Suggestions which emerged during the interviews were for players to employ mindful behavior and learn coping mechanisms by practicing in similar conditions as those which could cause stressed reactions when encountered in competition. The results reaffirmed existing methods to help athletes develop MT, and these results could be generalized onto a larger population engaging in sports pursuits or other stressful, toughness-evoking applications. Workplace Stress in the workplace is prevalent in today’s “always-on” society and any method to decrease or mitigate that stress should be employed. A systematic review of resilience training methodologies in the workplace (Robertson, Cooper, Sarkar, & Curran, 2015) investigated four broad categories of dependent variables: (1) mental health and subjective well-being outcomes, (2) psychosocial outcomes, (3) physical/biological outcomes, and (4) performance outcomes, and found that techniques such as mindfulness, compassion, and cognitive behavioral interventions all demonstrated positive outcomes with no noted drawbacks. Meriac et al. (2015) found that that tougher people may even have extra protection against workplace-related stress. While work ethic was a strong indicator of how well one performed and predicted turnover more accurately, hard workers who do not possess the requisite amount of toughness are more CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 69 vulnerable to dissatisfaction. Although findings suggest that both work ethic and toughness negatively correlate to stress, toughness provides additional protection from the deleterious effects of stress in the workplace, so tougher workers will potentially be more resilient and persevere through difficult times. Likewise, a 2013 study by Eskreis-Winkler, Shulman, Beal, and Duckworth demonstrated similar results, with grittier sales people being less likely to leave their jobs, even though sales is a demanding and stressful profession. Certainly, workplace initiatives such as increased employee retention rates and greater job satisfaction make it worthwhile to pursue these avenues for the desired outcome of a stronger, more stable workforce. Military Although sports and workplace situations can sometimes be stressful, the military requires a different viewpoint on stress, as there may be much more at stake in terms of number of individuals or gravity of the situation. The ability to maintain a clear head and make sound decisions in high-pressure situations is an absolute must for members of our military branches, and mechanisms to facilitate that mindset should be better understood to leverage situations to their best outcomes. Since perseverance is typically measured in different ways and at different times than optimism, military researchers sought a way to measure both simultaneously and decided to utilize the hormone cortisol as an indicator of a soldier’s state of mind (Binsch, Van Wietmarschen, & Buick, 2017). In tests using simulated courses, a significant correlation was found between cortisol levels and how optimistic the participants self-reported on the revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R) Scale, with high optimism being linked to greater cortisol levels. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 70 On physical courses, the soldiers who did not give up and leave the course had higher levels of cortisol and reported optimism than their counterparts who elected to withdraw from the course. This result points to a clear link between the biometric marker of cortisol levels found in the participants during activities requiring coping and having an optimistic outlook and persevering through difficult situations. These findings build upon the findings of Eskreis-Winkler et al. (2013) who studied Army Special Forces candidates. Individuals’ grit scores (GRIT-S) were examined in the context of their willingness to continue in a program that was physically rigorous and mentally demanding. Grittier participants were more likely to continue and complete the program, which, once again, positively correlated with the presence of perseverance, and evidence of MT. As with sports and workplace applications, it seems a beneficial undertaking to cultivate MT in a military venue as well. Adler et al. (2015) tested the effects of mental skills training on basic military skills trainees to see if they would increase both their physical skills and ability to cope with difficult situations which are often encountered in a military setting. Techniques utilized included self-talk, positive imagery, relaxation techniques, goal setting, and affirmation; a control group was used to increase the implications of the findings. Upon analysis, researchers had predicted improvement in both physical skill and the increased ability to successfully navigate mentally challenging tasks, and both were found to be statistically significant in the mental skill training group. Results point to the conclusion that teaching coping mechanisms to those in high-stress occupations can improve their ability to handle physical difficulty or highstress interactions better than someone who is untrained (Adler et al., 2015). The participants’ abilities to improve coping strategies are also linked to the theory that levels of resilience are CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 71 dynamic and can be developed over time (Lundman et al., 2007; Martin et al., 2015; Robertson et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2017). Education Education, at any level, can be rife with unrealistic expectations, inter-cohort competition and will include subjects not chosen by the learner. These factors inevitably lead to increased pressure on the students in question and could undoubtedly benefit from supportive factors provided by MT to ensure a greater propensity for success. Willingham (2016) reflects on the topic of teaching grit in the context of elementary school education. He questions the possibility of adding a grit component to education curriculum and potential benefits to be gained by doing so but admits that the lack of clear and concise definitions of the subject matter or the desired outcomes makes it somewhat difficult to distill into teachable subject matter. The author further suggests that grit is not the sole attribute that educators should develop in students; instead, they should foster multiple positive and desirable traits throughout a child’s educational career. Further, he concludes that teaching the ability to achieve success in the face of adversity is more about the role of educators to focus a student’s intent and facilitate goal setting to propel students in the direction they aspire to go. When examining applied MT in the educational forum, research shows that higher MT is positively correlated to the ability to engage in directed forgetting, or the ability to filter out nonrelevant information when working on a task. This capability to remove distractions in the form of extraneous information allows an individual to focus closely on the task at hand and therefore derive greater success in their work (Lin, Mutz, Clough, & Papageorgiou, 2017). CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 72 Gerber et al. (2012) polled high-school and college students to assess their levels of stress, mental toughness and their propensity towards depressive symptoms. Across the samples, higher levels of mental toughness indicated lower incidence of depressive symptoms or reported stress levels. This outcome is supported by research conducted by Eskreis-Winkler et al. (2013) who showed toughness was positively correlated as a predictor of graduation in high-school students enrolled in Chicago Public Schools, and Li and Yang (2016) who demonstrated across multiple continents that college-age students consistently encounter similar stressors and employ similar techniques to cope and achieve success, without regard to global location. Salmela and Uusiautti (2015) examined the habits and viewpoints of Finnish straight-A students and thorough analysis of the students’ shared characteristics, viewpoints and attitudes towards the exams uncovered some common themes. The ability of the students to maximize their natural abilities yet understand and respect their own limitations in the pursuit of excellence speaks to the integral relationship between personal well-being and success in the face of a challenging goal. This picture of success was not limited to the academic forum, but points to the essential need to recognize and find meaning in all aspects of life, including sport pursuits, interpersonal relationships and future endeavors, such as career and family. This attitude of balance is embodied by the practice of thriving in life, defined as having excellent interpersonal interactions and a positive attitude in the face of difficulty (Lin et al., 2017). Using the same tactics as they applied to their studies, the students reasoned that they could facilitate growth and multi-faceted success in many pursuits in life (Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015). Since higher MT is related to the feeling of having control over outcomes despite challenges, the high MT individual identifies and remediates an issue via problem-focused coping, successfully tackling it head on rather than becoming emotional or avoiding it (Lin et al., 2017). CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 73 These results indicate some important findings. Being mentally tough is clearly shown to assist this age group with coping with difficult or unexpected stressors and lessen the impact of negative side effects than may be more intensely experienced by less mentally tough peers. The positive effects of MT extend beyond the academic forum and successful applications are demonstrated, providing a broader perspective on life (Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015). Finally, although local variability may somewhat influence application and greater study is warranted in populations beyond the US, Asia and Western Europe, similar results have been shown to be common to students in multiple geographic locations and would be generally applicable to a larger global population (Li & Yang, 2016; Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015). Studies examining outcomes in higher education settings outside the typical high-schoolto-undergraduate experience provide further insight into the effects of MT on educational endeavors. Cross (2014) gathered the grit levels of non-traditional doctoral students and compared those scores to the students’ reported current GPA values to determine if higher grit scores (GRIT-S) were a predictor of higher scholastic achievement. A positive link and significant indicator of academic success was shown for females only, with no such direct link existing for the males in the study. The conclusion postulated that non-traditional doctoral candidates are already a tougher-than-typical group and may not display significant GPA variability within their own peer group, however, they may vary greatly from their traditional undergraduate counterparts. Zimmerman and Brogan (2015) conducted a similar study attempting to link grit scores (GRIT-S) to final GPA scores of law school students and found that measure of grit did not positively correlate to higher GPA scores, with the students’ GPA scores showing very little variability. Interestingly, ancillary results indicated that, much like the non-traditional doctoral CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 74 students in the study done by Cross in 2014, female law graduates also displayed measurably larger grit scores than their male counterparts. This interesting, if unexpected, finding leads us from the discussion of individual measures of grit and situational application into the larger question of what makes certain groups grittier than others. By examining and understanding those supportive attributes, might we leverage that knowledge towards cultivating those qualities for ourselves and employing them within the communities we live in and care about? Precursors to Cultivating MT In reviewing the theoretical construct of MT and its applications, there is a clear focusing of definitions, components and patterns. However, further examination expands upon the role and meaningfulness of its origins. Age & Gender As discussed earlier, gender clearly plays a role in dictating demonstrable evidence and effects on the application of grit, as measured grit scores (GRIT-S) linearly predict academic success in females (Cross, 2014; Zimmerman & Brogan, 2015). But, are there similar correlates shown in other venues and do other factors play a part in those effects? Eskreis-Winkler et al. (2013) studied various applications including how toughness predicted the likelihood of a married person to remain married over time. Results indicated that men with higher scores were more likely to stay married, whereas women with higher scores were not as likely to stay married CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 75 as their male counterparts. Because MT is shown to be an indicator of perseverance over the course of time and has a component of resilience which offers protective factors against negative effects of stressful situations, it is unlikely that women end a marriage because they are incapable of handling the occasional adversity which accompanies such an institution. Other considerations could include the possibility that tougher women have gained confidence through age and experience and may be seeking roles beyond the traditional ones of mother and wife, knowing that they could handle the challenges that an expanded worldview may bring (Fieril et al., 2014; Madrigal et al., 2013). In Fieril et al. (2014), researchers explored this topic and found evidence for internal strength and a sense of control to be strong supporting factors of grit cultivation in pregnant women. In this qualitative study of Swedish women who were pregnant for the first time, participants universally cited the ability to engage in behaviors and take actions which increased their own sense of control in life as one such factor; this sentiment was positively correlated with higher grit scores (GRIT-S) (Fieril et al., 2014). It was acknowledged that while adversity was a part of life, the ability to tailor one’s choices to best handle those difficult times was always an option, even during pregnancy, which may be a confusing time with possible unpleasant physical, mental, and emotional ramifications. MT is positively correlated to a sense of controlling one’s own destiny in life, and, in this case, led to a greater sense of well-being, illuminating the link between self-reliance and the behavior demonstrated by females in the context of academic achievement and their larger life choices (Cross, 2014; Fieril et al., 2014; Zimmerman & Brogan, 2015). These traits grow through navigating challenges, expanding with the knowledge that a woman is capable of tackling adversity, and are shown to increase with age and continued practice. These factors CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 76 may explain the linear increase of grit with age, and the correlation to women’s grit scores to their accomplishments across multiple applications (Cross, 2014; Lundman et al., 2007; Zimmerman & Brogan, 2015). Speaking to the complex nature of the topic at hand, we examine more closely the individual qualities that are components of, and closely related to MT in the context of how gender and age may affect them. Lundman et al. (2007) examined a mixed gender group with participant ages ranging from 19 to 103 years to determine if resilience scores would be affected by those demographic markers. While gender had no correlation to levels of resilience, age was indicated as a predictor of resilience, demonstrating a linear increase in resilience for each additional year of age, with no limit. This finding indicates that age and accompanying experience is an accurate predictor of general levels of resilience, with experience playing a more important role in developing resilience than gender. This result highlights the important point that, although women are often found to be tougher than their male counterparts, they are not shown to similarly possess wholesale higher levels of resilience. Since resilience is an important component of MT, there must be additional elements involved in its cultivation which would explain the seeming disparity we have uncovered. Hardship & Failure Building upon evidence from Fieril et al. (2014), who examined the viewpoints held by individuals in a temporarily adverse situation, it bears mentioning that the very act of facing and developing methods and strategies to cope were reported to be at the core of successfully navigating that situation with a greater sense of well-being and control. It follows that we should explore that interaction between adversity and a greater ability to cope over the course of time. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 77 DiMenichi and Richmond (2015) studied this relationship when they conducted two randomized control trials intended to understand the value of failure in predicting future success. By randomly assigning participants into one of three groups in which subjects either wrote an essay about a past success, a past failure (experimental groups), or about the most recent movie they’d seen (control), researchers could set the participants’ frame of mind. After the essay portion of the research, grit scores were gathered (GRIT-S) and compared among the three groups with researchers expecting to find that the group who focused on a past success would correlate to the highest grit scores. However, the opposite was found, leading to the conclusion that failure is essential to the process, since winning does not require you to try harder or work longer to attain goals. Armed with this knowledge, researchers conducted a second experiment almost identical to the first, but which included an additional testing component after the essay and GRIT-S to gauge participants’ ability to persevere through a boring activity. Results confirmed the findings of the previous study, showing those who reflected on past failures were both tougher and demonstrated greater accuracy compared to both the control groups and the success condition group. The failure group demonstrated slower response rates but fewer errors indicating that participants learned from past failures to slow down and focus on completing the task with accuracy instead of rushing through and making avoidable errors. This response reinforces the role of perseverance as a crucial component of long-haul efforts (Credé et al., 2016; Lundman et al., 2007). Reflecting upon the literature discussed thus far, both resilience and persistence are shown to be integral elements in the construct of MT. As well, instead of a fixed characteristic, MT has been shown to be a dynamic attribute where it is possible to cultivate greater levels through focused and consistent effort. These findings certainly support both previous research CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 78 findings and the commonly accepted understanding of MT. However, if this were the extent of the components which explain MT, every person who dutifully applied themselves to a topic would both be a subject matter expert as defined by Malcolm Gladwell’s 10,000-hour rule (Willingham, 2016), and possess high levels of MT. However, as this is clearly not true in all cases, there must be other facets of MT to explore. Meaning Although research indicates that work ethic is not completely redundant to MT (EskreisWinkler et al., 2013) cognitive scientist and author, Willingham (2016) attempts to clarify the difference, adding some structure to the somewhat ephemeral definition and construct, suggesting that the notable difference between the two is the ability of grit to assign “direction and purpose” (p. 28) to work ethic. In this section, we explore the concept of that “purpose”. In a 2013 study, Kleiman, Adams, Kashdan, and Riskind examined the interaction between gratitude and grit in college students of both genders and across an age range of 17-50. By gathering information via online studies one month apart, researchers observed that higher grit scores (GRIT-S), which indicate perseverance and long-term striving, offers some protection from suicidal thoughts or actions. Gratitude, which links meaningful actions to increased meaningfulness in one’s own life, protects against hopelessness, a precursor to suicidal thoughts or actions. Recognizing the symbiotic relationship between grit and gratitude, researchers concluded the combination of the two translates into pursuing a goal purposefully, which has a more powerful impact than either not working consistently towards something meaningful or pursuing a goal without meaning. This component of purpose speaks to the element of “passion” put forth by Duckworth et al. in 2007 and aligns well with the concept of “thriving” (Lin et al., CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 79 2017) and the approach of the Finnish students who felt empowered to chart their own path in life (Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015) and separates those who are making choices based upon what is expected of them versus those who pursue those things that light the fire in their soul. Salmela and Uusiautti (2015) sought to identify and examine themes in the personalities and attitudes of high-achieving Finnish secondary school graduates. Secondary school examinations in Finland are the culmination of three to four years of self-guided education beginning at approximately age 16 and are considered very difficult in the context of global viewpoints on education. Out of approximately 30,000 students testing annually, only 5% (between 40-104 persons per year) of the students who attempt any given matriculation exam will achieve the highest ranking. This study focused on only those students who achieved the highest ranking on at least six such examinations, which is high achievement indeed. Narrative analyzing methods of qualitative data produced ten common characteristic strengths that were further categorized into three key areas shared amongst all the students interviewed: (1) the thirst of knowledge and passion for learning, (2) fortitude and authenticity, and (3) love. These results demonstrate that for students to enjoy great success, they must find meaning in their academic pursuits which warrant greater efforts in terms of time or effort for the subject in question, and further strengthen the argument for meaningfulness as a component of the grit construct. Liu, Reed, and Girard (2017) conducted a systematic analysis of literature and subsequently proposed that resilience is a dynamic trait. They introduced a predictive model which explained the ebb and flow of the characteristic. The noted flaw of previous research was that resilience was considered solely attributable to the individual and did not consider influences across multiple facets of life and their ability to either foster or detract from its development. The suggested model, called the Multi-System Model of Resilience (MSMR), speaks to the CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 80 varied influences on resilience as: (1) internal or core resilience factors or a person’s individual baseline, including personal lifestyle choices and health metrics, right down to their DNA, (2) internal resilience, which is interpersonal in nature, such as family, education or skills and experience in the workplace, and, (3) external resilience, which is even larger in scale and includes factors such as your geographic location, groups to which you belong, and your socioeconomic status. As resilience is not a steady-state characteristic (Lundman et al., 2007; Martin et al., 2015; Robertson et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2017), and because the influence that any one factor may exert is constantly changing, our ability to be resilient would logically be affected as the gravity of each factor expands or diminishes according to the individuals’ concerns at the time. Unfortunate events are impossible to predict, other than to say it is statistically inevitable that they will eventually occur. Reflecting upon this more comprehensive model of which variables factor into our ability to cultivate and maintain resilience provides us with both greater insight and a sense of empowerment to improve resilience at an individual level. Teamwork Examining the expanded framework for resilience estimation (MSMR) proposed by Liu et al. (2017) provides insight into the role of MT on a larger scale. Activities which include interactions beyond the individual highlight the mechanics of MT precursors in the context of teamwork. If the presence of others and the process of interacting with them has appreciable effects on individual displays of MT, the hypothesis that resilience is dynamic and affected by CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 81 factors outside the self will be shown to be valid and a point to consider in future research as well as program development. A very important concept in the domain of teamwork research is the Köhler motivation gain effect, which is the effect on physical output noted when comparing effort expended when working alone versus the amount of work performed when participating in a group. This effect was discovered by Otto Köhler, a psychologist and rowing coach who realized his athletes worked harder when they worked together (Feltz, Kerr, & Irwin, 2011). Researchers Feltz, Kerr, and Irwin (2011) examined this concept by engaging participants in a health game setting using virtual partners to see if someone with a lower expected output would improve their level of effort to keep up with a superior partner. College-aged students of both genders performed a series of isometric plank exercises within an exercise game, first holding planks as individuals and then, in the intervention conditions, engaging with a same-sex virtual partner who was programmed to always be superior to the participant. Across three different experimental conditions, coaction – the team works in close proximity but is not codependent, additive – the team averages the efforts of both participants, and conjunctive – the team is reliant on the weaker member, participants derived a greater level of effort than in the individual control condition. Because all intervention conditions demonstrated equal evidence of greater motivation compared to the control condition of doing a plank individually, results suggest that when introducing a moderate challenge and another participant, the Köhler effect comes into play and participants display greater perseverance of effort, even though the team member they work with may be virtual in nature. Building upon the previous study, Irwin, Scorniaenchi, Kerr, Eisenmann, and Feltz (2012) conducted an experiment to ascertain whether the Köhler effect would have similar CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 82 effects on participants performing aerobic exercise with superior virtual partners. Participant motivation levels were measurable in terms of length of effort during aerobic exercise, where they exercised on a stationary bike at 65% of heart rate reserve on six separate days. This study tested only females using two intervention conditions: a coactive condition or a conjunctive condition. The control group was assigned to an individual condition. It was noted that the conjunctive condition participants exercised significantly longer (M = 21.89 min, SD = + 10.08 min) than those in either the coactive (M = 19.77 min, SD = + 9.00 min) or individual (M = 10.6 min, SD = + 5.84 min) conditions. Therefore, exercising with a virtually-present partner can improve performance in terms of persistence of effort in aerobic activity as well as strength. To demonstrate this mechanism in action with live, in-person teamwork, Osborn, Irwin, Skogsburg, and Feltz (2012) investigated the Köhler effect in terms of how motivational levels are affected by the teamwork aspect of sports participation. Although Köhler motivation gains have been documented in additive and coactive tasks, previous findings suggest that conjunctive group tasks, performed with moderately superior partners, will result in the largest motivation gain for the weakest performing group member, with less improvement shown for the superiorly skilled individuals. In the first study, 68 college-aged swimming athletes (44 women, 24 men) had their performance data on preliminary and final swim times recorded. The second study observed 156 high school-aged track and field athletes (87 boys and 69 girls), competing in track meets in the State of Washington, made up of 52 teams of three. In both cases, the athletes participated in group training sessions with at least one superior athlete and one athlete with lower capabilities. In all cases, the least-capable athlete in the group gained the most performance improvement over the course of the training, which is directly attributable to the Köhler motivation gain effect. This finding indicates that the Köhler effect is demonstrated over CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 83 a breadth of various activities and is not limited by the nature of activity, the age of the participants, or by the type of the superior training partner or team mate. One ancillary finding of these studies is that women display greater initiative during conjunctive tasks than men. This result may be explained by the greater emphasis that women place on the importance of teamwork and relationship investment when working in groups than men, who are more affected by social comparisons, such as learning of a superior competitor in the workplace or in a sporting situation (Feltz et al., 2011; Irwin et al., 2012; Osborn et al., 2012). Combined, the results also indicate that working with someone else who is relying on you in some capacity increases the ability of an individual to persevere through a difficult situation and increase their total work output, thus validating the earlier suggestion that resilience as a trait is also changeable and influenced by factors outside one’s own internal mechanisms (Liu et al., 2017). As this has been shown to be true, we may now theorize that teamwork provides opportunities to improve MT construct metrics, and by association, assist in the development of MT itself. Caveats of MT Lack of Support Though the benefits of MT are multiple and varied, it is wise to examine all facets of the construct to fully understand its mechanisms. In a 2014 article, author Zakrzewski addressed what she referred to as the “dark side of grit” and The Dark Triad is a term which refers to CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 84 Machiavellianism, narcissism and psychopathology, all which may also be linked to high MT. Although MT is typically seen as a pro-social characteristic (Lin et al., 2017) and the underlying components may be linked to self-discipline and self-control in students and athletes (Brand et al., 2015b; Meriac et al., 2015; Perlis, 2013; Willingham, 2016), if there is no additional consideration given to the emotions and wishes of an individual when choosing areas of academic focus, adding it to curriculum or grading on it may have harmful effects on the development of a child. Willingham (2016) mentions that forcing a child into the maladaptive application towards a topic which holds no interest or meaning for them can elicit fear and anger or provoke undesirable reactionary behaviors. However, without receiving the compassionate guidance required to recognize, understand and re-focus those emotions towards a positive end, negative coping mechanisms may be developed, inhibiting a child’s ability to correctly process and handle unpleasant emotions and situations as they enter adulthood (Zakrzewski, 2014). This research clearly points to the critical need to identify and support the emotions underlying displays of academically rebellious behavior in children in order to facilitate proper attitudes and approaches to those topics which truly pique their interest. However, there currently exists a systemic lack of methodological training among educators to facilitate the process of children identifying and selecting their favorite activities and topics. In a recent interview, growth mindset researcher Carol Dweck stated, “…as educators, it is our responsibility to create a context in which a growth mindset can flourish.” (Gross-Loh, 2016, para. 15). This point was supported by author Betsy Ng (2018) who articulated the neurological evidence which demonstrates that nurturing autodidactic pursuits empowers children to make appropriate self-directed educational decisions and provides a springboard for increased intrinsic motivation. By supporting that essential fundament, educators avoid forcing subject matter onto CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 85 students who are capable of great volumes of work but may suffer from lack of interest throughout the learning process due to a dearth of emotional support or guidance on the part of the educator. This point is supported by the Multi-System Model of Resilience (Liu et al., 2017) which articulates the various factors which effect an individual’s level resilience, highlighting its variable nature, and can affect a child’s ability to enthusiastically pursue greater knowledge. Perfectionism Related to the potential for developing dysfunctional coping mechanisms is the propensity for perfectionist behavior in children. Perfectionism is a learned trait typically taken on in childhood due to dysfunctional approaches and extreme pressure from influential authority figures such as parents, teachers or coaches and may lead to anxiety, unrealistic or unattainable expectations and a limited understanding of one’s own ability to revise goals or influence outcomes in a positive manner (Brand, Kirov, Kalak, Gerber, Pühse, Lemola et al., 2015b). Although striving for excellence is a lofty ideal, when the notion that anything less than perfect is unacceptable, expectations of self cannot possibly be achieved through realistic effort, that ideal becomes a self-imposed limitation and a barrier to self-acceptance and happiness. Flett and Hewitt (2014) conducted a systematic analysis of qualitative studies to understand perfectionism and best address its negative ideations among children and adolescents. Their study explored five types of “maladaptive” perfectionists: (1) the driven “Academic Achiever,” who must achieve 110%, (2) the “Risk Evader,” with the all-or-nothing approach who lacks the confidence to try new things, (3) the “Aggravated Accuracy Assessor,” who must achieve exactness and is fixated on “re-do’s”, (4) the “Procrastinating Perfectionist,” paralyzed CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 86 by fears and self-doubts that impair the ability to start or finish work, and (5) the “Controlling Image Manager,” who wants to be perfect and be regarded as perfect (p. 900). Lin et al. (2017) cited the work of Crust and Swann (2013) and Madrigal et al. (2013) to reinforce the finding that high MT does not signal over-ambition or over-reaching. Rather, high MT supports realistic yet flexible goal-setting and repeated achievement of progressively challenging objectives. While those with high MT set large goals and have high ambitions, perfectionists tend to set goals which are unrealistic or not attainable without significant or unjustified risks. Flett and Hewitt (2014) concluded that fixed mindsets in young children are barriers to taking the risks required to gain skills and improve knowledge (Gross-Loh, 2016). Research by Schroder et al. (2014) found evidence that fixed mindsets inhibit improvement at a task because the expectation exists that no action will make a difference to an unchangeable situation and no further work is done to alter the outcome. Further exploration into the neural reactions of children to errors in an educational setting found that what transpired immediately following an error determined future success in subsequent activities (Schroder, Fisher, Lin, Lo, Danovitch, & Moser, 2017). Children with fixed mindsets about their abilities diverted their attention away from the failure, engaged in selfdeprecating statements about their lack of control and registered different patterns of brain activity than children who expected that they could learn and do better the next time and paid even closer attention to the explanation of the correct answer (Schroder et al., 2017). Ng (2018) points to evidence that intrinsic motivation (versus external rewards) produce brain activity which correlates to “a sense of agency” (p. 6), or the feeling that a person may control their own outcomes by adapting their behavior. This evidence shows a clear link between the perspective CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 87 one holds about themselves and the varying patterns of brain activity produced by those thoughts and predicts the participants’ pursuant behaviors. Brand et al. (2015b) stated that traits associated with perfectionism “… were significantly associated with lower scores for Perception and acknowledgement of own emotion, and the Regulation and control of own emotions” (p. 266). This finding indicates that perfectionists may not fully recognize or understand their own feelings, nor may they know how to alter their perception of a situation to revise their response to it. This implication is reinforced by Lin et al. (2017) who refer to the work of Crust (2009) and Cowden et al. (2014) in examining the emotional responses of those with high MT. Although MT provides protections against stressors, emotions are felt just as strongly by high MT individuals as in those with lower MT. The only difference is the understanding that they have sufficient psychological resources to cope with the source of such strong emotion. Because perfectionists often engage in selfdeprecation, misperceptions may exist in the perfectionist’s understanding of the terms selfcontrol or emotional regulation with a mistaken belief that they prescribe “stuffing” or denying their feelings. By employing a technique called cognitive re-appraisal, a perfectionist may make the acknowledgement that self-compassion is warranted, engage in an objective examination of the source of negativity, and revise their initially elicited emotional response to one which is more conducive to progress (Brand et al., 2015b). Flett and Hewitt (2014) concluded that there are multiple types of perfectionist viewpoints and emphasized that the potential negative ramifications of perfectionism including anxiety, depression, self-harm and suicide must all be addressed proactively using both appropriate goal-setting and self-compassion techniques to integrate the dichotomous nature of the perfectionist. Encouraging progress over perfection and highlighting mistakes as a crucial CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 88 and desired part of the learning process facilitates the development of resilience required for goal-oriented yet emotionally vulnerable individuals to exude more confidence in the pursuit of their goals. These sentiments are echoed by Perlis (2013) who lists courage, described as facing one’s fear of failure, and striving for excellence (versus perfection) as two major indicators of resilient behavior. These behaviors allow for failure and imperfect results but still align with progress, achievement and the desired successful outcomes. To encourage this mindful transition, Dennis and Vander Wal (2010) developed the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI) as a measure of the ability to adapt one’s thought patterns away from fixation on a single definition of success towards a less rigid viewpoint which accommodates varied avenues towards stated goals and intentions. Because cognitive flexibility (CF) is the ability to adapt one’s perspective and revise expectations by challenging fixed thought patterns (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010) and a dynamic approach to progress has been shown to align with successfully employing MT (Weinberg et al., 2016), the role and function of CF in the context of its relationship to MT warrants closer examination. Growth mindset. This ability to shift perspective, referred to as a growth mindset, is shown to positively affect outcomes when people believe they can improve their own abilities and their results in a learning environment (Mangels, Butterfield, Lamb, Good, & Dweck, 2006). Mangels et al. (2006) showed a measurable difference in neural activity between students who perceived intellectual qualities to be unchangeable versus those who expected to improve, with much greater frontotemporal brain activation shown in those who simply believed they were capable of improvement. In a review of the research comparing neural activity with motivation and growth mindset, Ng (2018) found that the adaptive behaviors demonstrated by dynamic individuals are linked to dopamine, the brain chemical associated with a feeling of reward. The CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 89 derived conclusion indicates that those who perceive personal growth as a possible outcome are more willing to both make and examine their mistakes. Because they approach learning as a process and not a fixed point of failure or success, they bounce back from failure better and achieve more in comparison to those who shun failure and do not benefit from that introspection. Studying applications of growth mindset beyond the context of education and intelligence reveals similar findings. In individuals with anxiety, holding a fixed mindset about perceived levels of anxiety evidences more negative coping behaviors such as self-harm, drug abuse and depressive symptoms and feeling less capable of change than those who adopted a growth mindset instead (Schroder, Yalch, Dawood, Callahan, Donnellan, & Moser, 2017). These findings support the previous conclusions that employing a growth mindset offers protections against negative ramifications of stressful life events and may encourage development of MT. In the context of well-being, those with higher MT display “harmonious passion” for a subject, which is well-adjusted desire to achieve goals over time and through continued effort and contrasts with “obsession”, which is a maladaptive need to achieve unrealistic outcomes and is driven by the fear of failure (Gucciardi et al., 2015b, as cited in Lin et al., 2017). Maladaptive perfectionism is related to many negative outcomes, such as anxiety, depressive symptoms, insomnia and non-achievement (Brand et al, 2015b; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Lin et al., 2017), but it is the underlying construct and function of the negative and counterproductive behavior patterns which set us up for harm and, ironically, failure. Comparatively, higher levels of MT are linked to higher resilience, lower overall levels of stress and the mitigation of anxiety and depressive symptoms when dealing with stressful situations (Lin et al., 2017). Because sleep quality is better in those with high MT and those who report insomnia frequently also report the anxiety CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 90 and depressive symptoms common to perfectionists (Brand et al., 2015b), there is a clear link between higher MT and constructive stress coping behaviors. Because Flett and Hewitt (2014) demonstrated that the pursuit of perfection is associated with both stress and suicidal ideations and that growth mindsets and MT have been shown to provide protection against those harmful ramifications of perfectionism (Brand et al, 2015b; Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Lin et al., 2017; Schroder et al., 2016), we must conclude that pursuing perfection is negatively correlated to MT and should be avoided when attempting to leverage it to its highest efficacy. We may also further conclude that fixed mindsets, which are the cause of maladaptive perfectionism, are also contra-indicated in the pursuit of cultivating MT, but that maintaining a growth mindset will assist in developing MT. Costs of Perseverance Another consideration regarding outcomes of employing MT is that perseverance may require trade-offs, ranging from monetary to social to time-related. Lucas, Gratch, Cheng, and Marsella (2015) studied those trade-offs in monetary terms by investigating how some individuals might incur some costs by not giving up when others would. Researchers postulated that tougher individuals would continue to seek a solution on a difficult task when others might have already given up and gone on to the next task. Three related studies conducted by Lucas et al. (2015) examined the costs of perseverance. In all cases, participants took the Short Grit Scale (GRIT-S) then were given tasks designed to test their propensity to either give up or persevere. The first group was given 37 anagrams to solve within a 20-minute time frame. Among those 37 puzzles, 21 anagrams were considered difficult for college-age individuals, while 16 were unsolvable red herrings. In the CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 91 second study, participants were placed in scenarios of playing a game that was based on mouse clicks and given rigged feedback about their status in the game to simulate a situation in which they were losing to see how grit affected their level and persistence of effort. In the third study, participants engaged in a MouseWars game that included math problems and offered participants multiple options to quit the game. In all three studies, researchers noted tougher participants were found to be less willing to give up when they encountered scenarios engineered to ensure there was an element of failure, even though they were likely to incur a cost (time-based, monetary, etc.) for their persistence. Further, tougher participants were more willing to risk failing to complete a task overall because they choose to persist on individual difficult items such as anagrams without solutions. Another finding was that when tougher individuals were told that they were losing or failing, instead of withdrawing, they tried harder (persistence) and for a longer duration (perseverance) than their less-tough counterparts. Researchers attributed these findings to tough participants possessing a more positive outlook and higher expectations of success during difficult tasks, which makes working hard in the face of adversity a better prospect than when one views potential outcomes as out of reach or the journey more negative or fraught with difficulty than it needs to be (Lucas et al., 2015). These findings correlate to Adler’s 2015 research about persistence and optimism. Lucas et al. (2015) concluded from their examination of perseverance and its effects, which sometimes include monetary or time trade-offs, that perhaps tough individuals should learn “the value in knowing when to quit” (p. 22), but it may be more valuable, instead, to understand the divergent opinions surrounding the concept of quitting itself. When value is assigned to a situation, these authors assume the locus of that value must center on metrics such as monetary gain, social equity (as examined in terms of the Köhler effect) or other such self- CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 92 serving measures as opposed to those goals which seek to improve the greater good. If the value to the individual is found to be in the process of participation itself, as noted in the happiness research by Von Culin, Tsukayama, and Duckworth (2014), tangible rewards will necessarily be secondary to the experience, a point completely dependent on the level of toughness and intrinsic motivators of the participants (Ng, 2018), potentially skewing the results of any inquiry not accounting for this variable. In a study of 14 high-altitude mountaineers, Crust, Swann, and Allen-Collinson (2014) interviewed individuals with noteworthy amounts of extreme mountaineering experience and gathered their feedback about how mental toughness (MT) translated in the context of harsh conditions, extreme situations, and difficult decisions. Participants were from around the globe, represented both genders, had an average age of 44.4 years, and each had a minimum of six years climbing experience in the Himalayas. Freeform interviews allowed researchers to gather unscripted answers to their inquiries about what the climbers had experienced in respect to MT and its effect on outcomes during high-altitude climbing. Answers were transcribed verbatim and then analyzed, with three common themes identified: (1) interactions with risk, (2) decision making (DM) processes, and (3) dangers of mental toughness (MT). The climbers specifically noted that risk in these environments was inevitable, and a higher level of MT allowed them to both anticipate and quickly move to mitigate risks, instead of being caught unaware. When making decisions, higher MT equated to better decision making because those decisions were based on the analysis of facts available and divorced from emotional reactions. It was noted that greater climbing experience led to less impulsive decisions. In exploring the potential dangers of MT, the interviews revealed the unpleasant nature of allowing MT to drive illogical, obsessive, or emotionally-based decisions. Dangers mentioned CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 93 were pushing through physical limitations from which one cannot recover, ignoring one’s own sense and intuition, and losing grip on reality outside of the goal, called the “summit or die” mindset (Crust et al., 2016, p. 608). These observations highlight that the forced application of MT for the sake of accomplishing a goal, without consideration for alternative interpretations of success, can have disastrous outcomes. Comparing the work of Flett and Hewitt (2014) who examined the fixed mindsets of perfectionists to the negative corporeal ramifications evidenced via first-hand interviews in Crust et al. (2016) when mountaineers allowed themselves to be “too tough” (p. 598), one could surmise that maintaining a more flexible outlook on what constitutes success would assist to avoid these limited mindsets and, instead, support and promote MT. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 94 Conclusion The examined literature identifies several major component parts of MT including perseverance, resilience, meaningfulness, and growth mindset, delving into the inter-related and sometimes inter-dependent nature of those elements. Real-world applications of instances where MT is advantageous and useful including education, sport performance and in the workplace were explored. Further, this literature review validates attributes such as age and gender or situations like teamwork and conditions involving failure which facilitate the cultivation of MT. In terms of the more specific question of the implications on demonstrated outcomes when employing MT, we have described how it “works” to recognize potential pitfalls. For example, perfectionist tendencies, pushing too hard without regard to risk versus gain or the improper unilateral application of MT in an academic setting. With this knowledge, the next endeavor would be to most effectively harness the power of MT for best outcomes. In his 2016 article about the value of toughness in academic achievement, author Dr. Daniel Willingham stated that those who perceive the tasks they are performing as a step towards a larger, externally-beneficial goal (i.e. the greater good) were more likely to maintain their efforts as opposed to those who linked their motivations to goals which could be described as self-directed but less meaningful overall. In the context of the literature which has been reviewed, it seems that the deciding factor which determines whether an individual who encounters adversity in the pursuit of a lofty goal should discontinue their efforts or double down to overcome temporary obstacles may simply be the meaningfulness of that goal to that individual. Since the judicious application of MT has demonstrated benefits in long-term success across varied situations and the elements of hardship and failure have been shown to be CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 95 integral components in the process of developing MT, in the absence of a perilous obstacle to progress, discontinuation of effort would generally not be an indicated technique supportive of cultivating greater levels of MT, and, therefore, success in life. With that said, we must inquire how, in less mentally tough individuals, the prevalent happenstance of quitting when faced with adverse conditions has become an acceptable response to handling difficult situations? Pursuant to that question, further inquiry arises; how can we reverse that trend in those who currently do not already possess high levels of MT and foster a growth mindset to cultivate it in an organic, natural, balanced way, promoting autonomy and achievement and increasing the ability to succeed? CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Appendix B Problem Statement 96 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 97 Problem Statement In the context of sport performance, mindfulness is routinely encouraged as a method for athletes to understand that progress is not always linear, and that setbacks can be performanceenhancing learning experiences if they can revise their expectations and persevere through adversity (Weinberg, Freysinger, Mellano, & Brookhouse, 2016). Mental toughness (MT), defined as the “…ability to withstand adversity, pressure and stress.” (Stonkus & Royal, 2015, p. 35) is linked to this process of iterative revisions when making goals and defining success. Cognitive flexibility (CF) is a perspective which allows an individual to circumvent maladaptive perfectionist tendencies such as fixed mindset where only one definition of success may be accepted to dynamically work around perceived barriers to success (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010; Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Perlis, 2013). It would seem, then, that MT and CF are related in the cultivation of that ability to persevere through failure for eventual accomplishment. Although the literature links a growth mindset to both increased resilience against hardship and greater personal achievement, there is currently little research to reference in terms of facilitating and maintaining such a viewpoint outside of highly specialized forums. Sport psychologists delve deeply into the topic of building MT and collegiate and professional athletes have resources to draw upon and frameworks to reference on topics such as rehabilitation, progressions and return to play after an injury. In contrast, the emphasis in popular everyday sport and fitness pursuits has historically been placed largely upon the physical nature of activity versus the psychological benefits imparted. Therefore, reliable information regarding the effects of mindset upon human physiology has only recently begun to permeate the forum of casual sports and recreational athletes. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 98 This research explores the link between mental toughness (MT) and cognitive flexibility (CF), and seeks to elucidate their intertwined nature during the process of facilitating progress after failure in those who demonstrate a high level of MT. Empowering individuals to take control of their own outlook and overall satisfaction with life will contribute towards healthier communities by demonstrating that the power to change for the better lies within the individual. A potential limitation of this study is that we are drawing a purposive sample from a population that may be more mentally tough than an average member of the general population, because these participants have already chosen to test themselves by participating in an obstacle course race known for a formidable level of challenge. On the other hand, Spartan races are inclusive of multiple fitness levels, ages, locations and cultures, so the limitations to application noted above may be somewhat mitigated by the wide range of participants who are attracted to this race series. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Appendix C Additional Methods 99 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Appendix C1 Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI) 100 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI) 101 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 102 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Appendix C2 Mental Toughness Scale (MTS) 103 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Inventory of Mental Toughness in Sport (MTS) 104 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Appendix C3 SurveyMonkey Survey 105 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 106 Hello, fellow Spartan racer! My name is Melody Gardner and I’m a doctoral candidate at California University of PA pursuing the degree of Doctor of Health Science (DHSc) in Health Science and Exercise Leadership. Thank you for participating in my research exploring the relationship between cognitive flexibility and mental toughness in obstacle course racers! The aim of this research is to gain a better understanding of how mental toughness functions so we can apply that knowledge to help people overcome obstacles in everyday life. This study has been approved by the Internal Review Board of California University of PA from XXX to XXX and this survey should take less than 30 minutes to complete. By completing this study, you acknowledge that you are an adult over the age of 18 who has previously participated in a Spartan Race. You do not need to have finished a Spartan Race to take part. Further, by completing the survey, you consent to your answers being used in the analysis of this study. If you do not meet those criteria or do not wish to participate, please exit the study now. You may also withdraw from the study at any time for any reason without penalty. Any unfinished surveys will be discarded, and those partial answers will not be included. To participate, you will be asked to answer demographic questions (age, state of residence and gender) and to complete survey questions regarding cognitive flexibility and mental toughness. You may also choose to provide contact information if you would like to participate in a future confidential interview about your personal experiences with cognitive flexibility and mental toughness. No personally identifiable information will be collected through the quantitative research (surveys) and any names or other identifying information collected during the qualitative research (interviews) will not be linked to published results. Survey data will only be reported in aggregate form and all personal interview participant identities shall be kept confidential, with no identifying information published. If you have any questions about this survey you may either contact me (Melody Gardner/primary investigator), at gar90603@calu.edu or my faculty advisor, Dr. Ellen West, at west_e@calu.edu. By continuing, you are indicating that you are 18 years of age or older and have previously participated in a Spartan race. You further agree that you have read the above text in its entirety and voluntarily consent to participate in the survey. Please click Continue to begin the survey. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Demographic Questions 1. What was your age on your last birthday? (Please use whole numbers.) 2. What state do you live in? (Choose from drop-down menu) 3. What is the gender you identify most closely with? Male Female Other Prefer not to answer 4. How many Spartan races have you previously participated in? (Note: you need not have finished a race to count it in your total.) 1 race 2-5 races More than 5 races 107 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 108 Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI) Using the scale provided in the questions below, please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each statement. 1. I am good at “sizing up” situations. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 2. I have a hard time making decisions when faced with difficult situations. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 3. I consider multiple options before making a decision. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 4. When I encounter difficult situations, I feel like I am losing control. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 109 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 5. I like to look at difficult situations from many different angles. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 6. I seek additional information not immediately available before attributing causes to behavior. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 110 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 7. When encountering difficult situations, I become so stressed that I cannot think of a way to resolve the situation. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 8. I try to think about things from another person’s point of view. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 111 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 9. I find it troublesome that there are so many different ways to deal with difficult situations. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 10. I am good at putting myself in others’ shoes. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 112 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 11. When I encounter difficult situations, I just don’t know what to do. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 12. It is important to look at difficult situations from many angles. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 113 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 13. When in difficult situations, I consider multiple options before deciding how to behave. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 14. I often look at a situation from different viewpoints. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 114 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 15. I am capable of overcoming the difficulties in life that I face. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 16. I consider all the available facts and information when attributing causes to behavior. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 115 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 17. I feel I have no power to change things in difficult situations. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 18. When I encounter difficult situations, I stop and try to think of several ways to resolve it. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 116 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 19. I can think of more than one way to resolve a difficult situation I’m confronted with. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 20. I consider multiple options before responding to difficult situations. 7 - Strongly agree 6 - Agree 5 - Somewhat agree 4 - Neutral 3 – Somewhat disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 117 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Mental Toughness Scale (MTS) Listed below are a series of statements regarding your views on being an athlete. Please think about how you usually feel and rate each of the statements. 1. I have an inner arrogance that makes me believe I can achieve anything I set my mind to. 5 - Strongly agree 4 - Agree 3 - Neutral 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 2. I know when to celebrate success but also know when to stop and focus on the next challenge. 5 - Strongly agree 4 - Agree 3 - Neutral 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 118 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 119 3. I have a killer instinct to capitalize on the moment when I know I can win. 5 - Strongly agree 4 - Agree 3 - Neutral 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 4. I know what needs to be done in order to achieve a level of performance required to win. 5 - Strongly agree 4 - Agree 3 - Neutral 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 5. I have the patience and discipline to control my efforts to achieve each goal along the ladder of success. 5 - Strongly agree 4 - Agree 3 - Neutral 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 6. Even though I am tired, I continue to train to achieve my goal. 5 - Strongly agree 4 - Agree 3 - Neutral 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 7. I use all aspects of a very difficult training environment to my advantage. 5 - Strongly agree 4 - Agree 3 - Neutral 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 8. I am able to increase my effort if it is required to win. 5 - Strongly agree 4 - Agree 3 - Neutral 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 120 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 121 9. When an obstacle is in my way I find a way to overcome it. 5 - Strongly agree 4 - Agree 3 - Neutral 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 10. I accept, embrace, and even welcome the elements of training that are considered painful. 5 - Strongly agree 4 - Agree 3 - Neutral 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree 11. I have total commitment to my performance goal until every possible opportunity of success has passed. 5 - Strongly agree 4 - Agree 3 - Neutral 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 122 Qualitative Consent to be Contacted for a Personal Interview If you would be interested in volunteering to participate in a brief personal interview to be held in the second phase of this research, please provide your contact info below. This information will not be linked to your survey results, which may only be published in aggregate form, nor will it ever be published or sold, as this academic research is completely confidential and will never be made public. Name: _________________________________________________________________ Phone Number: __________________________________________________________ E-mail or Facebook profile: _________________________________________________ Thank you for your participation in this research about the link between cognitive flexibility and mental toughness. Your input is very much appreciated! All comments, questions, or requests for results may be directed to the primary investigator, Melody Gardner, at gar9603@calu.edu or the study’s faculty advisor, Dr. Ellen West at west_e@calu.edu. Study results will be available upon request after January 1, 2019. Thank you again for participating in this study and best wishes on your adventures in obstacle course racing and a fit lifestyle! CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Appendix C4 Interview Logistics 123 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 124 Interview Logistics Semi-structured interviews will have the same starting point but rely upon iterative exploration to reach the most detailed and poignantly evocative themes of the narrative. Sample Interview Questions 1. How would you define the concepts of mental toughness and cognitive flexibility? 2. Please provide examples of how you employ the concepts of mental toughness and/or cognitive flexibility in everyday life? 3. Do you feel that your personal thoughts and practices about mental toughness and cognitive flexibility set you apart from others, and, if so, in what way(s)? 4a. Do you feel that being mentally tough and/or having cognitive flexibility offers you any advantages in life? 4b. Can you recount specific times or situations in which this mindset has been detrimental instead? 5. Can you identify a specific experience in your life which caused you to develop greater mental toughness? If yes, what do you think contributed to that process? Interview Techniques  Virtual chat (Facebook Messenger providing textual documentation)  E-mail (paper trail documentation) CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Appendix C5 IRB Approval Form 125 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH IRB Approval Form 126 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Appendix C6 Informed Consent Form 127 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 128 Informed Consent Form Correlating Cognitive Flexibility and Mental Toughness While Identifying Patterns in the Mechanics of Change Within Mentally Tough Individuals Please read this informed consent form thoroughly to be certain you completely understand the implications of agreeing to participate in this research study. Introduction You are invited to participate in a research study of obstacle course racers to understand the correlation between levels of cognitive flexibility (CF) and mental toughness (MT) with viewpoints on real-life applications. You are eligible to take part if you are an adult (age 18 or older) who has previously participated in a Spartan Race. Please note that you need not have finished a Spartan Race to be eligible to take part in any portion of the study. This study is being conducted by Melody Gardner, a doctoral student at California University of Pennsylvania, to complete the dissertation in partial fulfillment of the DHSc degree program. Purpose This research study is being undertaken to determine the correlation between cognitive flexibility (CF) and mental toughness (MT). Through subsequent qualitative analysis of personal interviews, the study will interpret and draw credible conclusions about the relationship between maintaining a growth mindset and fostering the process of becoming mentally tough. Procedures Quantitative Study  Because you are an adult, participation in electronic survey formats is considered implied consent. However, you have rights as a participant and you may discontinue participation in this study at any time without penalty. Foreseeable risks are minimal and may include feelings of frustration with current fitness levels leading to the potential to over train in the pursuit of fitness goals. Benefits may include a feeling of accomplishment in your obstacle course race participation or pride in contributing to a growing body of research about the psychological aspects of mental toughness.  If you elect to participate in this research, you must agree to two pre-screening questions confirming that you are age 18 or older and have participated in a Spartan Race in order to continue.  After responding in the affirmative to both pre-screening questions, eligible participants will continue to electronically complete the Likert type questionnaires Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI) (Appendix C1) and the Inventory of Mental Toughness in Sport (MTS) (Appendix C2), combined into one online survey (Appendix C3) which should take no more than 20-30 minutes.  Upon completing the CFI and MTS, you will be asked if you consent to be contacted for future participation in the qualitative portion of the research study. This consent would CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 129 be provided by indicating contact information for the purpose of scheduling a qualitative interview. This interview would last no longer than one (1) hour. Qualitative Study  Based upon the results of the quantitative data gathering process, those participants who have consented to volunteer for further participation will be contacted to ensure they are still interested and able to participate in the qualitative interviews.  Appointments will be scheduled with the location of the interview to be determined by physical logistics. All interview methods will allow for recording the interactions between researcher and participant.  Prior to beginning an interview, you will be provided a copy of this informed consent form that you must sign. This form is a reminder that you have rights as a participant and you may discontinue participation in this study at any time without penalty. Foreseeable risks are minor and may include feelings of frustration with current fitness levels leading to the potential to over train in the pursuit of fitness goals or cognitive discomfort when recalling and discussing previous difficult personal circumstances. Benefits may include a feeling of accomplishment in your obstacle course race participation or pride in contributing to a growing body of research about the psychological aspects of mental toughness.  Semi-structured interviews lasting no more than one hour each will be conducted, employing open-ended questions which pertain to CF and MT, but also extend into inquiry examining how study participants’ experiences with failure may ultimately contribute to their long-term success. Risks and Benefits No physical interventions are included in this research. Therefore, any risks that accompany participation in this study are minimal, limited to possible temporary feelings of frustration and discontentment in participants when reviewing personal health and mindsets or increased motivation to do more in the context of physical fitness, which, although largely unforeseen, may lead to overtraining and/or injury. The benefit of this study is the deeper understanding of the mechanisms that affect the development of cognitive flexibility and mental toughness. Better insight into this relationship could provide greater support in their cultivation and more efficiency in application of these properties, leading to a better ability to withstand hardship and ultimately achieve success, particularly in physical tasks or during competition. Costs There are no tangible costs associated to participation in this research study. For quantitative participants, there is a 30-minute maximum time investment. For those who also participate in the qualitative portion of the study, there will be an additional hour maximum, for a total of approximately 90 minutes total required for participation in this research study. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 130 Remuneration There will be no remuneration provided for taking part in this research. Confidentiality Those participants who choose to take part in the quantitative portion of the study will access the inventories electronically with information reported in aggregate form, and will see the message, “No names or identifying information were requested in the course of this survey, and therefore, all study results will be kept completely anonymous.” as part of the welcome cover letter they read prior to participating in the quantitative research. On the page requesting contact information to volunteer to participate in the qualitative research, all participants will see the message, “No names or identifying information will be linked with your responses to this survey and all study results will be kept completely confidential.” In all cases, these quantitative results will be kept in a password-protected digital format housed on a secure server accessible only to the primary researcher and will not be printed out or distributed at any time for any purpose. The recordings, transcripts, notes or observations pursuant to the qualitative interviews will be stored in a locked file cabinet housed in a secure location, accessible only to the primary researcher and will never be publicly distributed. Voluntary Participation Participation in any aspect of this research study is completely voluntary and withdrawal at any time is permissible without penalty. No negative ramifications will occur due to discontinuation of participation. Upon the request of the participant to withdraw and not participate further, all data gathered during the qualitative interviews will be discarded in a confidential manner with electronic records deleted and any physical notes shredded. Quantitative data cannot be matched to any particular participant unless the participant chooses to self-identify, but incomplete surveys may be either disregarded in part or in their entirety. In the event that a participant refuses to answer the qualitative questions or begins to answer in an inappropriate manner or in ways which do not further the aims of this research study, they may be dismissed from the study without indicating that they no longer wish to participate, and their data will be discarded and destroyed to protect participant privacy and will not be considered within the scope of the study. Contact Information The researcher conducting this study is Melody Gardner. Please feel free to ask questions at any time, either during or after participation or after the study has concluded by contacting: Melody Gardner, MS, CPT, CAPM Primary Researcher Department of Exercise Science and Sport Studies Gar9603@calu.edu 610-390-1907 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 131 Ellen J. West, EdD, LAT, ATC Research Advisor Department of Exercise Science and Sport Studies west_e@calu.edu 724-938-4356 This study has been approved by the California University Institutional Review Board. Any questions you may have regarding this study or that you feel have not been sufficiently addressed or you would prefer not to pose to the research team may be directed to the California University Institutional Review Board at instreviewboard@calu.edu. Statement of Consent (Qualitative) I have read and understood the informed consent form, asking for clarification wherever necessary, and I consent to participate in this study. Name of Participant (Please Print) Signature of Participant Date Name of Authorized Researcher Obtaining Informed Consent Date This study has been approved by the California University of Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board. This approval is effective Month/Day/Year and expires Month/Date/Year. Please keep the copy of this informed consent form which has been provided to you. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 132 Title: Correlating Cognitive Flexibility and Mental Toughness While Elucidating the Connection Between Failure, Flexibility and Change Within Mentally Tough Individuals Consent Checklist for Interviews: a Qualitative Sub-study Thank you for reading the information sheet about the interview sub-study. If you are happy to participate then please complete and sign the form below. Please initial the boxes below to confirm that you agree with each statement: Please Initial box: I confirm that I have read and understood the information sheet and have had the opportunity to ask questions. I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time without giving any reason and without there being any negative consequences. In addition, should I not wish to answer any particular question or questions, I am free to decline. I understand that my responses will be kept strictly confidential. I understand that my name will not be linked with the research materials, and will not be identified or identifiable in the report or reports that result from the research. I agree for this interview to be recorded. I understand that the audio or text recording of this interview will be used only for analysis and that extracts from the interview, from which I would not be personally identified, may be used in any conference presentation, report or journal article developed as a result of the research. I understand that no other use will be made of the recording without my written permission, and that no one outside the research team will be allowed access to the original recording. I agree that my anonymised data will be kept for future research purposes such as publications related to this study after the completion of the study. I agree to take part in this interview. ___________________________________________________________________________ Participant Electronic Signature Date ___________________________________________________________________________ Principal Investigator Electronic Signature Date To be counter-signed and dated electronically for telephone or text-based interviews or in the presence of the participant for face to face interviews Security and Retention: Once this has been signed by all parties, the participant shall receive a copy of the signed and dated participant consent form, and the information sheet. A copy of the signed and dated consent form will be kept in a secure location. CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Appendix C7 Certification of IRB (Citi Forms) 133 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH Certification of IRB (Citi Forms) 134 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 135 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 136 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 137 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 138 References Adler, A., Bliese, P., Csoka, V., Hammermeister, J., Harada, C., Holliday, B., ...& Williams J. (2015). Mental skills training with basic combat training soldiers: A group-randomized trial. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(6), 1752–1764. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000021 Bartone, P. (1995, July). A short hardiness scale. A paper presented at a meeting of the American Psychological Society in New York, NY. Binsch, O., Van Wietmarschen, H., & Buick, F. (2017). Relationships between cortisol, optimism, and perseverance measured in two military settings. 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Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.pace.edu/plr/vol36/iss1/4 146 CORRELATING COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND MENTAL TOUGH 147 Supporting Materials – Preliminary Study Invitation Letter Hello fellow Doctoral candidate, Thank you for being a part of the preliminary study for my doctoral dissertation. The objective of this study is to explore the relationship between cognitive flexibility and mental toughness. In order to ensure that the participants in this study understand the survey as it is currently designed, I would ask for you to participate and provide critical feedback to improve the experience. Due to your current affiliation with the Doctoral program and ability to provide crucial insight into the process from a participant perspective, I would appreciate your participation in this preliminary version of the study. The feedback you provide about this survey is valued and important for the success of this study, with revisions to be made in reference to the information obtained from this preliminary study. Below, you will find the link to SurveyMonkey where the survey, including the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI) and Mental Toughness Scale (MTS) will be located. Clicking on the link will automatically open the survey and from there you may begin. Upon completing the survey, please inform me of the following items: 1. The time it took to complete the survey 2. Questions (outside of instrumentation) suggested to add or remove 3. Grammatical corrections required 4. Clarity of the questions asked 5. General feedback regarding improvements or recommendations In order to move forward with this research, your completion of this survey and feedback within the next week would be greatly appreciated. Please contact me if you have any questions at gar9603@calu.edu. Thank you for taking the time to participate as a member of this panel of experts. Your contribution is greatly appreciated! (link to survey) Have a great day, Melody Gardner