Running head: PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING The Perceptions of Certified Personal Trainers on the Value of Attributional Retraining: A Case Study A DISSERTATION Submitted to the Faculty of the School of Graduate Studies and Research of California University of Pennsylvania in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Health Science (DHS) in Health Science and Exercise Leadership Richard F. Richey Research Adviser, Dr. Brian Oddi California, Pennsylvania 2018 i PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING The link ed image cannot be display ed. The file may hav e been mov ed, renamed, or deleted. Verify that the link points to the correct file and location. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thank you to my wife, Jennifer, for seeing the value of the education this program could provide and supporting me from the start, knowing the sacrifice we would all have to sustain. Well, we thought we knew. At times, it seemed much more time consuming than we were prepared for. To Jazlyn, Xavier, and Levi – it’s OVER! I know that schoolwork took me away from soccer games, music rehearsals, and so many more experiences. Dad is back kids (if you remember me…). I love all of you. Thank you, mom and dad, for your support. Your full support for the first semester was incredibly helpful and much appreciated. The ongoing support was just as valuable and needed along the way. To my brothers Matt and Mark – you didn’t help in the slightest, but I still love you both and want to shout you out anyway. Thank you to my dissertation chair, Dr. Oddi, for your availability, gentle support, and continual guidance. I wanted to answer too many things and say too much and, honestly, complicate the process. You were an absolute harbinger of sanity. Do not be surprised if I still call on you after this is over, though I may have exhausted any and all the time you are willing to offer me. Thank you to committee members Dr. Ellen West and Dr. Jeffrey Hatton. You were enjoyable to have as teachers within the program, and I appreciate your time, support, and feedback. Dr. Hatton, thank you for your feedback prior to my enrollment. Thank you, Dr. Hess, for pushing me during the prospectus and proposal processes. You gave more than any teacher I’ve ever had and pushed me more in the process. Everything you provided was valuable, and I am thankful for your contribution to my education. Thank you to all my professors at the Cal U. Thank you to all my business partners, professional associates, and clients for your support and encouragement. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Table of Contents List of figures ……………………………………………………………………………….i List of tables…………………………………………………………………………………ii Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………….. iii Introduction………………………………………………………………… ……………... 1 Methods……………………………………………………………………………………. 5 Research design……………………………………………………………………. 5 Subjects……………………………………………………………………………. 10 Instrumentation……………………………………………………………………. 11 Procedures…………………………………………………………………………. 15 Data analysis………………………………………………………………………. 17 Results…………………………………………………………………………….….......... 21 Trustworthiness……………………………………………………………………. 22 Demographics……………………………………………………………………… 26 Research Question 1……………………………………………………………….. 31 Research Question 2………………………………………………………………. 33 Research Question 3……………………………………………………………...... 37 Additional Findings………………………………………………………………... 41 Discussion………………………………………………………………………………….. 46 Relevance to Existing Research……………………………………………………. 46 Prioritization versus Time………………………………………………………….. 47 Workshop Scenarios………………………………………………………………. 49 Programming………………………………………………………………………. 52 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Addition of the Supportive Phase………………………………………………….. 53 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………. 56 Future Direction for Research……………………………………………………… 56 How qualitative differs from and influences quantitative research………... 57 Benefits for CPTs to learn about AR………………………………………. 59 How AR influences motivation and adherence……………………………. 60 Call to Action………………………………………………………………………. 61 References…………………………………………………………………………………. 63 Appendix A: Literature Review……………………………………………………………. 70 Appendix B: Problem Statement……………………………………………………………109 Appendix C: Additional Methods………………………………………………………….. 111 Appendix C1 – Event …………………………………………………................... 112 Appendix C2 – Informed Consent…………………………………………………. 114 Appendix C3 – Email Request for Interview……………………………………..... 120 Appendix C4 – Pre-Workshop Interview Questions...…………………………….. 122 Appendix C5 – Workshop Presentation…………………………………………… 124 Appendix C6 – Workshop Handout……………………………………………….. 142 Appendix C7 – Email Request - Trainer Documentation …………………………. 148 Appendix C8 – Email Request – Scheduling of Observation Session……………...150 Appendix C9 – Certified Personal Trainer’s Client Consent for Observation…….. 152 Appendix C10 – Post-Observation Interview Questions………………………...... 153 References………………………………………………………………………………….. 156 Supporting Material…………………………………………………………………………166 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Author Curriculum Vitae………………………………………………………….. 167 CITI Program Certificates………………………………………………………… 178 i PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1. Word cloud of barriers to fitness-related success (BFRS). A word cloud is being used to represent all the barriers listed by training clients with the largest represented in larger and more centralized text………………………………………………………………………….. 43 ii PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING List of tables Page Table 1 Years as a CPT…………………………………………………………… 27 Table 2 Higher Education…………………………………………………………. 27 Table 3 CPT Certifications……………………………………………………….. 28 Table 4 Gender……………………………………………………………………. 29 Table 5 Race / Ethnicity…………………………………………………………... 29 Table 6 Location of Employment…………………………………………………. 30 Table 7 Employment Type………………………………………………………… 30 Table 8 Themes for Research Question 1…………………………………………. 31 Table 9 Themes for Research Question 2…………………………………………. 33 Table 10 Themes for Research Question 3…………………………………………. 38 Table 11 Additional Findings………………………………………………………. 41 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING iii Abstract Certified personal trainers (CPTs) work with many individuals that have difficulty with the motivation to adhere to unsupervised exercise. Attributional retraining (AR) is a method designed to redirect the client’s perceived causal attributions for failure toward controllable factors. The purpose of this qualitative case study is to see if certified personal trainers find value in and are willing to perform AR after being exposed to education of how to use the method to help their clients with exercise motivation and adherence. Three research questions were explored: (1) How do certified personal trainer perceptions of attributional retraining impact client motivation? (2) How does attributional retraining impact the level of motivation for personal training clients? (3) How does attributional retraining contribute to improved client experience and adherence? Twelve (n=12) certified personal trainers (CPTs) working in New York City volunteered and completed the study. Participants attended a four-hour workshop on AR and contributed their insights via pre-workshop interviews, documentation, session observations, and post-observation interviews over the course of three months. Their responses were manually noted and then manually coded for themes. Research question one themes: (1) CPTs admit they could do better at implementation, and (2) CPTs would have made changes if they were to do it again. Research question two themes: (1) clients focus more on an internal locus of control, (2) perceived client experience was highly beneficial, and (3) participants recommend other CPTs learn and apply AR with their clients. Research question three themes: (1) strategies implemented, (2) increased effort, and (3) successful retraining. In summary, certified personal trainers (CPTs) perceived interventions using attributional retraining (AR) as helpful in increasing unsupervised client exercise motivation and exercise adherence. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Keywords: attributional retraining, reattribution training, attribution theory, personal trainer, exercise, motivation, adherence, compliance iv PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 1 Introduction Andragogy is the study of how adults learn brought to prominence as an educational theory by researcher Malcolm Knowles (1968). Since Knowles, many theories of adult education have become important contributors to the evidence-based andragogic landscape such as selfdetermination theory, learner-centered teaching, and attribution theory with the actionable component termed attributional retraining (Deci and Ryan, 2000; Weimer, 1985; Wiener, 2013). Each of these theories is designed to empower adults to overcome obstacles and develop motivational strategies to help achieve success in educational and behavioral environments. In fitness, there is little research identifying and supporting long-term strategies to help people increase exercise adherence and overcome obstacles (Fjeldsoe, Neuhaus, Winkler, & Eakin, 2011; Saida, Juul Sørensen, & Langberg, 2017). Though adult education activities and outcomes are naturally different from adult exercise activities and the results, applying adult educational approaches may be useful in creating a theoretical framework of evidence-based strategies that may be implemented to motivate and encourage behavioral changes in adults that lead to greater exercise adherence, compliance, and fitness-based results. The primary approach taken from education and andragogy research and applied to fitness will be Bernard Weiner’s attributional theory of motivation and attributional retraining. Weiner’s attribution theory states that people ascribe reasons for why they or others succeed or fail at a particular event or endeavor (Weiner, 1985). According to Wiener, the perceived causes of success or failure share three common properties: locus, controllability, and stability. Locus of control is whether the motivational drive is internal or external. An internal locus of control establishes the cause of effort residing within the person such as interest, liking, PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 2 or desire to perform a specific task. The internal locus for an exerciser may be because the individual likes how exercise makes them feel. External locus of control comes from outside influences and may be a goal provided by an external agent that another individual may attempt to achieve. An external locus for exercise may be because a person’s spouse thinks that they need to exercise to lose bodyweight. Controllability describes outcomes that are controllable or uncontrollable by an individual. If obesity is due to genetics solely, exercise alone might not be effective for losing bodyweight since genetics are uncontrollable. However, since obesity can be affected by increased physical activity and a healthy diet, the outcome is controllable, and change can occur. Stability differentiates between the cause that changes over time (unstable) and those that do not (stable). For instance, a mother indicates that she has limited time to exercise because she has a young child at home. However, as the child grows up, more time to exercise may be available to the mother indicating that the cause of limited exercise was an unstable event that changed over time. Attributional retraining (AR) is designed to restructure causal explanations of poor performance by encouraging controllable attributions such as effort and strategy in place of immutable causes such as ability or intelligence (Haynes Stewart et al., 2011). Research has shown AR’s effectiveness in modifying causal attributions (Haynes et al., 2006), increased perceived control (Haynes et al., 2006), improved motivation among university students (Haynes et al., 2008) and increased likelihood of passing university courses (Haynes Stewart et al., 2011; Hamm, Perry, Clifton, Chipperfield, & Boese, 2014). Hamm et al. (2014) used attributional retraining for group categorized first-year university students as achievement-oriented, failure-acceptors (low control, low failure PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 3 preoccupation) and failure-ruminators (low control, high failure preoccupation). The results showed that all students benefited from AR, but it was most beneficial those that accepted failure. Failure-acceptors that received AR developed higher intrinsic motivation, higher grade point averages, and fewer course withdrawals than those without AR. Students who ruminated on their failures and felt out of control (failure-ruminators) received no advantage regarding their achievement, yet these students benefitted from AR to the extent that they altered their dysfunctional emotional profile. Teachers have found positive empirical outcomes with students’ success using AR. Certified personal trainers might be able to provide similar results in motivation, adherence, and compliance when it comes to applying AR with their clientele in the fitness environment. Commonly reported barriers to fitness-related success (BFRS) include lack of time, focus on other priorities, lack of energy, health issues, bad mood, the weather, the daily routine provides enough of a workout, no exercise partner, and lack of knowledge (Louw, Biljon, & Mugandani, 2012; Dishman, Jackson, & Bray, 2014). It is likely that AR can alter the causal ascriptions of obstacles and BFRS and allow for a change in effort and strategy to obtain positive outcomes. AR has been successfully used with older adults to show that age should not be the ascribed cause of sedentary lifestyles or lack of movement and exercise. Quantitative data recorded that the means steps per week increased significantly from 24,749 to 30,707, a 24% increase – equivaltent to 2.5 miles (2-sided t-test p=.002). The qualitative results quantified via Expectations Regarding Aging (ERA)-38 survey showed that participants experienced an improved mental health–related quality of life (p =.049) and reported less difficulty with activities of daily living (p =.04). More than 50% of participants reported improvements in pain, energy level, and sleep quality (Sarkisian, Prohaska, Davis, & Weiner, 2007). Older adults also PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 4 reported higher levels of exercise motivation, life satisfaction, as well as increased functional status relative to controls. Nickel and Spink (2010) conducted two studies to examine associations among past activity behavior, attributions, and self-regulatory efficacy for maintaining physical activity sufficient for health benefits. AR was implemented in three phases. First, the causal search activation asked students to attribute causes for achievement failure. Second, the attributional induction stage had students watch a short video of two students discussing ways they could increase academic performance, followed by a professor summarizing the video and reiterating the focus of controllable causal explanations. Third, the consolidation phase focuses on processing the AR content by writing a summary of the video, provide their attributions as to why the students in the video did poorly, and then more deeply processing the information by applying the main points of the video to their own lives. The main finding concerned the detail that specific attributional dimensions significantly improved the prediction of self-regulatory efficacy over and above past behavior. AR was beneficial to all students but was particularly advantageous to students who performance orientation identified them as most vulnerable. Attribution theory and attributional retraining has transcended the field of education, and has been used in social, psychological, and behavioral sciences, as well as in exercise (Louw, Biljon, & Mugandani, 2012; Dishman, Jackson, & Bray, 2014; Sarkisian, Prohaska, Davis, & Weiner, 2007; Weinberg, Hall, & Sverdlik, 2015; Haynes Stewart et al., 2011). The purpose of this study is to see if certified personal trainers find value in and are willing to perform AR after being exposed to education of how to use the method to help their clients with exercise motivation and adherence. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 5 Methods The aim of this qualitative case study is to gain understanding about perceptions certified personal trainers (CPTs) have regarding the value and effectiveness that attributional retraining (AR) can have on client motivation and exercise adherence. Several studies have used qualitative research to develop insights about the effects of AR and fitness. However, limited studies have used CPTs as subjects. If CPTs perceive value in AR as a beneficial motivator to overcome barriers to fitness-related success (BFRS) and help to increase exercise adherence, it may lead to further qualitative and quantitative research and possibly integration into CPT educational programming. The following section will review the research design, subjects, instrumentation, procedures, and the analysis of data. Research Design This case study will employ a descriptive qualitative case-study design to study the effects of attributional retraining (AR) on CPTs perception of client motivation and exercise adherence. The single case study will consist of nationally accredited certified personal trainers (CPTs) that are currently working in the fitness industry within the same geographical location. The summation of similar characteristics allows for the assumption that the chosen case is considered a reflection of a larger population (Elman, Gerring, & Mahoney, 2016). The descriptive case study was chosen to allow CPT’s to describe perceptions of AR in the real-life context in which it occurred. This single case study represents a group of CPTs that were willing to apply this retraining to see if it would help their clients increase intrinsic motivation and adherence to exercise. They then described in detail their real-life experience. Additionally, the qualitative PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 6 inquiry can help determine if the topic is worthy of further investigation by identifying what questions and data might be the most relevant to the general topic of AR. According to Bloomberg (2016), “Qualitative research is suited to promoting a deep understanding of a social setting or activity as viewed from the perspective of the research participants… (which) implies an emphasis on exploration, discovery, and description” (p. 38). This research seeks to compare themes, perceptions, and description of experiences rather than numbers, arithmetical correlations and statistical analysis. Randomized controlled trials (RTCs) are limited in their ability to explain the “how” or “why” a given intervention worked or did not work, so case studies are helpful to better and more fully explore the “how” or “why” (Shavelson & Towne, 2002). In this study CPTs explain their experiences, how they interacted with their clients, if they found value in the topic and its implementation. A case study is a method of qualitative research that is exploratory in nature that requires comprehensive interaction with study participants to provide a profound picture of the topic (Bloomberg, 2016). Case studies involve the study of cases within a real-life and real-time context or setting (Yin, 2014). Case studies are also extensive and open to a myriad of interpretations and methods of collecting data (Bloomberg, 2016). Creswell (2018) defines case study research as “a qualitative approach in which the investigator explores a real-life, contemporary bounded system (a case) or multiple bounded systems (cases) over time, through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information (e.g., observations, interviews, audiovisual material, and documents and reports), and reports a case description and case themes” (p. 96-97). PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 7 This qualitative case study will employ the following means of data collection: preworkshop interviews, workshop feedback, documentation, session observations, and postobservation interviews. The integration of multiple data sources allows for an in-depth understanding of the case, which is the hallmark of a good qualitative case study (Creswell, 2018). Interviews were used to engage the participants with open-ended questions that allowed for discussion, interaction, and further inquiry. Participants were interviewed via phone or video chat to determine CPT’s perceptions of AR in regard to motivation and exercise adherence. Subjects were allowed and encouraged to expand on their answers and provide detail about their experience. Interviews were performed prior to the intervention workshop and again three months later at the end of the research. These interviews took place via phone call or video chat. The workshop asked for specific feedback from the group on topics vital to attributional retraining. This is only time participants could engage with each other to share and cultivate ideas together. In the workshop, participants discussed common perceived BFRS, strategies to help increase exercise motivation and adherence, and they developed scenarios to be used in their own AR practice with clients. After the workshop, CPT documentation such as a mission statement, training philosophy, or website was requested. This data allows for another dimension of understanding the participants opinions and perceptions about personal training and working with clients that added a dimension of richness to the content. Following documentation, the researcher scheduled and observed a 15-minute session of the CPT perform AR with their client. The observation allowed for the researcher to witness how AR was being implemented and better understand the perception of AR from both the CPT and their client. Member checking was performed to ensure the information written down was correct and agreed upon. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 8 “In a case study, triangulation is critical in attempting to obtain an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon under study and adds rigor, breadth, and depth to the study and provides corroborative evidence of the data obtained” (Bloomberg, 2016, p. 46). This research study was able to corroborate evidence from multiple methods of data collection that provided large amounts of information about differing topics allowing a full and rich story to develop. According to Creswell (2018), “When qualitative researchers locate evidence to document a code or theme in different sources of data, they are triangulating information and providing validity to their findings” (p. 259). Triangulation is a means to reach saturation. Saturation is the point at which no new themes emerge allowing the researcher to identify common trends. Once the topics were saturated, certain codes, keywords, and concepts emerged from the differing streams of data. Coding was performed manually. Several interview questions in the interview process allow for numerous ways to receive responses needed for the research questions. Therefore, keywords were straightforwardly coded as saturation grew. As the participants were encouraged to expand their thoughts, many responses connected, associated, and built into themes. These themes were listed under each research question with a high percentage of agreement among participants. Themes showcase the leading perceptions CPTs had after learning about attribution theory and implementing AR regarding exercise motivation and exercise adherence. Limitations. Of concern in all studies are the researcher’s inherent and developed biases. In qualitative research the researcher is the instrument measuring and assess the data, so bias is always, at least to some degree, inescapable. According to Yin (2014), “researchers are especially prone to this problem because they must understand the issues beforehand, and this understanding may undesirably sway them toward supportive evidence and away from contrary PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 9 evidence” (p. 76). Rossman and Rallis (2012) state that “inquiry is shaped by our personal interests and interpreted through our values and politics” (p. 117). The researcher’s experiences in the field as a CPT, interpersonal judgements about how clients should behave and how CPTs should perform, expectancies that this topic will be helpful for other CPTs, and an unintentional desire to leave out contrary feedback is possible, though not desired by the researcher. A limitation important to point out is that the researcher is an educator and gym owner and all participants came from within the researcher’s student, patron, and social networks. It is possible that some feedback was skewed to give the researcher “what they would want to hear” rather than unfiltered feedback that may be provided to a stranger. Delimitations. Credibility needs to be established to increase “truth-value” (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). The criterion for credibility “refers to whether the participants’ perceptions match up with the researcher’s portrayal of them” (Bloomberg, 2016, p. 162). Through member checking, the researcher solicits participants’ views of the credibility of the findings and interpretations (Bazeley, 2013; Glesne, 2016; Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). In this study, each participant was read back the words that the researcher wrote down as their quotes. The participants were then given the opportunity to reword, change, delete, or confirm the verbiage and content. This helps to minimize researcher bias. Delimitations regarding complimentary and agreeable feedback from those familiar with the researcher was addressed by the researcher stating desire for honest feedback rather than “what you think I want to hear.” Many participants stated that they did not have an issue with expressing their truth. However, some felt more at ease with hearing that the only right answer was their true perception and they stopped trying to find the “right” answer and were able to more comfortably provide their honest feedback. IRB approval was obtained prior to data PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 10 collection and participation and the researcher is their best to maintain the integrity of the study as well as the safety and comfort of the participants. As stated by Yin (2014), the researcher in this study endeavored to preserve a “strong professional competence that includes keeping up with related research, ensuring accuracy, striving for credibility, and understanding and divulging the needed methodological qualifiers and limitations to one’s work” (p. 77). Subjects The participants recruited were certified personal trainers (CPT) that hold a current National Commission of Certifying Agencies (NCCA) accredited personal training certification, live in the New York City area, and are currently working in the fitness industry as a CPT. These characteristics provide purposeful sampling that allows a transferability to those that are in similar context and setting (Bloomberg, 2016). CPTs were enlisted as volunteers to participate in a four-hour workshop on AT and AR by an event brochure (Appendix C1) distributed via fitness facility newsletter, social media (SM), email, and/or handout at their place of employment. Attending subjects were 18 plus years of age with a variety of ethnic backgrounds, work experience, education. Inclusion criteria required all participants to speak English, signed an informed consent form (Appendix C2), and be willing to participate in the interview, observation, and documentation process. No further exclusion criteria were used aside from attending the workshop late. The qualitative inquiry is tasked with achieving saturation – the point at which no new themes emerge allowing the researcher to identify common trends. Morse (2015) stated saturation is the most commonly publicized guarantee of qualitative rigor offered by authors. Guest, Bunce, and Johnson (insert year here) stated that saturation occurs when there is no new PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 11 data, no new themes, no new coding, and there is enough information provided to replicate the study, which can be found in a few as six interviews depending on sample size. However, Tracy (2010) suggested a minimum of eight participants to obtain saturation. The triangulation of data from multiple sources to further enhance the reliability of saturation results (Stavros & Westberg, 2009; Bekhet & Zauszniewski, 2012). Instrumentation The purpose of this qualitative case study was to understand the perceptions CPTs have regarding attributional retraining (AR) as an intervention to help increase exercise motivation and adherence. These perceptions were measured via pre-workshop interviews (Appendix C4), trainer documentation, trainer/client observations, and post-intervention and post-observation interviews (Appendix C8). “By developing convergent evidence, data triangulation helps to strengthen the construct validity of your case study” (Yin, 2014, p. 121). This would commonly be considered a source of credibility in qualitative research. With rich and descriptive triangulation, saturation is more likely to be obtained (Fusch & Ness, 2015). The following instruments will allow for “rich” and “descriptive” feedback from the participants by encouraging them to speak freely about their experiences and perceptions. Pre-Workshop Testing. The data collection instrument prior to the implementation of the AR workshop (intervention) will be interviews (Appendix C4). These interviews were completed over the phone one week before the intervention workshop using 10 questions that seek CPT’s perceptions of client motivation, adherence, and to what they attribute these answers. The informed consent detailed the interview protocol, a brief description of the study, an explanation of what will be required of the participants, and an assurance of confidentiality (Appendix C2). PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 12 Intervention. A four-hour workshop discussing Weiner’s attribution theory (AT) and attributional retraining (AR) was provided with PowerPoint or Keynote presentation used as a supplemental visual aid (Appendix C5). The outline of the presentation was provided to participants via email to follow and for note taking purposes (Appendix C5). A foundational understanding of AT will consist outcomes (failure or success), causes (ability, effort, task difficulty, luck, and possibly others), causal dimensions (locus, stability, and controllability), causal consequences (pride, self-esteem, and expectancy) and finally action (choice, intensity, and persistence) (Weiner, 2010). Feedback from attendees during the workshop was used as part of the interventions used with their clients during the application or AR. Supporting content, including a PDF of the intervention presentation and stories of attribution theory that study participants provide as examples, were provided to all participating certified personal trainers (CPTs) following the intervention. Post-Intervention Testing. Three months post-workshop, the CPTs that participated in the interviews were contacted via email (Appendix C7) and asked to schedule a time for the researcher to observe an attributional retraining (AR) session with their client as well as a follow-up interview. The follow-up interview (Appendix C8) discussed the concepts of AR, how the CPTs have applied them to their clientele, how their clients responded, and seek to understand how they implement AR concepts into their training. Several questions were designed to answer questions regarding Weiner’s (2010) causal dimensions of attributions including locus, stability, and controllability. Locus refers to either internal or external motivation. Stability has to do with whether the situation will change over time or if it is constant. Controllability refers to the clients’ ability to have control over the outcome. Interviews lasted approximately 30-45 minutes. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 13 Trainer documentation was requested from each participant via email (Appendix C6) regarding how they identify their style of training, what they consider to be their responsibilities as a CPT, and how they go about performing such responsibilities. Documentation included website URLs, mission statements, and training philosophies. This record of training purpose and concepts helped provide further information about trainer and client motivation, adherence, and perception. The data was collected through using these multiple instruments. Both the pre-workshop interviews and the post-observation interviews provided the richest content as it allowed conversation to flow between the researcher and the participants. The open-endedness of the questions and the freedom to discuss what came up in conversation added depth and detail to the study. The observations allowed the researcher to witness how AR was being implemented while also hearing the client’s responses and perceptions of the retraining as well. Documentation provided greater detail and insight in the CPT’s perceptions and allowed the researcher learn more about the participants prior to being informed about AR. This documentation was not influenced by the intervention, so differences and similarities were detectable between their preand post- AR education. The multiple sources of evidence from which the convergent lines of inquiry were drawn strengthened credibility via triangulation. Triangulation supports saturation and provides rigor and credibility to the study. Another support to credibility was member checking which happened during follow-up communications. During member checking the participants reviewed the words the researcher wrote, confirmed what was written was familiar and accurate, and were allowed to make any desired changes to their statements. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 14 For trustworthiness in qualitative research to be provided, credibility and dependability must be developed. Credibility in qualitative research can be operationalized using techniques of prolonged engagement, triangulation of data sources, and methods (Creswell, 2018). In this case, triangulation consisted of pattern matching of mutual themes that appeared during the discussion of motivation and adherence, as well as commonly stated barriers to fitness-related success (BFRS). From this data, an explanation of perceptions was developed. Rival accounts should also be proposed and considered. Unique and dissonant opinions emerged by members within this group, which add credibility to the study as well as highlight the significance of harmonious outcomes. Attributional retraining existing research exist to establish credibility as well as ancillary topics important to AR. For instance, one of the pre-workshop interview questions asked certified personal trainers to identify perceived BFRS for their clients. Responses to similar questions can be viewed in existing research detailing BFRS to increase study credibility and are discussed in the research review. Transferability is an important element as additional external relationships have been identified between AT and AR in the research design phase leading to the development of the research questions. According to Korstjens and Moser (2018), “dependability is whether the analysis process is in line with the accepted standards for a particular design” (p. 122). This study followed a clear roadmap of the methods, implementation, note taking of emergent findings, and participant communication to provide “detailed and thorough explanations of how the data were collected and analyzed, providing what is known as an ‘audit trail’” (Bloomberg, 2016, p. 163). Confirmability looks to confirm that the results are not preferences and viewpoints, but grounded in the data (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). The goal is to minimize the errors and biases in a study so that later investigators arrive at the same findings and conclusions (Yin, 2014). PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 15 Procedures Pre-Workshop. After the study was approved by the California University of Pennsylvania IRB, recruitment of participants began. A digital brochure (Appendix C1) was sent out via an email list of personal trainers, social media, and strategic placement in the NYC area. Once registration was filled, volunteers were asked to take part in the study with the goal to have a minimum selection of 12 participants. An informed consent was delivered via email (Appendix C2). Once informed consent was reviewed, signed, and returned via email, a subsequent email (Appendix C3) was sent to the subjects to schedule baseline testing, which was a pre-workshop interview lasting approximately 30-45 minutes and included ten open-ended questions (Appendix C4). CPTs were encouraged to share their experiences, knowledge, and the option to explore the topic in-depth. The interviews were scheduled and completed in a one-week period prior to the workshop so that a sufficient number of interviews could be completed without too many last-minute interviews the week of the workshop. Intervention. This qualitative case study included a four-hour workshop on attribution theory and attributional retraining presented via PowerPoint (Appendix C5). Participants were also offered a handout to fill out during the workshop and to take home for review (Appendix C6). Attribution theory discussed a series of vital topics including (1) outcomes (success or failure), (2) causes (task difficulty, effort, task difficulty, other), (3) causal dimensions (locus, stability, controllability), (4) causal consequences (pride, self-esteem, expectancy/hope, other), and (5) action (choice, intensity, persistence, other). Attributional retraining instruction consisted of four-phases including the causal search activation phase, the attributional induction phase, the consolidation phase, and the addition of the supportive phase as listed in addition methods (Appendix C5). PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 16 Post-Intervention. Approximately three months after the workshop, an email was sent (Appendix C7) requesting trainer documentation from each participant about how they identify their style of training, what they consider to be their responsibilities as a CPT, and how they go about performing such duties. Requested documentation included website URL, mission statement, and training philosophies. This record of training purpose and concept helped provide further information about CPTs perceptions of client motivation and adherence. CPTs were expected to practice applying AR during the three months between the intervention workshop and the observation of their application of AR as much as they felt was applicable. Observations of the CPTs engaging in attributional retraining with their clients was scheduled for three months after the workshop. An email was sent for the purpose of scheduling CPT/client observation (C8). An additional email was sent to the participants to forward to their client letting their training clients know that the session will be observed and requesting their approval (C9). The attributional retraining session observed lasted approximately 15 minutes. After the observation, the researcher performed a follow-up phone interview with the CPT. Each interview lasted roughly 30-45 minutes and was scheduled within one week of the observation if not immediately after. Specific interview questions (Appendix C10) were posed, with allowances made for an open-ended exploration of topics and feedback from CPT’s about their experiences after implementing AR. Interviews were performed to note if the CPTs perceived AR as a valuable tool in motivating clients toward increased exercise adherence. Examples were requested of how they applied AR with their clients that lead them to their ultimate perceptions about the outcomes of the intervention. It is the interviewees’ perceptions, in this case the CPTs, and their own senses of meaning that the research seeks to understand (Merton, Fiske, & Kendall, 1990). Within one week of data being collected from the post- PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 17 intervention interviews from all participants, the researcher began member checking. Phone calls were made to allow participants to review how their statements were noted and provided the option to add, remove, or alter the content in any way they felt best conveyed their perceptions. Data Analysis The aim of this qualitative case study was to gain understanding about perceptions certified personal trainers (CPTs) have regarding the value and effectiveness that attributional retraining (AR) can have on client motivation and exercise adherence. The analysis of case study evidence is one of the least developed aspects of case study research (Yin, 2014). Data analysis starts with the plan to collect and organize a large volume of data and then to reduce it in a meaningful way (Bloomberg, 2016). Once these systems are implemented, the researcher must search for patterns, insights, or concepts that seem promising in addition to finding ambiguities and inconsistencies (Yin, 2014; Bloomberg, 2016). Raw data are assigned codes. This coding was performed manually. The analysis for this research consisted of several components of data collection and processing which helped the researcher identify emerging themes that surround CPTs perceptions of attributional retraining (AR). This data came from pre-workshop interviews, postintervention interviews, CPT documentation, and session observations. According to Kvale and Brinkman (2009), there are six stages of interviewing which include creation of themes: (1) designing the study, (2) interviewing the participants and (3) transcribing the interviews, followed by (4) analyzing, (5) verifying, and (6) reporting the data. The interview questions were the same for every participant, and each participant was interviewed by phone twice (pre- and post- intervention) to increase consistency. The interview questions directly aligned with the PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 18 research questions to gain clear and specific participant feedback targeting perceptions of AR by CPTs. Detailed notes were taken during each interview session that were checked for consistency and reviewed by participants for reliability. Observations of CPTs providing an attributional retraining (AR) session occurred at the CPT’s place of work. The researcher observed the CPT providing an AR intervention in their natural setting and noted the intervention techniques, language, and how the CPT interacted with the client to help solve problems (Hurley, Denegar, & Hertel, 2011). Detailed notes were taken and coded for emerging themes and cross-over between instruments. Before the aggregation of all content to identify various themes and story development, the researcher hosted a follow-up phone call with the interviewees to perform member checking. The participants’ pre-post intervention interview answers were read to them to check for omissions or misstatements and provide corrections or additions. Member checking increases validity, reliability, and accuracy of the research (Houghton, Casey, Shaw, & Murphy, 2013). Once the data has been checked, Creswell (2018) suggests reading through the completed data source content and make margin notes on emergent themes, form initial codes, and then describe the case and its contexts. Creswell (2018) then recommends using a categorical aggregation of all the data collection instruments (pre-post intervention interviews, observations, and documentation) to establish themes or patterns through means of manual coding. The first broad analysis of the data is called open coding (Bloomberg, 2016; Creswell, 2018). Open coding will review all information provided throughout the interviews, documentation, and observations and seek to provide triangulation by corroborating the same findings and discovering converging lines of inquiry to help strengthen “construct validity of your case study” (Yin, 2014, p. 121). Validity in qualitative research is often referred to as credibility (Hurley, PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 19 Denegar, & Hertel, 2011). Therefore, credibility in terms of the correctness of the research findings are assisted through triangulation of multiple data streams. Triangulation of data from multiple sources serves to further enhance the reliability of saturation results (Stavros & Westberg, 2009; Bekhet & Zauszniewski, 2012). Open coding will allow the introduction of several themes to emerge by looking at how often a word, topic, or concept appears within the various instruments. Open coding will lead to a second analysis called axial coding which will identify one of the categories to surface as the “core phenomenon” or main theme (Bloomberg, 2016). The core phenomenon will emerge based on the aggregation of open codes to see which topic within the context of the case study is most often revealed. Once the core phenomenon, or main theme, emerges a story can then be explicated from the interconnection of the categories through the third part of data analysis called selective coding (Bloomberg, 2016). Constant comparisons of the data in efforts to find similarities and differences will continually take place during the data analysis process. Coding and categorizing involve the “constant comparison” method that continues throughout the study (Bloomberg, 2016). This method involves systematically comparing sections of text and noting similarities and differences between these sections. Through the emergence of major categories, a theory can evolve. Case study research involves a detailed description of the setting or individuals, followed by analysis of the data for themes, patterns, or issues (Stake, 1995). Key words were coded from participant feedback about barriers to fitness-related success (BFRS). Recurring codes regarding BFRS were compiled and reviewed based on number of times they emerged, context, and ideas or synonyms that fit into an existing code. Several words PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 20 repeated throughout multiple data sources. Saturation was obtained once no new patterns emerged from the data. As a visual representation of the data collected, a world cloud was used to easily identify key words within a theme. A word cloud (wordclouds.com) is a visual representation of text data with key words in different text sizes and colors emerging from the center of the cloud. The core phenomenon will be centered in the largest font. The supporting theme and common words pulled from the initial open coding surround the core phenomenon’s word in smaller font. These were not solely based on a quantitative metric such as number of times a word is appears in the notes since differing and similar terms were used to mean the same or similar ideas. These ideas and themes were assimilated and added to the word cloud. Themes emerged from codes. Codes were used across multiple data points which included pre-workshop interviews, workshop interactions, retrieval of trainer documentation, trainer observations, and follow-up post-intervention interviews. This triangulation of data allowed for saturation. Coding was performed manually by identification of emergent and recurring concepts. The codes that were persisted and repeated throughout multiple lines of inquiry with the majority of participants presented as a core phenomenon, or theme. Multiple themes emerged for each research question. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 21 Results The aim of this qualitative case study was to gain understanding about perceptions certified personal trainers (CPTs) have regarding the value and effectiveness that attributional retraining (AR) can have on client motivation and exercise adherence. Feedback was received from CPTs on their perceived value of AR’s applications and implications regarding motivation and adherence-based outcomes in their fitness clients. Results of this research will provide answers for the following research questions: 1. How do certified personal trainer perceptions of attributional retraining impact client motivation? 2. How does attributional retraining impact the level of motivation for personal training clients? 3. How does attributional retraining contribute to improved client experience and adherence? Multiple themes emerged for each question. Additional themes arose and are discussed in detail. These additional themes did not emerge in a direct response to the research questions, but they serve to further the exploration of attributional retraining and how these question lead to answers and outcomes beyond what was excepted. A four-hour workshop provided education on attribution theory (AT), and AR was provided to participants to familiarize them with the concepts. The workshop served as the intervention and provide the strategies that the participants would later provide to their clients. Breakout sessions were employed to help the CPTs innovate applications of AR to their personal training clients. An inductive process using pre-workshop interviews, workshop interactions, PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 22 retrieval of trainer documentation, trainer observations, and follow-up post-intervention interviews were used as instruments of data collection. An aggregation of feedback was used to answer three specific research questions about the perceived efficacy regarding CPT’s perception of AR. Feedback was coded, and through saturation via manual coding, themes emerged. These themes offer rich insights into the experience of these CPTs and their interaction with training clients as they implemented this new strategy to see if they perceived increased client motivation and adherence during unsupervised exercise. It is through the vivid and varied descriptions the perceptions of the participants can be understood and experienced through their story. As stated by Leung (2015), While human emotions and perspectives from both subjects and researchers are considered undesirable biases confounding results in quantitative research, the same elements are considered essential and inevitable, if not treasurable, in qualitative research as they invariably add extra dimensions and colors to enrich the corpus of findings” (p. 324). Trustworthiness of the Data For trustworthiness in qualitative research to be provided, credibility and dependability must be developed. The Lincoln and Guba (1985) criteria, still popular today in qualitative research, use the terms credibility, authenticity, transferability, and dependability (and confirmability) as “the naturalist’s equivalents” for internal validation, external validation, reliability, and objectivity (p. 300). Though qualitative researchers like Yin (2014) prefer to keep the language consistent from quantitative to qualitative. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 23 Credibility. Credibility is the believability of the study based on the richness of data collected and the accuracy of the findings. This can be done initially through process of “identifying correct operational measures for the concepts being studied” (Yin, 2014, p. 46). The intentional formation of research questions and the development of specific means to find answers to the research questions increases credibility. These research question support the purpose of the study. Credibility in qualitative research can be operationalized using techniques of prolonged engagement, triangulation of data sources, and methods (Creswell, 2018). Multiple data sources were used as well as a chain of evidence and an audit trail. With the combination of pre-workshop questions, workshop feedback, trainer documentation, session observations, and post-intervention interviews, the responses were able to be compared from multiple data sources to find converging lines of inquiry and feedback. This method of data collection provided triangulation of multiple and differing data sources aimed at corroborating the same finding which helps to help strengthen construct validity (Yin, 2014) and to “build the picture” of the topic being studied (Rossman & Rallis, 2012, p. 65). Triangulation of data sources is also a way for researchers to provide credibility (Creswell, 2018). Credibility was also provided through member checking which was considered by Lincoln and Guba (1985) to be “the most critical technique for establishing credibility” (p. 314). Member checking was performed with the participants before any content was written to review the words the written during the interview process to confirm what was written was familiar and accurate. Opportunities to object, change, restate, or clarify were provided during member checking. Some changes that were made led to additional and valuable information that was read back to the participants and checked again for accuracy. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 24 According to Yin (2014), the concern of explanatory case studies, is to provide credibility during the data analysis phase by pattern matching, explanation building, reports on rival explanations, and using logic models. In this case, pattern matching may consist of mutual themes that appear during the discussion of motivation and adherence, as well as commonly stated barriers to fitness-related success. Once a meticulous means of receiving qualitative feedback were implemented, the search for patterns, insights, or concepts that seem promising in addition to finding ambiguities and inconsistencies were performed (Yin, 2014; Bloomberg, 2016). The qualitative inquiry is tasked with achieving saturation – the point at which no new themes emerge allowing the researcher to identify common trends. Morse (2015) stated saturation is the most commonly publicized guarantee of qualitative rigor offered by authors. Guest, Bunce, and Johnson (2006) stated saturation is the gold standard in determining sample sizes in health science research. The triangulation of data from multiple sources to further enhance the reliability of saturation results (Stavros & Westberg, 2009; Bekhet & Zauszniewski, 2012). Manual coding was used to identify significant categories of information. These categories merged throughout differing lines of inquiry followed by paring these open codes into selective codes called themes. Several themes emerged from each research question through means of manual coding as well as additional themes that did not answer the research questions. These additional insights provided integral feedback about the processes the participants found important. The codes provided a construct of identifying participant feedback and themes emerged once these codes were saturated across multiple lines of inquiry. If significant codes were not achieved, but exciting topics arose, these were added into additional finding. There are shared characteristics between the outcomes of this research and other research performed on PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 25 AR. To add to credibility, the researcher also presented negative instances where participants understood the AR differently, or they presented the intervention differently than the researcher’s intended and provided feedback that did not paint a perfect picture of the intervention. The quality of the methods, including tools, procedures, and specific techniques, are important to credibility (Bloomberg, 2016). All methods were reviewed by the researcher’s dissertation committee and deemed acceptable. Dependability and Confirmability. Dependability (consistency) and confirmability (neutrality) are provided by the audit trail. According to Korstjens and Moser (2018), dependability is “whether the analysis process is in line with the accepted standards for a particular design” (p. 122). Bloomberg (2016) states, dependability is the provision of “detailed and thorough explanations of how the data were collected and analyzed, providing what is known as an ‘audit trail.’” (p. 163). Confirmability looks to confirm that the results are not preferences and viewpoints, but grounded in the data (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). The audit trail supports both dependability and confirmability. Appendix C provides a detailed approach for audit and reproducibility. An audit of the process was also reviewed by a dissertation committee and found to be sufficient. Dependability and confirmability delivered by providing all materials involving the presentation of AR as well as communication with participants under Appendix C to allow for future researchers to create an external audit or recreate the research study. These steps were reviewed externally by the researcher's dissertation chair and committee during the research proposal and before beginning the research process. Transferability. Transferability is another important part of trustworthiness. The readers can make decisions regarding transferability through the detailed descriptions of the participants, PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 26 the setting under study, and the rich descriptions the participants provide through the researcher (Erlandson et al., 1993; Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). If the research study can provide a “rich description” the readers can decide for themselves if it is transferable to their own settings (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). Transferability was also performed during the literature where results found can be compared to existing research on attributional retraining, attribution theory, exercise motivation and adherence, and BFRS. Though this case study relates to other studies performed in the literature review, differences can be found including demographics, setting, and populations that may find the outcomes valuable and transferable to their situtation. According to Merriam (1998), “development of a theory of the processes operating in the case studied, one that may well operate in other cases, but that may produce different outcomes in different circumstances” (p. 138). Demographic Characteristics A total of 16 certified personal trainers (CPTs) agreed to participant in the study, but four dropped out due to the inability to complete one or more of the necessary components of the data collection leaving the total number of participants that completed the study as 12 (n = 12). These 12 participants completed all aspects of the study by providing significant feedback and insight on the research topic. All subjects signed the informed consent for participation. Ethical approval for human participants was approved by the California University of Pennsylvania institutional review board (IRB). Participants varied in years of personal training experience (see Table 1). 27 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Table 1 Years as a CPT Characteristic Mean Years 8.7 Median 9 Mode 13 Range 15.5 Note. N=12. Some participants received formal education and earned degrees in exercise science or exercise related fields. Others attended school for a topic-related in psychology. Those that earned degrees in a psychology related fields were the only participants who had heard of either AT or AR according to the pre-workshop interview. Degrees in non-topic related fields were not noted. See Table 2. Table 2 Higher Education Characteristic Frequency Percent Exercise related undergraduate degree 3 25 Exercise related graduate degree 1 8 Psychology related undergraduate degree 2 17 No exercise or topic related degree 6 50 Note. N = 12. 28 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Personal trainer certifications were a requirement for each participant to have. Multiple certifications were represented. Certifications from the National Academy of Sports Medicine (NASM) topped the list, but this may be because the research only provided continuing education units (CEUs) for those certified through NASM to encourage greater attendance. See Table 3 for a list of certifications held by CPT participants. Table 3 CPT Certifications Characteristic Frequency Percent NASM 7 58 NSCA-CSCS 2 17 NASM & NSCA-CSCS 1 8 ACE 1 8 PTA Global 1 8 Note. N = 12. A co-ed group of subjects participated in the study. The expectation of gender split was intended to be 50 / 50. However, males were over-represented in the research. The numbers would have been more representative of the overall training population, but each of the four participants that could not see the study through to the end were female. See Table 4. 29 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Table 4 Gender Characteristic Frequency Percent Female 2 17 Male 10 83 Note. N = 12. There was a broad age range (mean age = 33.5 years) of CPTs with various ethnic/racial backgrounds represented. New York City is a multicultural city, so the diversity is a solid representation of the region. See Table 5. Table 5 Race/Ethnicity Frequency Percent Black or African American 4 33 White/Caucasian 4 33 Asian/Pacific Islander 2 17 Hispanic 2 17 Characteristic Note. N = 12. All participants worked as CPTs in New York City with a majority operating in the borough of Manhattan. The host facility was located in Midtown Manhattan, which may be one reason for the heavy presence of CPTs from this particular region. See Table 6. 30 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Table 6 Location of Employment Characteristic Frequency Percent Manhattan 9 75 Staten Island 2 17 Queens 1 8 Note. N = 12. The researcher used available networks to recruit CPTs to participate. The researcher’s social media and network of fitness facilities target more toward independent personal trainers to recruit. Table 7 shows the breakdown of CPTs that work independently verses in a corporate facility, and those that work in both. Table 7 Employment Type Characteristic Frequency Percent Independent / self-employed 9 75 Employed 2 17 Both 1 8 Note. N = 12. 31 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Research Question 1 How do certified personal trainer perceptions of attributional retraining impact client motivation? Two themes emerged under research question number one which details how CPTs value the concept of AR after attending the workshop and their desire to implement it as presented. The way that CPTs perceive and value AR will alter and direct the way they use it as a means of client motivation. The two major themes identified within research question one, as seen in Table 8, are: (a) CPTs admit they could do better at implementation, and (b) CPTs would have made changes if they were to do it again. Table 8 Themes for Research Question 1 Themes Frequency Percent 1. CPTs admit they could do better at AR implementation. 11 92 2. CPTs would have made changes if they were to do it again. 11 92 Note. N = 12. Theme 1: CPTs admit they could do better at implementation. Based on the participants’ feedback during the second interview there were refinements they could have made during client implementation to better match the four-step process provided during the intervention, or to refine their knowledge on how to best approach AR execution. The overwhelming majority of participants (11 of 12 [92%]) stated there were better ways to implement AR with their clients. Participant 2 reported, "I may have skipped over things I was PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 32 uncomfortable with." Participant 7 said, “I could defiantly do it better. I did it ok.” Participant 6 said, “I think I understand it but not entirely sure I know how to integrate it.” Later in the interview Participant 6 followed up with this statement, “I don’t think I implemented as well as I could have and now that I’m talking to you, I have new ideas and tools to try.” Participant 4 commented, I could apply it way better. I dove deeper into the material when I knew that you were coming to observe a session. I felt a lot better and saw it being a lot more practical than I perceived it at first. I knew the content was good, but it was something that required a lot more steps in helping the person change their mindset. I realized it was a lot more doable after spending more time with the material. Theme 2: CPTs would have made changes if they were to do it again. Participants provided feedback on what they would have done differently to help with increased motivation for future clientele. Most participants (11 of 12 [92%]) provided input on the changes they would make to refine the process. Participant 8 said, “I applied things from memory of the seminar. If I could go back and do it again, I would see where in the workout I could implement specific steps in the process.” Participant 9 said, “I could have applied it more directly the way we did in the workshop, but I still applied the concepts.” Participant 6 stated that AR was used it with a limited number of clients during the study and that more AR practice was needed to improve the motivation process. Participant 7 seemed to be unsure during the observation how to apply AR. During the second interview, this person seemed to be more comfortable with the process and provided new strategies to implement with clients in the future that would make the motivational process more accepted by individual clients. 33 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Research Question 2 How does attributional retraining impact the level of motivation for personal training clients? During the session observations and the post-intervention interviews, the participants implemented AR with clients to see how it affected their exercise motivation by finding positive reasons to exercise and by helping overcome barriers to fitness-related success. CPTs provided feedback on client motivation and review of their responses resulted in three emergent themes seen in Table 9: (a) clients focus more on an internal locus of control, (b) perceived client experience was highly beneficial, and (c) participants recommend other CPTs learn and apply AR with their clients. Table 9 Themes for Research Question 2 Themes Frequency Percent 1. Clients focused more on an internal locus of control. 11 92 2. Perceived client experience was highly beneficial. 12 100 3. Participants recommend other CPTs learn and apply AR with their training clients. 12 100 Note. N = 12. Theme 1: Clients focus more on an internal locus of control. Training clients often considered barriers to fitness-related success as uncontrollable external forces that kept these clients from achieving exercise while not under the supervision of their CPT. CPTs pointed out in the post-intervention interview that a significate component of increased motivation was a shift toward an internal locus of control. Participant 6 had been working with a client for over a PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 34 year and started implementing AR. This participant noted, “My client was motivated by peers, and now actually seeing her intrinsic click in the past couple weeks. I’ve been working with her for over a year.” Participant 4 said, “The majority are transitioning from external to internal and doing it for themselves.” Participant 4 also added, “Not everyone who says they are ready to change is truly ready. They say because their doctor, society, spouse, or scale is telling them to do that. They have to internally decide to make a change.” Participant 12 spoke to the topic of motivation after having implemented AR by saying, “(clients) are now more intrinsic. External still has a part, but the internal motivations are the big driver.” During the observation Participant 2 said, “I believe he is internally motivated and if not, he should be. Its more on yourself to make things happen.” Participant 2 followed up in the post-intervention interview with the following, It’s a combination of both (internal and external), but since AR it has become more internal. The training with them is more external but it seems the effort they are putting forth is not externally motivated. She is doing it consistently by and for herself. School just started back again, and she was worried she would fall off and she is still coming regularly. Her consistently is definitely there, so internal motivation. She’s not affected too much by things going on around her. Theme 2: Perceived client experience was highly beneficial. All CPTs in this study (12 of 12 [100%]) found AR to be highly beneficial in motivating clients to exercise on their own. A leading reason CPTs were drawn to the course and agreed to participant in the study was to learn how to motivate their clients to change, so the feedback on their clients’ view of AR provided rich detail and enthusiasm during their responses. The feedback was provided by participants PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 35 during the post-intervention interview and observing clients during AR sessions. Participant 1 stated, It is exceptionally showing another layer of knowledge of behavior change and displays that there is a value-add and helps to show we are committed to helping with long-term change. It's easy as a trainer to work people out all day. This takes it to the next level. Everyone sees the value, and I did not have anyone find it negative. When we sat to talk instead of working out, they realized it. It would actually take us into a conversation where couple clients would bring up others who they knew that were struggling with similar things to the hypothetical story I gave them. With them being able to relate to the stories they were able to see more significance in the stories and see what got in their way and how to stop making excuses for things they could control and know they could start somewhere. Participant 2 said, She may look at as reasons people attribute blame and to stop looking for outside reasons for why goals are not achieved. Stop blaming others or situations and look at what you can do to make it better. Since we discussed how the industry has industrialized fitness, she is asking more about what to do at home and being more active outside of the gym. She wasn't doing any of that stuff before. It really about taking responsibly and not putting the blame on others or outside circumstances. Participant 8 showed a significant turnaround when stating, “My guy has come 165-170 degrees from where he was before in only four sessions, so I would say that he's a believer." Finally, Participant 11 said, "Without a doubt, they recognize they got benefits from it. If we left it at the PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 36 hypothetical stories, it would not, but when we related it back to themselves like diet, exercise, nutrition, they defiantly benefited fitness-wise and health-wise." Interestingly, several participants (4 of 12 [33%]) did not inform their clients that they were doing anything new. Participant 9 said, “They did not know AR was being implemented. I just applied it into the program we already do.” Participant 6 stated, “I don’t think they know I was doing it. They just think it was normal coaching.” These statements show that some CPTs may not want to disrupt the current training process with additional information based off a new workshop. However, the feedback from trainers that stated they were implementing AR and the process showed more significant client responses than those that added it to the program by explaining the process. Theme 3: CPTs recommend other CPTs learn and apply AR. CPTs were not only overwhelmingly supportive (12 of 12 [100%]), but their responses detailed increased CPT productivity and better client outcomes. Based on the participant descriptions and feedback, there was explicit support for other CPTs to learn and implement AR into their training. Participant 1 said, "These tools can help trainers be more successful in their job and longer-term business and drive more referrals just by having this sort of skillset in their toolbox.” Participant 2 stated, “It’ll benefit the trainer because the client is doing more for themselves. They get more out of their clients because the client is empowered to do more on their own. I can’t see why somebody would not benefit.” Participant 5 believed, “Trainers should start figuring out how to apply this type of motivation more. Both trainer and client benefit from what the client does.” Participant 6 described the following, “Allowing the client to see they have their own answers allows more internal locus. Giving trainers the tools to help clients be more intrinsically PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 37 motivated takes the pressure off the trainer. It is exhausting! This way the trainers are empowered to empower their clients.” Participant 11 said, I feel like motivation in fitness is a huge deal. In training, you deal with the worst parts of their motivation like inconsistencies. Motivation is so vague and broad. Do I send the quotes? This is a scientific approach with a theory and science to back it. It is an organized approach which is what everyone can use because everyone makes attributions. Now there is a simple and clear system to follow. Participant 12 detailed, It would benefit them positively because they would experience greater retention and they would also have an easier time training their clients. When you try to force your clients to do something, it can be difficult. This makes it easier because you're focusing on the workout or nutrition without the back and forth. The tension is lifted. You're coaching a client, and they are receiving the information better. Research Question 3 How does attributional retraining contribute to improved client experience and adherence? During the workshop and the post-intervention interviews, CPTs discussed ways to increase client experience and adherence. Many individual codes were used without reaching complete saturation. However, two themes emerged as foci for improved adherence and experience: (a) strategies implemented, (b) increased effort, and (c) successful retraining (see Table 10). 38 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Table 10 Themes for Research Question 3 Themes Frequency Percent 1. Support strategies implemented 12 100 2. Increased effort 12 100 3. Successful retraining 12 100 Note. N = 12. Theme 1: Support strategies implemented. During the workshop, CPTs engaged in group discussions to devise strategies to help increase client adherence while not under their supervision. During observations and post-intervention interviews, some of these strategies and more were put into place by all CPTs (12 of 12 [100%]) to increase client exercise adherence and curtail their individual experiences to be more pleasant and motivating. During the interview, Participant 1 said, "We offer up strategies to help them optimize how to do it on their own. We strategize with them on how to maximize their time, and it builds upon their effort, and it is just maintained from there." During the observations, Participant 1 also stated, "Calorie counting came from myfitnesspal (myfitnesspal.com) and used an HR monitor so we could see day by day and week by week the change in data. We now want to see how a hypothetical way to accomplish it. It's through our strategy, tools, and insights that we put together for you, and YOU (to the client) provide the effort." Participant 3 affirmed, “I use DotFit (dotfit.com) to provide programs and provide accountability. Certain workout classes we keep attendance, so I can set them up to go to a class, and I know if they went. For their own workouts, I ask if they showed up and do at least ten mins whether its bike or treadmill. They often will choose to do more." Participant 11 stated that “too often they (clients) say they don’t know what to do so we work PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 39 together to write the program and they know exactly what to do.” Participant 12 took the partner approach to programming and expanded it with this strategy, With one client I had her walk me through what she does so she can understand it for herself better. I had her train me and coach me on how to exercise and how to position myself. I’ve been scheduling the workouts in her calendar. Some people get frustrated. I put it on her calendar to make it as easy on them as possible. If it’s in the calendar, she’ll do it. Theme 2: Increased Effort. Increased effort was a major theme discussed in the workshop, session observations, and post-intervention interviews. Effort was central to all CPT conversations with clients with complete compliance (12 of 12 [100%]). Of effort Participant 7 said, "The strategy is important because I put a plan together to give them something to do. They are doing it, but they have to put the effort in to make the plan happen." Participant 9 stated, "Put in the effort and trust the process. Incorporate this into lifestyle. You can always make little choices. We role model it and ask them to put in the effort follow the example and process." Participant 11 said, "I stress effort so much in the AR they can't get away from it. They definitely perceived it (success) because of their effort." Participant 3 said, My understanding (of AR) was enough – putting in it my own words – to help my client with her outcomes. Since doing just what I knew to implement our communication and her performance was much better. Her performance has much more effort and our scheduling have fewer excuses - less reschedules. Her effort is defiantly there. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 40 Theme 3: Successful retraining. A major theme that has profound effects is how well clients respond to AR. Training clients are having positive experiences and increasing exercise adherence. Each CPT in participation (12 of 12 [100%]) stated and detailed successful client outcomes after applying AR with their clients. Participant 6 was able to simplify a program to increase compliance, I changed my programs and made them simpler and seen my clients get more confident and more capable and think maybe “yeah, I can do this on my own.” I have a 72yo client with the best program written out, but he wasn't able to do it. I simplified the program (task difficulty), and he is now able to do it. Participant 10 needed the opposite approach. He said of his client, “He has a sense of purpose because the task is difficult – he enjoys the challenge and the idea that he has conquered this is what appeals to him.” Participant 3 points out the changes made through AR by the following, "In the beginning, they definitely wanted to blame other things. Slowly that changed, and they stopped blaming other things and started taking responsibility. Now they accept that they are the ones that can do something about it." Participant 8 says of her client’s AR, She has sold herself on the idea that everything else is in the way. AR is starting to help her realize that there is something that she can do to control it. She has some emotional connection with food above my pay grade, but she is starting to see that she has other options outside of these rutted believes. Just because you believe and blame something doesn't make it true, and she is shifting perspective. 41 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Additional Findings Additional findings that may not be in strict alignment with the research questions but are integral to the process of AR and the results of this study. Here is the examination of additional themes that arose that are important to evaluate. An understanding of the following themes may provide insight into why specific motivational and adherence strategies work. CPTs will also note similarities between the findings here and what they may encounter in their work with clients. These findings can support their understandings and provide insight on how to follow up regarding the themes above including strategies to implement and how effort can help. The following additional themes emerged, (a) CPTs perceived that clients attribute barriers to fitnessrelated success (BFRS) overwhelmingly to uncontrollable external factors, and (b) CPTs perceived client's limiting factors to exercise to be controllable (see Table 11). Table 11 Additional Findings Themes Frequency Percent 1. CPTs perceived that clients attribute barriers to fitness-related success (BFRS) to uncontrollable external factors. 12 100 2. CPTs perceived clients’ limiting factors to exercise is controllable. 12 100 Note. N = 12. The codes that emerged as perceived BFRS were in part attributed to the clients from the CPTs perspective. Some were reasons the clients provided to the CPTs as to why they were unable to exercise regularly on their own without CPTs supervision. The total number of codes PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 42 are represented in a smaller text while the primary themes are represented more centrally and in a larger text (see Figure 1). Additional finding 1: CPTs perceived that clients attribute barriers to fitness-related success overwhelmingly to uncontrollable external factors. The most discussed uncontrollable external factors were (a) work, (b) time, and (c) schedule. All CPTs (12 of 12 [100%]) throughout every phase and component of this study have pointed out each one of these factors at least once. Work was mentioned by all CPTs (12 of 12 [100%]), and throughout all stages of data collection, the word work was cited 21 times as a barrier to fitness-related success (BFRS). Participant 7 said, "The business people work hard, and that won't change." Of work, Participant 8 said, "They are resigned to the fact that this is the way life will be until they retire. It's the thing you do in NYC in order to make it." PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 43 Figure 2. Word cloud of barriers to fitness-related success (BFRS). A word cloud is being used to represent all the barriers listed by training clients with the largest represented in larger and more centralized text. Time was an overwhelming factor given as a BFRS. Each CPT (12 of 12 [100%]) stated time at least once and was used a total of 18 throughout all component of data collection as a limiting factor to exercise success. Participant 11 simply said, "No time - that's a big one!" Participant 4 stated during the pre-workshop interview, "There are always situations that arise, family, work, responsibility. It's always a different thing, and it's always related to time." Participant 4 also shared difficulties with clients during the same interview by saying, “The biggest issue for many is time. Supposedly, they don’t have enough time and couldn’t do their PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 44 workout homework.” Here the subject is showing the difference between what the client believes to be the limiting factor and what others on the outside consider to be limitations. The client believes they do not have enough time. However, Participant 4, as well as all other CPTs in this study, see this as an excuse and believes the client has time but is not scheduling or prioritizing appropriately Schedule was also mentioned by many CPTs (8 of 12 [67%]) with a total of 16 different times being referenced as a BFRS throughout all stages of research data collection. Though not all CPTs mentioned schedule, it was mentioned by those that did use it as many times leading it to be the third most used BFRS. Schedule, like time, is non-specific and can include other components including family, work, social, leisure, and “other” responsibilities. Participant 6 said, “They feel like their schedules are already packed and overwhelmed. They don't see schedule changing.” When asked about BFRS, Participant 2 said bluntly, “She blamed her schedule.” Addition finding 2: CPTs perceived clients' limiting factors to exercise as controllable. This looks at client attributions from the outside perspective, known as interpersonal theory. Interpersonal theory of attribution theory states that “others are judges determining if others are innocent or guilty (Weiner, 2000).” CPTs look at controllable reasons that clients are not adhering to their programs or lack the motivation to exercise on their own. Most CPTs believe that it is lack of knowledge or understanding (8 of 12 [67%]) that is a reason that clients do not exercise on their own. Participant 5 said, “Most lack knowledge.” Participant 2 stated, “(They are) confused without me. They don’t think they know anything to do without me. Some will ask for exercises to do. Most feel lost and helpless.” Participant 11 said, “They don’t know what or how to do on their own.” Participant 7 detailed, "They need to PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 45 get better and knowing and understanding how to exercise on their own. I may have done exercise with them like a KB swing, but they mentally check out and don't know how to do it on their own. Some feel uncomfortable." In answer to support clients that lack knowledge, all CPTs (100%) have developed strategies to help clients know what to do when not under their supervision. Prioritization is another controllable factor that was addressed by CPTs. Though it did not reach consensus (6 of 12 [50%]), it was mentioned a total of 16 times which makes it tied with schedule for third on the list of most used words recorded as BFRS. Prioritization is a controllable factor that several CPTs spoke to as essential areas of reattribution. Participant 3 stated, "Usually if they still mess up, they blame other outside things like Ramadan, or time, or a lot of other reasons why they can't. Errands, family event, etc. It's not a priority." Participant 1 believed that "it takes effort to prioritize (exercise) into your lifestyle." Making exercise a priority was seen as a controllable aspect of exercise adherence, and other items or experiences take priority over exercise. As Participant 4 said, “It is a matter of prioritizing. They find time for other things, so they could make (exercise) a matter of priority.” Later in the same postintervention interview, Participant 4 added, "They blame time and circumstances and themselves. In most circumstances, they know that are not making it a priority over the things that pop up in their life." Participant 9 provided some prioritization insights by saying, I think they realize we can prioritize the workouts. It's not blocking out two hours to workout. It's more about incorporating it throughout the day like taking the stairs instead of the escalator. Choosing fruit instead of a poor snack. Better food choices at dinner. They can make better lifestyle choices that don't really require time. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 46 Discussion The results show the benefits of attributional retraining (AR) even when most research participants implementing it felt they could have done a better job utilizing AR. From an empirical perspective, AR was found to be beneficial from both the certified personal trainer's (CPTs) perspective and their client's perspective regarding motivation and non-supervised exercise adherence. These preliminary findings provide compelling evidence that rigorous testing should be performed using AR as a potential means of increasing exercise adherence and motivation for CPT clients during their non-supervised exercise. Relevance to Existing Research Attributional retraining has been used in higher education to motivated low achievers toward better grades and non-exercisers to increase exercise adherence (Hamm, Perry, Clifton, Chipperfield, & Boese, 2014; Haynes Stewart et al., 2011; Nickle & Spink, 2010; Sarkisian, Prohaska, Davis, & Weiner, 2007). Nickle and Spink (2010) provided a three-part intervention which was applied during this research with addition of a fourth phase. The outcomes of this research fall in line with the current body of research in that it found positive correlations between the application of attributional retraining and the increased motivation and adherencebased outcomes. Similarly, other researchers have looked at barriers to fitness-related success (BFRS) and found similar barriers though the situation and demographics are not the same (Louw, Biljon, & Mugandani, 2012; Dishman, Jackson, & Bray, 2014). Attributional retraining seems to have applicable transferability in multiple facets. Though the certified personal trainer will ultimately decide if the research is transferable to their situation, the literature does show consistent correlations through various scenarios. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 47 Prioritization versus Time Training clients with an external locus of control (external motivation) tend to blame outside and uncontrollable circumstances for reasons they cannot exercise. Roadblocks, or barriers to fitness-related success (BFRS), reported by the CDC were by large external locus of control examples which included inconveniences, lack of support, nowhere to exercise, not knowing how to exercise, and the weather (CDC, 2018). Per Weiner’s attribution-based theory of motivation, individuals tend to attribute failure toward external locus, and success toward internal locus and a person’s attributions for success or failure determine the amount of effort a person will expend on a task (2010). Individuals attribute their perceived reasons for failing to exercise regularly toward external causes to protect their egos and feel better about themselves and minimize accountability by blaming external circumstances. It is, therefore, essential to help people make small attainable changes in their established habits so that they can begin shifting toward an internal locus of control. This may mean limiting copious amounts of exercise requirements and standards set out by leading organizations like Center of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) or the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) until they can become successful at smaller and less demanding requirements. Before the attributional retraining (AR) workshop, certified personal trainers (CPTs) provided feedback in the initial interview as to why they believe their clients do not workout and exercise on their own. CPTs gave answers based on two different perspectives: 1. Why CPTs think the client believes they cannot exercise, and 2. Why the CPTs believe the clients do not exercise on their own. The prior is given from the perspective of the client while the latter provides an answer that the CPTs think to be the real reason. According to Weiner (2000), there are two viewpoints of attribution theory – intrapersonal and interpersonal theories. Intrapersonal PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 48 theory states that “people are scientists trying to understand themselves and their environment and then act upon the basis of this knowledge (Weiner, 2000, p. 2).” Interpersonal theory conversely states that “others are judges determining if others are innocent or guilty (Weiner, 2000, p. 9).” The majority of the feedback given by trainers from their clients’ perspective listed uncontrollable and stable events. This means that the reasons for exercise non-compliance were often perceived as something that clients could control or change. However, when personal trainers provided their perspective, they often pointed out controllable options and always found a way and the means to exercise. As Participant 4 specified, "It is a matter of prioritizing. They find time for other things so that they could make (exercise) a matter of priority." This is not to discount the importance of work or family time, leisure, or other responsibilities. However, the mounting research on the benefits of exercise on fitness, health, wellness, and cognitive outcomes should cause exercise adherence to be paramount in the lives of all (Garber et al., 2011; Szuhany, Bugatti, & Otto, 2015). Some CPTs pointed out that the time and effort it takes for clients to reach their stated or desired goals will take too long or take too much effort. The Center of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends between 150 minutes to 300 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise or 75 minutes to 150 minutes of vigorous-intensity exercise per week. With these guidelines as a general backdrop, it may seem overwhelming for clients to accomplish. If an all or nothing approach is taken, clients may choose to do nothing over partial commitment that provides less than optimal outcomes. If time constraints limit the ability or perception for clients to achieve their exercise goals, it is vital to prioritize regular movement and activity. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 49 Workshop Scenarios During the workshop, there were several breakout sessions where participants worked within groups to reinforce ideas, provide content surrounding client attributions under differing categories of attribution theory (AT), and develop a series of hypothetical stories that fall in line with AT and AR to use with their clients. These stories were then paired down by the researcher to cover different AT topics including causal ascriptions, causal dimensions, and behavioral consequences. With a variety of hypothetical stories that CPTs can use with their clients during AR, the CPT can pick one or more accounts that differ from their clients' reasons for not exercising, thus allowing the client to have a true outsiders perspective to provide feedback on how to support this assumed person. The following stories were developed by the CPTs in the workshop to offer to their clients: Scenario 1. A man works in finance and entertains clients 2-3 nights per week and travels a lot for business. His schedule leads to drinking too much, eating poorly, and doesn't allow him time to exercise. (Internal or external) (Stable or unstable) (Controllable or uncontrollable) Scenario 2. Since I’ve been in this relationship, I stopped exercising and going to the gym and have gained 20lbs. My fiancé doesn’t say so, but s/he prefers I stay home to be together rather than go to the gym. We are both sedentary, and we eat takeout regularly and often late at night. (Internal or external) PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 50 (Stable or unstable) (Controllable or uncontrollable) Scenario 3. Female in her 20s who just went through a breakup. She is insecure about her body and believes that may play a role in her break up. She is unfamiliar with exercise and what do and because of her insecurities feels uncomfortable working out in front or around other people at the gym. (Internal or external) (Stable or unstable) (Controllable or uncontrollable) Scenario 4. A 67-yo male who loves playing golf. His physician told him to start exercising to help manage his blood pressure and his weight. He does not live near a fitness facility. (Internal or external) (Stable or unstable) (Controllable or uncontrollable) Admittedly, some participants did not use the hypothetical stories because they felt uncomfortable with how to apply this type of role play in a training session. As Participant 6 said, “I usually hear a questionable attribution, and I just call them on it rather than going through the stories.” Calling people on their false attributions is indicated, and the stories are not used in place of holding clients accountable for such statements. Those who did include the hypothetical stories PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 51 developed during the workshop by the participants received excellent feedback and outcomes. For instance, Participant 1 said, “Our sessions have been going better since that session and using the scenario with the fiancé that didn’t want the client to exercise. It allowed us to open up our lines of communication more and showed the role they play in their success.” Later in the interview Participant 1 detailed the following, When we sat to talk instead of workout, it would actually take us into a conversation where a couple of clients would bring up others they knew that were struggling with similar things to the hypothetical story I gave them. With them being able to relate to the stories they were able to see more significance in the stories and see what got in their way and how to stop making excuses for things they could control and know they could start somewhere. Participant 2 relayed these insights, The relation to the story gave her a cool perspective to be put in the trainer’s shoes for 15 mins at the end of a workout gave her the ability to access someone else’s situation which allowed her to look at herself. She saw ahead of time where the direction was going and gave her a clearer picture of how to use it to her benefit. Participant 11 said, I definitely think that it's effective because the clients I have told hypothetical stories to it made them more aware of their own life. The client you observed seemed motivated. After we did the stories, she said she feels so in control! They were already motivated, but it was a huge kick in the ass. As I asked them to apply the attributions to their lives many of them had a huge understanding of the concepts based on being an outsider in the stories. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 52 Programming Research2guidance (R2G) (2014), an app market research company, shows more than 100,000 mobile health apps have been published in the top two platforms, iOS and Android. Revenues reached $2.5 billion in 2013, and projections by the end of 2017 are estimated at $26 billion for health apps resulting in a 0.5% share of the global healthcare market (R2G). Fitness apps led the mobile health categories (30.9%), followed by medical reference apps (16.6%), followed by wellness apps (15.5%) which include topics like relaxation solutions and yoga instruction (R2G). Some of the fitness apps connect to wearable devices that track heart rate, steps, sleep, and more. This shows that mobile technology is supportive of fitness, wellness, and health initiatives and that people show continued demand and use of such technology. Research participants provided exercise programming to help clients who lack knowledge of what to do on their own as well as providing both guidance and accountability. Several apps and platforms such as DotFit.com, myfitnesspal.com, myzone.com, and trainerize.com were used by participants to make programming easy and accessible while receiving real-time feedback when sessions were completed. Others wrote programs out or delivered by text or email to clients. Each of these was used as a means to help clients prioritize exercise while at the same time getting rid of, or at least minimizing, lack of knowledge as a BFRS. Another app suggested by one participant was Headspace.com to help their clients clear their heads and increase focus through guided meditation. Several CPTs forewent digital exercise programming and required that their clients develop their workouts to do on their own time. This was suggested in the workshop and was based on the concept of self-directedness as championed by Knowles as one of six foundational beliefs of andragogy (Clapper, 2010; Caruth, 2014; Taylor & Kroth, 2009). This suggestion PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 53 allowed clients to decide what they can do on their own and can help to provide a more internal locus of control as they are the ones developing the program rather than following what someone else designed. The CPTs should still oversee the process to make sure the clients are putting together a safe, effective, and attainable program. Attributional retraining increased CPTs confidence in training. Certified personal trainers (CPTs) benefit from learning about AR as well. How CPTs developed a new perspective by implementing AR has changed how some train and coach. Participant 9 said, The AR seminar gave me another arrow to put in my quiver and another tool in the toolbox. I hear so many excuses, but it doesn't make a difference if you don't do what's needed to accomplish goals. So, instead of talking to her so tough, I have to look at this through a prism to see a way to help her achieve her goals. I haven't seen a change in her, but I feel better because I'm not getting upset. I'm making it about her and not about how I feel about it. So, AR has given me a new technique to help change my attitude and keep her calmer. She responds better in the gym now. She is having a difficult time still on her own, but she responds better in real time. AR helped retrain me and how I feel about things. I'm not just a trainer. I'm a coach. This helped both of us. I'm really about the result. When weekend after weekend they still don't adhere to coaching it is tough. This AR training has helped both of us. Addition of the Supportive Phase During the workshop, the Nickel and Spink (2010) three-phase approach for AR implementation was reviewed and discussed. Nickel and Spink (2010) conducted two studies to examine associations among past activity behavior, attributions, and self-regulatory efficacy for PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 54 maintaining physical activity sufficient for health benefits. First, the causal search activation asked students to attribute causes for achievement failure. In the AR workshop, reference was made to these achievement failures as barriers to fitness-related success (BFRS). This is where CPTs encourage their clients to discuss the obstacles and limiting factors that keep them from exercise motivation and adherence. Second, the attributional induction stage had students watch a short video of two students discussing ways they could increase academic performance, followed by a professor summarizing the video and reiterating the focus of controllable causal explanations. Rather than providing a video, CPTs in this study provided scenarios developed during the workshop to use with their clients. These scenarios included differing scenarios that addressed unique combinations of causal attributions and determinates of AR. Third, the consolidation phase focused on processing the AR content by writing a summary of the video, provide their attributions as to why the students in the video did poorly, and then more profoundly processing the information by applying the main points of the video to their own lives. All CPTs that used predetermined written stories rather than video to create a scenario to discuss. The CPT and client then engaged in conversations about the predicaments the of individuals and deconstructed, analyzed, and then discussed the situational barriers to fitnessrelated success and how that individual could over them before applying the principles back to their own circumstances. However, having clients write down their interpersonal attributions was not practiced as it seemed impractical in a gym or fitness setting. Instead of writing down a summary, a simple one-on-one discussion between the CPT and the client took place. Not included in the Nickel and Spink (2010) three phases of AR was a fourth phase added for the purpose of this study called the supportive phase. Otherwise, the three previous phases help with self-insight and self-understanding, but no further supportive constructs were PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 55 provided or discussed to support retraining. Detailed and clear exercise programming is an essential part of the supportive phase, but following step by step instructional guidelines is hardly a comprehensive motivational strategy. Many programs are available online, in magazines, and via apps. CPTs in this study suggested additional motivational strategies to support clients to engage in unsupervised exercise. Suggestions included regular emails or text to check-in with clients throughout the week. Some participant suggested electronic versions to make sure everyone gets regular messaging, but others believe automated messages may not be as supportive due to the potential lack of individual feeling. Discussions about appropriate exercise programming, planning for events or races, to conversations about reassessing priorities. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 56 Conclusion In summary, certified personal trainers (CPTs) perceived interventions using attributional retraining (AR) were helpful in increasing unsupervised client exercise motivation and exercise adherence. CPTs acknowledged that AR worked well but admit they would have made changes in their implementation. Those that implemented the full four-part AR system that was discussed in the workshop received more significant feedback from their clients about their attributions. AR also increased the level of intrinsic motivation in personal training clients helping them overcome barriers to fitness-related success such as time, work, and scheduling issues. AR showed to be successful in this group of participants as all subjects increased unsupervised exercise adherence with the support of effective strategies and focus on putting forth individual effort. The use of attribution theory can help CPTs better understand how current attributions can affect future motivation. The use of attributional retraining can help alter the current attributions toward those that are both controllable and unstable. AR deserves further and more rigorous investigation as a means of assisting CPTs to provide guidance and support to clients struggling with BFRS and motivation to exercise on their own. Future Directions for Research Through the lens of qualitative research, this study provided detailed and meaningful feedback from participants that attended the attributional retraining (AR) workshop and applied the instruction with their personal training clients. Though this method is intriguing and provides compelling feedback, more rigorous research applications should be applied to discover the scope of how AR can be fully applied and to what degree. The following section will discuss (1) how qualitative differs from and influences quantitative research, (2) the benefits for CPTs to PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 57 learn about AR, and (3) AR influences motivation and adherence, and (4) a call to action for future research. How qualitative differs from and influences quantitative research. Research looks to solve problems and provide answers constructed around a research question. This study had three such research questions: (1) How do certified personal trainer perceptions of attributional retraining impact client motivation? (2) How does Attributional Retraining impact the level of motivation for personal training clients? (3) How does Attributional Retraining contribute to improved client experience and adherence? Additionally, research is supposed and proposed to have a purpose. This research's aim was to receive feedback from certified personal trainers of their perceived value of AR after applying it with their clients for several months. This was done through a qualitative inquiry. According to Bloomberg (2016), “Qualitative research is suited to promoting a deep understanding of a social setting or activity as viewed from the perspective of the research participants… (which) implies an emphasis on exploration, discovery, and description” (p. 38). This research provides a foundational approach to AR in the use of exercise motivation and adherence as applied by CPTs. There was an educational implementation to the CPTs followed by the immediate application from them to their clients. In this setting, everyone is exploring: the researcher, the CPTs, and the clients. The discovery and description that took place through this exploration is the value-add to the body of research. According to Bloomberg (2016), “Quantitative research, in contrast, is applied to describe current conditions, investigate relationships, and study cause-effect phenomena” (p. 38). This type of study compares numbers rather than themes, statistical correlations rather than perceptions, statistical analysis rather than descriptions of experiences, and as the subtitle of the one article states on social programming “not whether programs work, but how they work” PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 58 (Rogers, 2000). Randomized controlled trials (RTCs) are limited in their ability to explain the “how” or “why” a given intervention worked or did not work, so case studies are helpful to better and more fully explore the “how” or “why” (Shavelson & Towne, 2002). Too often, the hierarchy of research belittles the qualitative approach due to its lack of rigor. This has an unfortunate historical base since “too many times, a case study researcher has been sloppy, has not followed systematic procedures, or has allowed equivocal evidence to influence the direction of the findings and conclusions” (Yin, 2014, p. 19). With appropriate and systematic implementations such as triangulation, saturation, and validation (internal, external, and construct) to the qualitative approach, it does stand up to rigors of evaluation. It is likely that qualitative approaches seem less rigorous because so many methodological texts exist to provide a systematic path for researchers to follow verses very few qualitative texts that cover the same systematic operations (Yin, 2014). Qualitative case studies should be seen and respected “as adjuncts to experiments rather than as alternatives to them” (Cook & Payne, 2001). Though RCTs and other methodological quantitative means are very important, research also is in need of “a humanistic validity-seeking case study methodology that, although making no use of quantification or tests of significance, would still work on the same questions and share the same goals of knowledge” (Yin, 2014, p. xvii). Ultimately, all research starts with a theory that some intervention of interest affects an outcome. Qualitative research is an empirical version that explores and describes how a theory is perceived to work or have an effect in a dynamic setting while quantitative analysis is a measurable version of how independent variables affect dependent variables in a controlled environment. If qualitative research is present, it can lay the groundwork of correlation and interest before embarking on a means of seeking measurement. Research cannot and should not PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 59 always rely only on perceptions to provide answers to questions, but it should listen to the validated stories of an empirical process and then attempt to measure these outcomes against controls. Benefits for CPTs to learn about AR. There is little doubt that CPTs hear attributions blaming various BFRS regularly and habitually. This often comes from clients with an external locus allowing clients to know they need to make a change while at the same time excusing themselves from doing so. External locus of control can often lead someone to desire an outcome deprived of the resolution or decision to change it. This can be exemplified by the impulse purchase of at home workout equipment that is never used and annual gym memberships that never rarely frequented. Through conversations with participants in this study, it is assumed that the client’s goals far exceed their ability to actualize results. It is difficult to motivate change if change always seems impossible. Attributional retraining is a practical means of providing a perspective shift that clients often need to begin reframing and actualizing goals. AR also requires that the clients be honest with their perceived uncontrollable BFRS, acknowledge these barriers, and engage in a conversation with a CPT that can help navigate around said obstacles. CPTs must also understand that the client's perspective may not be the actual reasons they cannot engage in regular unsupervised exercise. However, according to Weiner (2010), the perceived cause of failure may be more important than the actual cause. The implementation of a systematic approach to AR is also different than talking about setting short-term goals and BFRS. Many trainers do this already. However, a systematic approach using the four-step system as provided in this study provided better feedback and had external validation in other research (Nickel & Spink, 2010). The provision of stories that clients PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 60 can look in on and present their interpersonal opinion and feedback allows them to be of help to someone else that is in need – even if it is a hypothetical situation. This is perhaps the personal training equivalent, or at least is correlative, to the flipped-classroom approach where the teachers serve the role as a guide to learning rather than the dictator of information. AR and its foundation in attribution theory can provide CPTs a depth of understanding who their clients are, what are their perceived difficulties in adhering to exercise, and then offer guidance on overcoming those obstacles and developing the intrinsic motivation to exercise by decision and desire rather than guilt and coercion. Intrinsic motivation has repeatedly been linked to enhanced performance and outcomes, but the causal relationship has been unclear (Cerasoli & Ford, 2014). How AR influences motivation and adherence. Hamm, Perry, Clifton, Chipperfield, & Boese (2014) used attributional retraining for group categorized first-year university students as achievement-oriented, failure-acceptors (low control, low failure preoccupation) and failureruminators (low control, high failure preoccupation). The results showed that all students benefited from AR, but it was most beneficial those that had started the study already accepting failure. Failure-acceptors that received AR developed higher intrinsic motivation, higher grade point averages, and fewer course withdrawals than those without AR. Students who ruminated on their failures and felt out of control (failure-ruminators) received no advantage regarding their achievement, yet these students benefitted from AR to the extent that they altered their dysfunctional emotional profile. Teachers have had found positive empirical outcomes with student’s success using AR (Hamm, Perry, Clifton, Chipperfield, & Boese, 2014; Haynes Stewart et al., 2011; Haynes, Daniels, Stupnisky, Perry, & Hladkyj, 2008; Haynes, Ruthig, Perry, Stupnisky, & Hall, 2006). Certified personal trainers (CPTs) might be able to provide similar results in motivation, PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 61 adherence, and compliance when it comes to applying AR with their clientele in the fitness environment. Weiner’s attribution-based theory of achievement motivation provides an understanding of why a person behaves certain ways based on the perceived causes surrounding success or failures for events that occur (Weiner, 1985). In a study on AR, Beacham et al. (2010) found that trainers can help the client to see if the barriers they attribute failure to are controllable to change the locus of control toward internal motives. Using Weiner’s attributionbased theory and attributional retraining, the CPTs can help teach clients that being sedentary is not inevitable and that they should attribute their situation to modifiable attributes rather than uncontrollable factors (Sarkisian, Prohaska, Davis, & Weiner, 2007). These studies show that attributions need to be controllable. If the attribution is out of the client’s control, it is important to reattribute or retrain these attributes. For instance, in Sarkasian, Prohaska, Davis, & Weiner's (2007) study on AR used in the nursing home, many attributed a sedentary lifestyle to old age. Old age is uncontrollable and therefore a poor attribution. AR must include having the clients seek limitations that can be controlled for and altered. Once the client sees these new reasons for their lack of motivation and adherence as something they can control, they now have the power to make a change. This is the at the heart of AR and one of the great influential components of attribution theory. Call to Action for Future Researchers Attribution theory and attributional retraining is not a new concept in motivation, but it is under-represented in the literature, particularly regarding certified personal trainers’ role in client motivation. The benefits of this type of retraining are that it does not cross the boundaries of licensure for mental health professionals. AT and AR have strong roots in higher education PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 62 (Hamm, Perry, Clifton, Chipperfield, & Boese, 2014). Though there is a strong belief that if it works in that environment, it can work in personal training, the body of evidence needs to be more rigorous and robust. This paper contributes to the body of research, but there is indeed room for additional qualitative studies as well as the need for quantifiable research that go beyond a Likert scale that quantifies qualitative data. RCTs and mixed-method research should be developed around exercise-based outcomes using controls and statistical correlations. There is universal agreement that modern society needs to increase activity levels. There are vast amounts of money that patron the industry of fitness and yet throwing money at the problems does not make them assuage. If additional researchers can help find a means of motivation that leads to life-long healthy choices, then a greater good will be done. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 63 References Bekhet, A. K., & Zauszniewski, J. A. (2012). Methodological triangulation: An approach to understanding data. Nurse Researcher, 20(2), 40-43. https://doi.org/10.7748/nr2012.11.20.2.40.c9442 Bloomberg, L.D. (2016). 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Health PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING services research, 34(5 Pt 2), 1209-24. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1089060/ Yin, R. K. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods (Applied social research methods). London. SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition. 69 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Appendix A Review of the Literature 70 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 71 Research about fitness professionals including certified personal trainers (CPTs) and ways to motivate adult clients’ self-directed fitness engagement has not been explored widely (Fjeldsoe, Neuhaus, Winkler, & Eakin, 2011; Saida, Juul Sørensen, & Langberg, 2017). The field of adult education, termed andragogy, was introduced in the United States by Malcolm Knowles (1968) to help understand why and how adult learners approach learning. Since Knowles proposed his theory of andragogy, much theoretical and empirical research has focused on adult education and the nontraditional adult student population. Though adult education activities and outcomes are naturally different from adult exercise activities and the results, this literature review of adult educational approaches is designed to create a theoretical framework of evidence-based strategies that may be implemented to motivate and encourage behavioral changes in adults that lead to greater exercise adherence, compliance, and fitness-based results. Theoretical research in adult education will be further addressed with additional focus given toward self-direction, learner-centeredness, self-determination theory, and attribution-based theories of motivation. From these areas of focus, a theoretical relationship is being proposed between research and techniques teachers use to encourage and motivate their adult students to increase adherence, compliance, and educational outcomes and how certified personal trainers can do the same with their clients regarding exercise. Theoretical Research in Adult Education Driving Concepts in Adult Education Though German educator Alexander Kapp is credited with introducing andragogy, Malcolm Knowles is credited with synthesizing ideas, transforming, rebranding, and galvanizing PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 72 a community of educators to study adult education (Taylor & Kroth, 2009). The following six assumptions are the foundational beliefs of adult learning (andragogy): (1) self-directedness, (2) accumulated past experiences, (3) readiness to learn, (4) problem or task-centered, (5) internal motivation, and (6) the need to know why something should be learned (Clapper, 2010; Caruth, 2014; Taylor & Kroth, 2009). Though more a philosophy or model than theory due to limited empirical evidence (Taylor & Kroth, 2009), andragogy may be able to lend applications to the fitness professional in supporting exercise behavior modifications. The first assumption that Knowles proposed was the idea that the adult learner must be self-directed. According to Brockett and Hiemstra (as cited by Stockdale & Brockett, 2011), selfdirectedness is a “process in which a learner assumes primary responsibility for planning, implementing, and evaluating the learning process. An education agent or resource often plays a facilitating role in the process.” (p. 164). Stockdale and Brockett (2011) developed a scale called the Personal Responsibility Orientation to Self-Direction in Learning Scale (PRO-SDLS) to measure initiative, self-efficacy, control, and motivation with reliability and validity. The PROSDLS may be used as a template to create a self-directedness questionnaire for performancebased activities for the fitness client that can coincide with the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adults (Sibley & Bergman, 2016). Both surveys address self-directedness and preparation in addition to another concept Knowles addressed – self-reflection (Sibley & Bergman, 2016; Stockdale & Brockett, 2011). Self-directed learning can be applied in a four-stage cycle: planning-learning-assessmentadjustment (Ten Cate, Kusurkar, & Williams, 2011). The planning phase is composed of two parts: goal setting and the motivation to acquire knowledge and skills. The learning and assessment phases include seeking instruction on styles, means, methods, techniques, and PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 73 strategies on how to learn or accomplish a learning outcome. They may also include selfmonitoring and solicit feedback on their aptitude. The adjustment phase is a reflective component that allows the self-directed learner to think about the outcomes and make corrections or modifications for future learning. There is a correlation with the steps provided in the selfdirected four-stage cycle is implemented in education and how personal training clients begins to seek out and work with a personal trainer or other fitness professional. Tønseth (2015) discusses “readiness to learn,” the third of Knowles’ andragogic concepts, as a combination of time in of life and triggering factors that lead an adult to seek learning activities actively. Tønseth notes that triggering factors can be in response to work, recreation, family life, community life and the like. These triggering factors can be considered problem or task-oriented, which supports Knowles’ fourth assumption. Tønseth performed qualitative interviews with 25 individuals, six males and 19 females, attending leisure-time adult education programs at a university which varied in length and delivery (online, correspondence, in-class lecture). The list of triggers in this adult population included children that have grown to be more independent allowing for more time, divorce or breakups, workplace downsizing, newly available financial support, peers or family members taking the same course who influenced participation, and retraining due to illness or rehabilitation. Though there are many external factors leading to self-directed education, all participants voluntarily enrolled in courses show Knowles’ fifth assumption of internal motivation. These results show that there are different triggers involving life transitions that lead individuals to seek participation in various learning activities. Future studies with similar approaches that focus on exercise-related triggers may help fitness professional better understand the reasons, rationale, and motivation for their client’s seeking exercise training services. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 74 Maryellen Weimer contributes to the adult learning body of knowledge with her excellent book Learner-Centered Teaching (2013). In it, she discusses five principles that need to be implemented to be learner-centered: (1) teachers should let students do more learning tasks, (2) teachers should do less telling so that learners can do more discovering, (3) teachers need to create well-designed learning experiences, (4) teachers need to demonstrate how skillful learners approach learning, and (5) teachers need to encourage students to learn from each other (Weimer, 2013). Instructors facilitate learning by applying these principles and teaching students how to take responsibility for their learning (Blumberg & Pontiggia, 2011). These principles lay the foundation for the movement away from what teachers want to teach their student via “telling” and moves toward how the teachers can guide students to discover and acquiring knowledge through innovative guidance. By applying this approach, students should proceed toward Knowles’ self-directedness, readiness, and internal motivations, which would leave them to explore and cycle through the remaining assumptions that Knowles proposed for adult learners – past experiences, problem-centeredness, and knowing why something should be learned or performed. Perhaps the fitness professional can apply Weimer’s principles to their training, teaching, and coaching to help prepare the fitness client for a self-directed and life-long focus on fitness and wellness. Attributions for Motivation, Stressors, and Roadblocks Social media providers Facebook, Instagram, and Messenger reported that consumers spent an average of 50 minutes per day on their platforms in the first quarter of 2016 (Stewart, 2016). The American Time Use Survey (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016) showed that the average American spent 2.8 hours per day watching TV in 2015. When combined with time for PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 75 sleep, work, school or other education, as well as other responsibilities, there is little wonder why the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) lists a major roadblock for exercise involvement as time (2011). Other roadblocks reported were inconveniences, lack of support, nowhere to exercise, not knowing how to exercise, and the weather (CDC, 2011). Per Weiner’s attribution-based theory of motivation, individuals tend to attribute failure toward external locus, and success toward internal locus and a person’s attributions for success or failure determine the amount of effort a person will expend on a task (2010). Individuals attribute their perceived reasons for failing to exercise regularly toward external causes, so it is essential to help people make small attainable changes in their established habits so that they can shift toward an internal locus of control. Attribution Theory Bernard Weiner’s attribution theory states that people ascribe reasons for why they or others succeed or fail at a particular event or endeavor (Weiner, 1985). Weiner explored three causal sources, or traits, to which outcomes are often attributed: control, stability, and locus of causality (2013). Can the individual control the outcome? Is the outcome stable or constant, or is it variable, in flux, or optional? Is the locus of control internal or external? An internal locus of control establishes the cause of effort residing within the person such as interest, liking, or desire to perform a specific task. The internal locus for an exerciser may be because the individual likes how exercise makes them feel. External locus of control comes from outside influences and may be a goal provided by an external agent that another individual may attempt to achieve. An external locus for exercise may be because a person’s spouse thinks that they need to exercise to lose bodyweight. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 76 External locus of control is most often attributed to failures assigning fault to anyone or anything but oneself (Weiner, 2010, p. 30). An example of an external locus of control is when two teenagers in Bronx, New York sued the restaurant chain McDonald’s claiming that it was the restaurant’s fault for their obesity (Santora, 2002). An external locus of control during successful outcomes when starting an exercise program, progressing, and getting results may lead a person to give external credit such as the support of other people, luck, or divine intervention. An internal locus of control is when an individual sees their success or failures as a direct consequence of their own doing. Internal locus of control most often relates to high achievement needs, and that is because of personal control, skill, and ability that one could become successful (Weiner, 2010). In addition to the causal traits, Weiner (1985) suggest that the most important factors in attributions of achievements are ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck. The causal dimension of stability might indicate that effort and luck (chance or opportunity) are both unstable, meaning that effort levels and luck can change. Ability and task difficulty may be considered stable, meaning that one cannot change the ability or difficulty of the required task. They can only work harder and hope to get lucky. For instance, losing weight for many is a difficult task, and the person’s ability to lose weight will not change. However, with effort and luck, chance, and opportunity on their side they may find success at weight loss. Weiner also points out that a person’s opinion of whether they will be successful will indicate if they will begin an endeavor. In the weight loss scenario, a person who thinks that exercise or a healthy will not lead to weight loss will never attempt exercise or eat better due to lack of belief of impending success. These factors in achievement ability rely heavily on the causal components of control, stability, and locus of causality. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 77 Weiner’s attribution-based theory is grounded on the work of many others (Weiner, 2010). The historical influences on Weiner’s theory starts with E. L. Thorndike’s Law of Effects which states that a rewarded behavior will be repeated, and a punished behavior will be avoided (2010). These experiences and practices performed over time influence future actions. Hull and Spence are the primary creators of “drive theory” which claims that behaviors are determined by Drive X Habit, along with other factors such as influence (Weiner, 2010). According to Weiner, Tolman (1932), Rotter (1954), and Atkinson (1957) said that drive is Expectancy × Value and, for Atkinson, motives as well (2010). Incentives may include pride in achievement, the difficulty of success, or ease of accomplishment. Weiner’s “grand” foundations were brought into question when Atkinson’s theory was not confirmed in experimental studies. Rotter’s (1966) work on the concept of “locus of control” stated that individuals with high achievement needs see their environment as controllable by them versus a person with low achievement needs who may see their success or failure as luck. However, Weiner was concerned that this unitary construct, without the consideration of success or failure, or ability and effort, was not sufficient. Heider’s work on attribution theory identified three determinants of performance: ability (internal to the actor), effort (internal to the actor), and task difficulty (external cause of outcome) (Weiner, 2010). Once the work of Heider was included into Weiner’s concepts, four main perceived causes of achievement outcomes were developed—ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck. These four outcomes are the combination of the “grand” theories of motivation in which Weiner’s attribution-based theory is grounded. This theory is used in educational context to build student motivation (Weimer, 2013, p. 66), and have been implemented to produce positive exercise interventions via increased motivation (Sarkisian, Prohaska, Davis, & Weiner, 2007). PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 78 Attributional Retraining Attributional retraining (AR) is designed to restructure causal explanations of poor performance by encouraging controllable attributions such as effort and strategy in place of immutable causes such as ability or intelligence (Haynes Stewart et al., 2011). Research has shown AR’s effectiveness in modifying causal attributions (Haynes et al., 2006), increased perceived control (Haynes et al., 2006), improved motivation among university students (Haynes et al., 2008) and increased likelihood of passing university courses (Haynes Stewart et al., 2011; Hamm, Perry, Clifton, Chipperfield, & Boese, 2014). Sarkisian, Prohaska, Davis, and Weiner (2007) developed a mixed method study designed to test if AR through behavioral interventions could increase walking levels in sedentary older adults. Using as mixed method design, forty-six sedentary adults aged 65 and older took part in the four-week intervention which included four weekly one-hour group sessions followed by a one-hour exercise class. The group sessions taught sedentary seniors that being sedentary is not inevitable and that they should attribute being sedentary to modifiable attributes rather than old age. Outcome data was measured seven weeks after the start of the four-week intervention. Walking outcomes were measured with a Digiwalker pedometer which calculated the number of steps taken with accuracy within 3%. The pedometer was covered so that participants would not be influenced by the knowledge of their step count. Quantitative data recorded that the mean steps per week increased from 24,749 to 30,707, a 24% increase – equivalent to 2.5 miles (2-sided t-test P=.002). The qualitative results showed that participants experienced an improved mental health-related quality of life (P=.049) and reported less difficulty with activities of daily living (P=.04) PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 79 More than 50% of participants reported improvements in pain, energy level, and sleep quality. Quantifiable support for Weiner’s theory helps strengthen the theory and should lead to more randomized controlled trials that may show that people can modify beliefs about stressors and perceived inevitable outcomes leading to positive changes in activity levels. Hamm, Perry, Clifton, Chipperfield, & Boese (2014) used attributional retraining for group categorized first-year university students as achievement-oriented, failure-acceptors (low control, low failure preoccupation) and failure-ruminators (low control, high failure preoccupation). The results showed that all students benefited from AR, but it was most beneficial those that had started the study already accepting failure. Failure-acceptors that received AR developed higher intrinsic motivation, higher grade point averages, and fewer course withdrawals than those without AR. Students who ruminated on their failures and felt out of control (failure-ruminators) received no advantage regarding their achievement, yet these students benefitted from AR to the extent that they altered their dysfunctional emotional profile. Theoretically, if teachers have had found positive empirical outcomes with student’s success using AR, certified personal trainers (CPTs) might be able to provide similar results in motivation, adherence, and compliance when it comes to applying AR with their clientele in the fitness environment. Nickel and Spink (2010) conducted two studies to examine associations among past activity behavior, attributions, and self-regulatory efficacy for maintaining physical activity sufficient for health benefits. AR was implemented in three phases. First, the causal search activation asked students to attribute causes for achievement failure. Second, the attributional induction stage had students watch a short video of two students discussing ways they could increase academic performance, followed by a professor summarizing the video and reiterating PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 80 the focus of controllable causal explanations. Third, the consolidation phase focuses on processing the AR content by writing a summary of the video, provide their attributions as to why the students in the video did poorly, and then more deeply processing the information by applying the main points of the video to their own lives. The main finding concerned the detail that specific attributional dimensions significantly improved the prediction of self-regulatory efficacy over and above past behavior. AR was beneficial to all students but was particularly advantageous to students who performance orientation identified them as most vulnerable. Attribution theory and attributional retraining has transcended the field of education, and has been used in social, psychological, and behavioral sciences, as well as in exercise (Louw, Biljon, & Mugandani, 2012; Dishman, Jackson, & Bray, 2014; Sarkisian, Prohaska, Davis, & Weiner, 2007; Weinberg, Hall, & Sverdlik, 2015; Haynes Stewart et al., 2011). The goal of this study is to see if certified personal trainers find value in and are willing to perform AR after being exposed its ability to help their clients with exercise motivation and adherence. Additional goals are to see how fitness clients report increased exercise adherence based on the AR training they receive from their certified personal trainer. Self-Determination Theory Weimer’s attribution-based theory is often used in adult education to identify what motivates and hinders student’s success (2010). Another type of motivational approach is selfdetermination theory. Self-determination theory (SDT) was developed by Ryan and Deci (2000) and Deci and Ryan (2000), and is considered one of foremost themes in the psychology of the motivational process (Ten Cate, Kusurkar, & Williams, 2011; Van den Berghe, Vansteenkiste, Cardon, Kirk, & Haerens, 2014). There are seven general principles in Ryan and Deci’s work PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 81 according to Ten Cate et al., (2011): (1) humans are growth-oriented and seek progress, internalize and integrate psyche to build a unified sense of self, incorporate into larger social constructs, and develop tendencies that can be aroused or impeded by internal and external forces. (2) There are three needs for psychological growth, wellbeing, and integrity: (i) the need for autonomy, (ii) the need for competence, (iii) and the need to relate to others. (3) There is a spectrum of motivation to amotivation (lack of interest) and can be extrinsically or intrinsically motivated. Extrinsic motivation is based on rewards or punishment. Intrinsic motivation is engagement in an activity out of interest or inherent satisfaction. (4) An internalization process of external self-regulations can change the nature of motivation. This allows externally motivated process the opportunity to become internalized habits that can lead to internal motivation leading to autonomous self-regulation and worth. (5) Internal motivation requires the three basic psychological needs listed in principle two: the need for autonomy, the need for competence, the need for relatedness. (6) High internal motivation is associated with better learning, better conceptual understanding, and better academic performance, and better wellbeing than high extrinsic motivation. (7) Extrinsic motivation is divided into four sub-groups: external regulation (conforming to rules that are not believed in, but motivated by punishment to continue), introjection of regulation (accepting rules made by others), identification of regulation (understanding the significance of rules made by others), and integration of regulation (the connection of rule to daily norms and values). External and interjected being the most external forms of motivation are called controlled self-regulation. Autonomous self-regulation includes identification and integration as well as full intrinsically regulated behaviors. Self-determination theory primarily looks at the difference between internal motivation, such as genuine interest in the topic, versus external motivation that may use rewards and PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 82 punishments to provoke change (Rothes, Lemos, & Gonçalves, 2017). In a study by Rothes et al. (2017), a sample of 188 individuals enrolled in differentiated educational classes and were given two different questionnaires during the first week of school. The same questionnaires were given to the remaining sample of 175 students three months later. After descriptive statistics and correlations had been measured, a cluster analysis was used to generate four motivational profiles: high-quantity motivation group, a good-quality motivation group, a low-quantity motivation group, and a poor-quality motivation group (Rothes, Lemos, & Gonçalves, 2017). Results showed that clusters of learners with high autonomous (internal) motivation in the onset of a course score higher self-efficacy behavioral engagement, and deep learning strategies, while the controlled motivation (external) have poorer results (Rothes, Lemos, & Gonçalves, 2017). This finding supports the effects of autonomous motivation profile on adults’ self-efficacy, use of adult learning strategies, and behavioral engagement that focuses on the importance of facilitating the progressive internalization of learners’ controlled motivation. These results suggest that educators should create a learning environment where learners have choices, as well as opportunities to participate and share experiences (Rothes, Lemos, & Gonçalves, 2017). The suggestion of shared experiences draws on the Knowles assumption of adult learning of accumulated past experiences because adults do not come to situations as a blank slate (Clapper, 2010; Caruth, 2014; Taylor & Kroth, 2009). Intrinsic motivation has repeatedly been linked to enhanced performance and outcomes, but the causal relationship has been unclear (Cerasoli & Ford, 2014). Cerasoli and Ford (2014) used a three-wave panel study and hypotheses drawn from self-determination theory and achievement goal theory to clarify the relationship between intrinsic motivation, mastery goal orientation, and performance. A total of 89 respondents completed questionnaires at the PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 83 beginning, middle, and end of the semester regarding intrinsic motivation (wave 1), mastery goal orientation (wave 2), and performance behaviors (wave 3). Intrinsic motivation was positively linked with performance practices, regardless of when in the semester, it was measured. Mastery goals showed similar results as the intrinsic motivation pattern regarding performance behaviors and dwindled only slightly over time. Analysis from this study suggests that internal motivation drives the duration and intensity of behavior while mastery goals give focus and direction to the position that drive and cognition toward competence-relevant, rather than satisfaction-relevant, performance actions that predict long-term success. Therefore, intrinsic motivation can increase mastery goals and vice versa, but mastery goals have a greater effect on performance outcomes. Additional stressors. Giancola, Grawitch, and Borchert (2009) studied the adult student’s inter-role conflicts and stressors that come from work, personal life, and school. The adult students were to determine the degree to which they had experienced stress in each condition over the past six months. Workplace stressors were ranked considerably higher than personal life stressors, and personal life stressors ranked significantly higher than school stressors. Hawk and Lyons (2008) produced an explorative qualitative study to identify if student learning is affected by their belief if faculty care about them or not. Results indicated that students who experience teachers modeling caring behaviors might be more willing to adopt an ethic of care in their lives and become models for others (Giancola et al., 2009). In 2016, Quiggins et al. conducted a study to determine the motivations and perceived barriers for nontraditional undergraduate students in the College of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources (CASNR) at Texas Tech University. The nontraditional students that associated their post-secondary education with a positive task value perceived their intrinsic motivation to be greater than extrinsic motivation. Nontraditional students attributed institutional barriers such as PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 84 the lack of a nontraditional student office on campus, mentoring programs, and support groups for nontraditional students as the largest obstacles to continuing their education (Quiggins et al., 2016). This indicates that nontraditional adult students have high amounts of intrinsic motivation, but they need supportive environments and mentors that cater to and better understand that their needs differ from their younger, more traditional, student counterparts. A study by Louw, Van Biljon, and Mugandani (2012) showed varying stressors and exercise barriers based on age. They recruited 154 participants (77 females, 77 males) from three different fitness facilities. Participants exercised an average of four times per week and were grouped into the following age groups: <25 years, 25-34 years, 35-44 years and >44 years. The Exercise Motivations Inventory 2 (EMI-2) and the Exercise Causality Orientations Scale (ECOS) were modified to measure exercise motivators and barriers. The questionnaire was divided into four sections, demographic information, exercise participation level, motives for exercise, and barriers to exercise, and employed a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all true for me) to 5 (very true for me) with fifteen exercise motivational themes, and fifteen themes relating to exercise barriers. Motivational reasons for the under 25 age group was “appearance,” where the 25-34-year age group reported to “feel energized” as their top-ranking response. The 35-44-year age group listed “weight control” as their most listed response while the above 44-year and up age group listed “enjoyment” as their top motivator for exercise. This group also listed “manage stress” as a top response while the under 25 age group listed “manage stress” motive last. As indicated by the results, barriers to exercise differed among age groups. All groups listed time restrictions and “other priorities” such as work and family obligations as top-ranking barriers to exercise. Other restrictions limited to the under 25 age group were “lack of transport,” “hangover,” and a “rest day” needed between exercise bouts. The two middle adult groups PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 85 agreed that family and work priorities were top barriers. Age 44 and above listed poor health as the prime reason to not exercise. Overall, differences in barriers and motivators were based on differences in age, life experience, and gender. Distinct differences between age groups in both fitness (Low, et al., 2010) and student populations (Giancola, Grawitch, & Borchert, 2009) can be seen regarding exercise stressors and motivators. Correlation of Adult Education Research, Exercise Adherence, and Motivation There are similarities between classroom teachers and certified personal trainers, school students and training clients, and the motivational constructs and skills that each use to direct and motivate the individuals to whom they have been purposed. This review seeks to show that similarities exist between the adult students of higher education and the adult exerciser regarding motivation and barriers. It is suggested then that the andragogic assumptions proposed by Knowles can theoretically be applied to students regardless of industry. Attribution Theory Attribution theory and attributional retraining has transcended the field of education, and has been used in social, psychological, and behavioral sciences, as well as in exercise (Louw, Biljon, & Mugandani, 2012; Dishman, Jackson, & Bray, 2014; Sarkisian, Prohaska, Davis, & Weiner, 2007; Weinberg, Hall, & Sverdlik, 2015; Haynes Stewart et al., 2011). Weiner’s attribution-based theory of achievement motivation provides an understanding of why a person behaves certain ways based on the perceived causes surrounding success or failures for events that occur (Weiner, 1985). Note that perceived reasons may not be the actual causes of success or PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 86 failure, instead the selected cause that the person attributes success or failure toward. Beacham et al., (2010), applies schema theory and attribution theory to identify positive exercise outcomes. A “schema,” like Knowles’ assumption of past experiences, is how a person uses past experiences to actively process information that forms into cognitive structures (Beacham et al., 2010). One is “schematic” when attributes are considered extremely self-descriptive and paramount to self-image. “Aschematic” is when attributes are considered only moderately selfdescriptive and are not crucial to self-image (Beacham et al., 2010). Beacham et al., (2010) examined the role of exercise schemata related to perceived success or failure in self-determined exercise goals in 210 adult participants using ACSM frequency guidelines. Exerciser schematics exercised more frequently, for a longer duration per exercise session, and reported higher levels of subjective exercise intensity. They also showed higher levels of self-efficacy, positive outcome expectancies for exercise, and were more than four times more likely to rate exercise goal attainment success than failure. Internal locus of control, stable, and personal control (attribution theory components) over exercise were predictive of exerciser schemata, and schematics were more likely (OR = 24.16) to meet exercise frequency guidelines. Results show that past experiences and attributions create cognitive structures or patterns that identify exercise as being schematic or aschematic for participants. Certified personal trainers can use questionnaires like the ones in this study to better understand client attributions. Once aschematics have been identified, the trainer can help the client to see if the barriers they attribute failure to are controllable to change the locus of control toward internal motives. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 87 Self-Determination Theory Self-determination theory (SDT) has become increasingly popular in physical education research in the past decade (Van den Berghe, Vansteenkiste, Cardon, Kirk, & Haerens, 2014). Van den Berghe et al. (2014) says “SDT states that for students to be optimally motivated for physical education, it is critical to support the satisfaction of their innate, psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness by being autonomy-supportive, by structuring the environment [to foster competence], and by creating a warm and solid relationship with the students” (p. 97). Teixeira, Carraça, Markland, Silva, & Ryan (2012) performed a systematic review of 66 empirical studies on 72 independent samples (several studies provided multiple samples) published between 1960-2011 that looked at exercise or physical activity, self-regulation, selfdetermination, and motivation. The majority of the studies included at least one component of SDT: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. The increase in popularity of SDT is seen by the fact that 53 of the 66 papers were published in the past five years. Samples were mixed gender and aged primarily between 25-65 years and applied to a wide range of physical activity settings including recreational exercise, weight loss programs, and clinical populations. The reviews of the study included exercise behavior regulations, needs satisfaction, exercise motives, a perceived need for support, and SDT-based interventions. Only seven studies used SDT-based concepts as interventions to increase physical activity with six (86%) favoring the SDT group for perceived autonomy support, need satisfaction, and autonomous and introjected regulations for exercise, as well as more self-reported exercise. The author of the only study without positive outcomes argued that the four-week SDT-based intervention for cardiac patients may have PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 88 provided an insufficient number of intervention sessions to achieve between-group differences. In a more recent study (Rahmana, Hudsonb, Thøgersen-Ntoumanic, & Doustd, 2015), 389 cardiac rehabilitation patients (aged 36–84 years; M age = 64 ± nine years; 34.3% female) entered a 12-week cardiac rehabilitation program. A total of 243 completed the 12-week intervention (62.5%) of twice weekly 60-minute exercise classes. Increases in autonomy satisfaction predicted positive changes in behavioral regulation. Improvements in competence and relatedness satisfaction predicted improvements in behavioral management and well-being. Competence positively predicted habitual physical activity. This study highlighted that the perception of needs satisfaction and SDT motivation improved well-being during a structured cardiac rehabilitation program and long-term physical activity. The Teixeira, Carraça, Markland, Silva, & Ryan (2012) review showed positive results between more autonomous forms of motivation and exercise. The autonomous motives better increased short-term implementation of exercise than intrinsic motivation. However, greater intrinsic motivation was more predictive of long-term exercise adherence and a better predictor of adherence across a greater range of samples and settings. Intrinsic motivation is thought to be increased by emphasizing fun, skill improvement, personal accomplishment, and excitement while exercising. However, Teixeira et al. (2013) found a concern regarding intrinsic motivation for exercise due to mundane or repetitive nature of activities and copious amounts of effort, so extrinsic motivation based on outcomes may lead to higher persistence than exercising for fun, enjoyment, or seeking a challenge. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 89 Self-Determination Theory in Older Adults Many certified personal trainers engage with clients of various ages including an older adult population. An exploration of research performed by Minyoung et al. (2016), looked at a self-determination-based intervention for a group of older individuals (n = 18; 67.50 ± 3.79 years). More than half of the subjects reported having never engaged in a regular exercise program (n = 12), with a reported average duration of exercise for the remaining six participants as 7.8 minutes per day, 1.3 days per week. The exercise intervention group engaged in physical activity two days per week for 13 months. A total of 89 sessions were completed with attendance recorded at each class. Self-determination strategies were provided for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Autonomy interventions included: (1) choice over the type of exercise, (2) given meaningful rationales for the exercise options, and (3) acknowledgment of the participant’s feelings and perspectives. Competency strategies included: (1) appropriate challenges, (2) regular sharing of results to see progress from baseline, and (3) provide goals and plans every three to four months for decreases in weight, blood pressure, and body fat, and for increases in balance, lower extremity strength, and aerobic endurance. Relatedness strategies were designed to build support between other participants as well as rapport with the researchers. At seven months, the exercise completion rate was 100% and 94.44% at 13 months. Exercise attendance was 84.47% at seven months and 82.52% at 13 months, with one participant dropping out after completing two-thirds (66%) of the interventions. At 13 months compared with seven months, intrinsic motivation was found to be the greatest motivating influence, with an increase of 20% in intrinsic motivation and a decrease of 26% autonomously driven external motivation. Significant improvements were measured at the end of 13 months in all physical fitness categories tested compared to baseline: 30-s chair-to-stand test (p < .001), 2-min step test (p < PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 90 .001), 8-foot up-and-go test (p < .001), and arm curl test (p < .001). The increase in fitness outcomes is unsurprising considering the participants did not engage in regular exercise at the time of recruitment and most had never exercised regularly. The most remarkable part of the study is that of the 18 individuals that had never or rarely exercised, 17 completed the 13-month intervention of two 1-hour weekly group exercise classes. The only subject that dropped out completed two-thirds of the total number of class interventions (66%) before leaving the group. Duda et al., (2014) compared SDT intervention with a fitness center’s standard practice. Three hundred forty-seven participants referred to exercise by their physician enrolled across 13 fitness facilities in a large city of the United Kingdom. Six of the facilities (184 people) were randomly selected to give the SDT intervention, while the remaining seven (163 people) were provided current standard practice. Ninety percent of the participants were measured to be overweight or obese. The SDT interventions included a group and one-on-one training discussing highlights of SDT theory, autonomy strategies, self-management physical activity promotional booklet, and presented examples of SDT consultations are performed. Discussion of SDT consultations was based upon the integration of physical activity with life values. Discussions also included normalization of failure and recalibration of implemented plans. The fitness advisor encouraged participants to consider how they intended to become more active, how to implement activities, and where and how they could find social support regarding exercise engagement. They were also given a manual on how to manage their own exercise and be more autonomous regarding physical activity. Physical assessments including blood pressure, weight, and body mass index were performed. Questionnaires were taken at baseline, three months, and six months to assess perceived physical fitness, quality of life, emotional problems, daily activity, overall health, and changes in PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 91 health. The standard provision group provided support “as needed” over the course of the study. At the three-month follow-up, the SDT group self-reported an increase of moderate/vigorous physical activity increased by 196 minutes and other physical activity excluding walking increased by 110 minutes from baseline. The standard provision group reported an increase of 187 minutes of moderate/vigorous physical activity and other physical activity excluding walking increased by 112 minutes from baseline. At six months, the SDT group self-reported a 114-minute increase in moderate to vigorous physical activity and 61-minute increase in physical activity excluding walking from baseline. The standard provision group self-reported an increase of 120 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity and 73 minutes of physical activity excluding walking. At the end of six months, both groups saw significant increases in physical activity from baseline. The authors hypothesized that the SDT intervention group would sustain the long-term increase in physical activity beyond the standard control group, but this was not so. Authors claimed there was no difference in the SDT group control group, but indeed the standard provision group, the group with available fitness professionals present for support, did provide a higher number of self-reported minutes to the blinded interviewer. While both groups of participants showed excellent success, it is important to acknowledge that the presence and support of fitness professionals play a significant role in exercise adherence. It is possible that older adults react differently than their younger or middle-aged counterparts, so additional research would be required to see if the presence and support of fitness professionals continue to play a role in exercise adherence for those populations. However, the findings are encouraging and may immediately be put to the task by supportive staff within exercise facilities. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 92 The Role of the Fitness Professional Over the past 18 years, the percentage of adults aged 40-70 who exercise at least 12 times per month or more has decreased from 53% to 43% (King, Mainous, Carnemolla, & Everett, 2009). Other factors during the same timeframe show an increase in body mass index (BMI) from 28% to 36% (P <.05), smoking rates relatively unchanged (26.9% to 26.1%), eating five or more fruits and vegetables a day decreased from 42% to 26% (P <.05), and moderate alcohol use has increased from 40% to 51% (P <.05). Adherence to all five healthy habits has gone from 15% to 8% (P <.05) (King et al., 2009). Though there are many factors in need of support, the role of the fitness professional has shown marked influence on exercise adherence (Carpenter and Gilleland, 2016; Abildso, Zizzi, & Reger-Nash, 2010; Gilleland et al., 2006). This section will look at the impact that the fitness professional has on exercise adherence, compliance, and motivation. Carpenter and Gilleland (2016) performed a study with a group of 77 obese (BMI ≥25) adults (ages 18-70; mean age 46.5) with a comorbid condition such as metabolic syndrome, diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, or sleep apnea. The study was divided into two phases. Phase I was a supervised exercise program where the subjects would work one-on-one with an exercise physiologist each time they visited the gym. This phase design was implemented for the first three months of the 12-month study. Phase II was designed to allow the subjects to selfmanage their exercise program with a fitness professional present for consultation if needed. This phase lasted from month four to month 12. Adherence was defined as attending the gym at least eight times per month which required a sign-in, being weighed, and have pre- and post- vital signs (blood pressure and heart rate) measured by the gym staff each session. Of the 77 phase I participants, 58 (77.3%) completed the first three months of programming with 40 (69%) PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 93 adhering to the program attendance requirements. Twenty-four participants (41.4%) continued to phase II for an additional nine months of unsupervised exercise programming. Only eight people (33.3%) finished the full course of the study with a single individual completing the program’s attendance requirements of eight visits or more per month. The health factor results from the Carpenter and Gilleland (2016) study showed that participants that completed the eight visits per month for three months of supervised fitness training in phase I gained significant improvement in all eight fitness indicators considered. Phase I participants that attended less than eight sessions per month showed improvement in four of eight fitness indicators including self-reported fitness level, weight, BMI, and percent body fat. Interestingly, the stressors and barriers to completion of the program such as health history data including comorbidities, symptoms, habits, perceived tension, job stress, and fitness level were not significantly associated with adherence. Instead, self-reported symptoms of swollen, stiff, painful joints (p = .01), and swollen ankles and legs (p = .02) were associated with decreased adherence to exercise. Abildso, Zizzi, and Reger-Nash (2010) organized a similar study, but with a much larger sample, with phase I providing supervised support for the first three months, and phase II lasting an additional nine months without supervision. There were 1,647 individuals across 23 fitness locations in West Virginia that participated in phase I with 76.5% of participants completing the initial phase. Those that completed phase I marked significant weight loss with a mean average of 13 lbs. Of those that progressed to phase II, 762, a total of 348 (45.7%) made it through the completion of the program. These participants lost an average of 20.9 lbs. from baseline. With low individual maintenance through the program, it is important to discern additional selfmanagement strategies that can positively influence exercisers to complete a long-term program PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 94 and make lifestyle changes that can last. Further review of common teaching and motivation strategies already being implemented with the world of adult education may allow for insight for addressing behavioral change in the exerciser. Combined, the results of these studies show increased adherence when in the presence of personal trainer supervision. However, an argument can be made that adherence was easier because during the first three months when personal training services were made available, was at the start of the program when excitement and willingness to commit is elevated. The nine months of unsupervised exercise (phase II) following the initial three months of supervised exercise (phase I) may certainly increase attrition rates in exercisers due to time and loss of interest. The presence of an exercise supervisor did provide needed support and adherence during the initial phase of the study. In 2006, Gilleland et al. ran a three-month study comparing the presence of personal training services, along with other interventions, to a control group without. West Virginia’s state insurance agency sponsored the study because they have experienced a $40 million increase in obesity-related illness over the last decade. The intervention, supervised group (n=14) worked with certified personal trainers (CPTs) three times per week, kept a food log, met with a registered dietician twice, and an exercise physiologist once over the course of three months. The control group (n=25) had access to speak with an exercise physiologist without support or guidance as CPT but could pay to enroll in other programs or services. Adherence (showing up) outcomes for the intervention group was 77%. Of that number, compliance (following the program) was 83%. Control group adherence was 52% with a compliance rate of those that adhered to the program of 67%. The intervention group decreased BMI (40±9 to 37 ± 8), and weight (241 ± 59lbs to 220 ± 54lbs; P <.05), resulting in an 8.2 ± 2.5 % decrease in body weight. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 95 Courneya et al. (2012) compared supervised and unsupervised exercise to examine predictors of exercise adherence in a randomized control trial. The trial involved 320 sedentary, postmenopausal women, with 160 randomized into the exercise intervention group to determine if a 12-month exercise intervention could positively alter biomarkers associated with breast cancer risk. The control group was asked not to make any change to their exercise behavior. The exercise intervention was to participate in 200 minutes per week of moderate to vigorous walking over the course of a year with approximately 123 of the 200 minutes occurring three times per week under supervision at an exercise facility. Two walking sessions per week were to be unsupervised, totaling 77 minutes, at a location they desired. Upon completion of the study, the supervised portion of the walking intervention logged an average of 117 of 123 minutes per week (95%) while the unsupervised portion charted an average of 61 of 77 minutes per week (79%). There is no mention of participant dropout which is significant itself on a one-year trial. Forty-five percent of participant exceeded the trial goal of 200 minutes per week, and 79% could exercise at Canadian public health guidelines of 150 minutes per week. Overall, the supervised programs provided superior exercise adherence than did the unsupervised portions. This study provides positive support for supervision of a fitness professional. The studies reviewed in this section identified those professionals administering instruction and testing as certified personal trainers, exercise physiologists, and fitness professionals. Though each of these professionals may have differences in scope, they were often present as educated supervisors and support for exercisers. It is possible that the source of supervision and support can also be applied to group instructors, coaches, and other fitness professionals to increase exercise adherence. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 96 Conclusion There are numerous theories and models with varying amounts of theoretical and empirical evidence that education implements to increase student outcomes (Taylor & Hamdy, 2013). There is also some theoretical and empirical evidence that these same evidence-based techniques used in education have been used in fitness be certified personal trainers. Most people understand that exercise is an integral part of being healthier and losing weight. Knowles assumptions on andragogy support that these adults are problem-centered and that they know why they need to exercise, but the individual may lack other needed assumptions to engage in regular exercising, such as self-direction, internal motivation, and overcoming poor past experiences that make it difficult make to participate in consistent healthy activities. Attributions as to why an individual believes they are an unsuccessful regular exerciser may help fitness professionals better understand how to navigate client assumptions and lead them toward better motivations and outcomes, just as it does for students (Weiner, 2010). Resistant exercisers may focus too much on outcomes that are too grand to achieve in the shortterm leading them to see their idealized outcome as unattainable. Using Weiner’s attributionbased theory and attributional retraining, the fitness professional can help teach clients that being sedentary is not inevitable and that they should attribute their situation to modifiable attributes rather than uncontrollable factors (Sarkisian, Prohaska, Davis, & Weiner, 2007). Though the difficulty of the task before them and their ability may be uncontrollable, the effort and commitment put into achieving their goals is controllable (Weiner, 1985). The small, attainable wins may help increase intrinsic motivation leading toward a genuine interest in increased activity rather than a sole focus on extrinsic, outcome-based, extrinsic motivation to exercise. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 97 This approach may increase adherence by allowing small accomplishments to lead to increased adherence to achieve larger goals. As certified personal trainers empathetically listen and engage with their clients they may then be able to provide Weimer’s (2013) learner-centered approaches to help clients. Approaches include (1) do more learning tasks, (2) more discovering, (3) create well-designed learning experiences, (4) learn from a skilled coach, and (5) learn from the trainer as well as show the fitness professional insights of their own. Just as teachers educate the way that is easiest for them (lecture), certified personal trainers may train clients in a way that is easiest for them. This may include providing each client the same workout program or having each client train in a way that closely mimics the fitness professional’s own workouts. Learner-centered teaching can direct the fitness professional’s focus toward client goals, relevant tasks to attain those goals, good client experiences about the exercise programming, and client-provided feedback that can allow two-way learning help to increase the professional’s understanding and skillset. Self-determination theory has been implemented successfully in educational settings (Rothes, Lemos, & Gonçalves, 2017; Cerasoli & Ford, 2014) as well as physical activity settings (Minyoung et al., 2016; Duda et al., 2014). The motivational components that lead to these increased outcomes focus on autonomy, competency, and relatedness to others. Both students and exercisers want to be able to engage in study and exercise without the need of a teacher or fitness professional there to give direction. However, it is a skilled approach that both the teacher and trainer can develop a student and client to need their services less often. Competency is the component that states both students and fitness clients want to establish an elevated performance aptitude. The final element of the self-determination theory states that people want a sense of PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 98 relatedness. Some students and clients may get a sense of relatedness from their respective instructors, while those instructors should encourage the learners to seeks relatedness with their own peer group which can increase their sense of approval and behavioral control (Herrmann, 2015). Teachers are an integral part of student’s educational experience, and their supervision plays a significant role in the student adherence to tasks such as homework and in-class projects. Supervision of fitness professionals (including CPTs) has shown marked increases in exercise adherence and motivation (Abildso, Zizzi, & Reger-Nash, 2010; Carpenter and Gilleland, 2016; Courneya et al., 2012; Gilleland et al., 2006). Though techniques, applications, models, and theories may vary in the research, the presence of a personal trainer appears to be the primary factor in exercise adherence among the trials. Several theories and models from adult education are applied to exercise adherence and motivation including andragogy, attribution theory, attributional retraining, and selfdetermination theory. With these supported systems in adult education, a theoretical correlation can be made between the teacher/student relationship and the fitness trainer/client relationship to increase exercise adherence and motivation. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 99 References Abildso, C. G., Zizzi, S. J., & Reger-Nash, B. (2010). Evaluating an insurance-sponsored weight management program with the RE-AIM Model, West Virginia, 2004-2008. Preventing Chronic Disease, 7(3), A46. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/Pcd/about_the_journal/index.htm Al-Azri, H., & Ratnapalan, S. (2014). 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Educational Psychologist, 45(1), 28-36. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520903433596 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Appendix B Problem Statement 109 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 110 Motivational strategies assisting adult student’s adherence in academics has been a common source of research for decades (Birzer, 2004; Cross, 1981; Knowles, 1975, 1980, 984a, 1984b; Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998; Stockdale & Brocket, 2011). However, little research exists to support how personal trainers can best motivate behavioral changes leading adult clients to overcome barriers and increase adherence and self-directed fitness engagement (Fjeldsoe, Neuhaus, Winkler, & Eakin, 2011; Saida, Juul Sørensen, & Langberg, 2017). Though there are obvious differences between adult education and physical activity, attribution theory (AT) (Weiner, 1985; Weiner, 2010) is an education-based motivational construct that has reported positive outcomes in education and exercise adherence by overcoming barriers to fitness-related success (BFRS) via attributional retraining (Haynes et al., 2006; Haynes et al., 2008; Dishman, Jackson, & Bray, 2014; Sarkisian, Prohaska, Davis, & Weiner, 2007). Attributional retraining teaches individuals to focus on changeable elements within their control, such as effort, and develop strategies to increase motivation to overcome BFRS (Weiner, 1985). Personal trainers may be familiar with common BFRS such as clients being too tired, lack of time, lack of enjoyment, lack of desired outcomes, laziness or unwillingness, lack of social support, no facility close by, lack of direction, and “other priorities” (Dishman, Jackson, & Bray, 2014; Gómez-López, Gallegos, & Extremera, 2010; Louw, Van Biljon, & Mugandani, 2012). The specific problem in the fitness community is that many clients lack the motivation to adhere to exercise due to BFRS. Personal trainers are likely unfamiliar with AT or how to implement attributional retraining (AR) to help motivate clients to overcome these barriers. This research will contribute to the literature by providing AT and AR training to personal trainers and by receiving feedback from them on their perceived value of its applications, implementations, and adherence-based outcomes in their fitness clients. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Appendix C Additional Methods 111 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Appendix C1 Event Brochure 112 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 113 Attributional Retraining-Motivation Science: Research validated strategies and theories to help motivate clients to exercise Description: Motivation for people to adhere to exercise regimens is in short supply and there is little research that helps increase exercise adherence. However, the field of education has numerous research-validated strategies that we will explore and apply to personal training to get our clients to show up, workout on their own, and do programming we provide. This is part of a doctoral dissertation. Feedback from participants may be used as part of the presenter’s doctoral dissertation. FREE for Certified Personal Trainers Attribution Theory and Attributional Retraining: ‣ “I don’t have enough time” ‣ “I don’t know what to do” ‣ “I cannot get to the gym” When: TBA Where: TBA Appendix C2 Time: TBA (four hours) Informed Consent Other: Free CEC’s = NASM 0.4 Presenter: Rick Richey richey@calu.edu 646-207-5190 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Appendix C2 Informed Consent 114 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 115 This informed consent form is for selected certified personal trainers in the New York City area participating in the attributional retraining workshop titled “Attributional Retraining-Motivation Science: Research validated strategies and theories to help motivate clients to workout”. Principle Investigator: Organization: Dissertation Title: Rick Richey California University of Pennsylvania “The Perceptions of Certified Personal Trainers on the Value of Attributional Retraining: A Case Study” This research is the dissertation component performed in partial fulfillment of a doctoral degree in health science (DHSc). This Informed Consent Form has two parts: • Information Sheet (to share information about the study with you) • Certificate of Consent (for signatures if you choose to participate) Part I: Information Sheet Introduction I am Rick Richey, a doctoral candidate at California University of Pennsylvania. I am doing research on personal trainers’ perceptions of client motivation and exercise adherence. You may speak with anyone you feel comfortable talking with about the research and you may take time to reflect on whether you wish to participate or not. If you do not understand some of the words or concepts, I will take time to explain them as we go along, so feel comfortable to ask questions at any time. Purpose of the research There are many barriers to fitness-related success for personal training clients. I want to find out what you currently do with clients to increase motivation toward exercise adherence. I also want to provide some evidence-based research about a specific method of success motivation used in adult education called attribution theory and attributional retraining. Then I want to get feedback about your perception of this intervention regarding its value in helping clients overcome barriers to fitness related success and increase motivation and exercise adherence. Type of Research Intervention The research intervention is the workshop that you have already signed up to take on the topic of client motivation entitled, “Motivational Science: Research Validated Strategies and Theories to Help Motivate Clients to Workout.” Participant Request and Selection You have been selected to participate in this research because you are a certified personal trainer signed up to take the workshop on how CPTs can motivate clients to increase exercise adherence. I believe that you can contribute much to our understanding of the perceived value of this type of training. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 116 Duration and Time Commitment The research will take place over a three-month period in total. During that time, we will have a pre-workshop interview, a workshop, submission of documentation/information about your training, observation of you working with your client(s), and a final interview after the observation session. Pre-workshop interview Workshop attendance Documentation Trainer/client observation Post-observation interview Member (fact) checking - Approximately 30-45 minutes - Four hours - Approximately five minutes (if already prepared) to 6o minutes - Approximately 15-20 minutes - Approximately 30-45 minutes - Approximately 5-10 minutes Voluntary Participation Your participation in this research is entirely voluntary. It is your choice whether to participate or not. If you choose not to participate, you are still welcome to attend the “Motivational Science: Research Validated Strategies and Theories to Help Motivate Clients to Workout” workshop. Participation will have no bearing on your job or any work-related evaluations or reports. You may change your mind later and stop participation even if your previously agreed. Confidentiality The confidentiality of data with respect to both information about you and information that the you share is a high priority. I will not share information about you with anyone. Right to Refuse or Withdraw You do not have to take part in this research if you do not wish to do so, and choosing to participate will not affect your job or job-related evaluations in any way. You may stop participating in the interview at any time that you wish without your job being affected. I will give you an opportunity to review your remarks after both interviews are completed, and you can ask to modify or remove portions of those interviews at that time if you do not agree with my notes or if I did not understand you correctly. Procedures – What You Will Be Asked to Do 1. First Interview - I want to have a meeting with you prior to the workshop (intervention) and ask you 10 questions regarding how you, as a certified personal trainer, motivate your clients to adhere to exercise. The interview questions will be open-ended and may lead to deeper discussion. However, the interview should take no longer than, and will be limited to, 30-45 minutes. This interview will be audio recorded. 2. Intervention - You will attend the four-hour workshop on a motivational technique called attribution theory and its application called attributional retraining. This workshop will provide the motivational information that will be the basis of the future session observation followed by second interview. 3. Documentation – I will ask you to send me documentation about you as a trainer so that I understand. These documents may include your web address, training philosophy, training vision, and/or mission statement PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 117 4. Observation - Three months after the workshop, I want to follow up with you in person as you interact with a client specifically about attributions retraining during your session. This session should take no longer than 15 minutes of observation and can be scheduled during, before, or after your session. 5. Second Interview – After the observation, we can either engage in the final interview, or I will reach back out to you to schedule a phone call. The final interview will be comprised of 10 open-ended questions lasting approximately 30-45 minutes. During this interview, I want to ask for feedback about your perception of the information provided in the workshop, how you have applied the information, and how you think your clients have responded to attributional retraining. This interview will be audio recorded. 6. Member checking – After all the information has been complied, I will contact you by phone and let you know what I have written down based on our interview to make sure I have not made mistakes. You may also make any final adjustments or additions to your statements. Comfort with the interview: I will be the researcher conducting the interview in a one-person to one-person phone call. I will make sure that you are comfortable and ready to begin and will answer any questions about the research that you may have. If you do not wish to answer any of the questions during the interview, you may say so and I will move on to the next question. I will be the only person on my end of the phone, but you have someone else present on your end if it aids with comfort in answering the questions. The information recorded is confidential, and no one else will have access to the information documented during your interview. The entire interview will be documented through notes that I take, but no-one will be identified by name. My notes will be kept safely locked via access code on my computer. - Example Interview Questions: What are some of the ways that you motivate your client to exercise while not under your direct supervision? What are some of the barriers to fitness-related success that your client experience? You will be asked to engage in a discussion that leans on your experience and knowledge as a certified personal trainer (CPT). Your answers may lead you into deeper discussion of this specific topic or touch on related topics. Risks and discomforts There is little risk in participation, but it is possible that you may feel uncomfortable talking about some topics or answering specific questions. You do not have to answer any questions or take part in the interview if you feel the questions are too personal or talking about them makes you uncomfortable. There may be unknown and unforeseeable risk that arise from participation in this research. Though risk is minimal, please not that all human subjects retain autonomy and the ability to judge for themselves what risks are worth taking for furthering scientific knowledge (Bloomberg, 2016, p. 162). If a research-related injury does occur, please contact the researcher and dissertation advisor immediately. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 118 Benefits There are very few studies that focus on the profession of personal training, and fewer still on attributional retraining in the fitness industry. There may be no direct benefit to you, but your participation is likely to help us find ways to help certified personal trainers better motivate their clients and increase exercise adherence through attributional retraining. Your feedback may lead to more in-depth studies as well as implementation of these strategies into personal training credentialing. Reimbursements You will not be provided any incentive to take part in the research. I am asking for complimentary help in understanding more about your perceptions of the workshop content and how it may affect client motivation and exercise adherence. Records and Documentation The information from this research project will be kept private. Any information about the participants will have a numeric place holder instead of their name. Only the researcher will know whose number correlates to everyone, and that information will be locked away by a complex digital password in files on my computer. It will not be shared with anyone expect my dissertation committee. After three years all documentation, paper or digital, will be destroyed. Sharing the Results Nothing that you tell me will be shared with anybody, and nothing will be attributed to you by name. The data from this research will be anonymous and may be shared with the fitness community via lecture, classwork, courses, and other educational platforms. I will seek to publish the results so that other interested people may learn from the research. Specific Considerations In case of emergency, participation in this study may be terminated by the investigator at any time without the consent of the participant. If you decide to withdraw from the investigation, please send an email letting me know. Inclusion Criteria Inclusion criteria for clients include participation in trainer-lead attributional for at least four weeks, 18 years of age or more, informed consent, speak English, and willingness to share their experience without coercion by the researcher or trainer. Who to Contact If you have any questions about this research or your rights you can ask them now or later. If you wish to ask questions later, you may contact me directly. Rick Richey richey@calu.edu 646-207-5190 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 119 My dissertation chair is Dr. Brian Oddi. He works at California University of Pennsylvania and is supervising me on the research. You can contact him at: oddi@calu.edu This proposal has been reviewed and approved by California University of Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board (IRB), which is a committee whose task it is to make sure that research participants are protected from harm. If you have questions about your rights in the research, or if a problem has occurred, or if you are injured during your participation, please contact the Institutional Review Board at: Do you have any questions? Part II: Certificate of Consent Statement of Consent: I have read the above information and have been given the opportunity to ask questions and those questions have been adequately answered. I consent to participate in this study. Print Name of Participant: ____________________________________________________ Signature of Participant: ______________________________________________________ Date: ___________________________ Day/month/year Statement by the Researcher: I, Rick Richey, have accurately laid out the information sheet to the potential participant, and to the best of my ability made sure that the participant understands that the following will be done: 1. Pre-workshop interview 2. Workshop 3. CPT documentation 4. Observation of training session using the methods from the workshop 5. Post-workshop interview 6. Member checking via phone I confirm that the participant was given an opportunity to ask questions about the study, and all the questions asked by the participant have been answered correctly and to the best of my ability. I confirm that the individual has not been coerced into giving consent, and the consent has been given freely and voluntarily. A copy of this consent form has been provided to the participant. Name of Researcher: Rick Richey Signature of Researcher /person taking the consent: __________________________________ Date: ___________________________ Day/month/year Approved by the California University of Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board. This approval is effective nn/nn/nn and PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Appendix C3 Email Request for Interview 120 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 121 Subject line: Motivational Science workshop: This is a request for your participation in my research study. Dear _________, Thank you so much for signing up to take the Motivational Science workshop at (TBA location) on (TBA date). I am writing to ask if you would be willing to volunteer, as a participant in the workshop, in my dissertation research study. The extension of the workshop for the research will involve the following: Before the workshop: - approximately 30-45-minute phone call interview Workshop attendance: - Motivational Science workshop - four hours Three months after the workshop: Documentation Trainer/client observation Post-observation interview - Your website, training philosophy, and/or mission statement as a means of understand your training outlook and purpose and how they relate to client motivation and success - 15-20 minutes in person observation as you perform methods learned in the workshop - approximately 30-45-minute in person interview, or phone interview within a week of the session observation. Your participation will be greatly appreciated and will contribute to the certified personal trainer’s understanding of exercise motivation, and exercise adherence for their adult clients. If you are interested, please respond to this email to schedule time to interview you before attending the workshop. The phone interview will last 30-45 minutes and will be recorder. If you agree to participate, I will send an informed consent form that must be read, signed, and returned via email prior to our interview. You may sign electronically or send a photo of the signed page back to me via email. Thank you for your consideration and contribution to the evidence and profession! Rick Richey, MS, LMT PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Appendix C4 Pre-Workshop Interview Questions 122 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 123 Pre-Workshop Interview Questions (review wording) 1. Explain your familiarity with attribution theory or attributional retraining? 2. What are some of your clients’ perceived barriers to fitness-related success? 3. Why might clients in general have difficulty adhering to regular exercise outside of their training session with trainers 4. Regarding the answers given above, what do you think your clients expect the reasons they do not exercise on their own throughout the week will change? Why or why not? 5. Do you believe your client have control over their ability to exercise on their own? Why or why not? 6. Do you think your clients are more motivated by others (husband/wife, friends, social media, etc. [external motivation]) or by self (internal motivation)? Why or why not? 7. If your clients did perform an exercise routine on their own, do you think your clients would feel positive/happy, negative/frustrated/sad, or 8. Do your clients blame themselves or some external reason for their failure to exercise on their own? 9. When they do exercise on their own do they attribute that success to ability, effort, strategy, or ease or difficulty of the task, or luck? 10. What can reasonably change for your clients to adhere to exercise on their own? PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Appendix C5 Workshop Presentation 124 125 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Rick Richey, MS, LMT Attribution Theory and Attributional Retraining in Personal Training Introduction, purpose of workshop and expectations regarding dissertation 0 – 15 min Precursors to attribution theory 16 – 30 min Attribution theory 31 – 1:30 hr Itinerary Attributional retraining 1:31 – 2:15 hr Breakout session 2:16 – 3:00 hr Applying AR and AT to clients 3:01 – 3:45 hr Review and wrap up 3:46 – 4:00 hr 126 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING What is an ”attribution?” To what do people most attribute exercise failure? Don’t know what to do Tired Time Different equipment Injury No support Friends & Family Motivation Habit Change (in routine) Attitude Pain of Bad exercise or the Experience / change associations Paradigm of what fitness is Social pressure / uncomfortable in front of people Priority Family Work Schedule Accessibility Money Environment Life status Answers provided participants during workshop PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING • We may associate with a sports team • When WINNING = ”We WON!!” • When LOSING = “They were terrible our there!” • Exercise related attributions protect the ego. 127 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING • Attribution theory helps us understand how current attributions can affect future motivation. • ”It’s pointless” • “I worked my butt off with a trainer and still didn’t lose weight.” • “I’ve never been good at exercising.” Law of Effect Motivational theories preceding AT DRIVE THEORY Behaviors previously rewarded will be repeated. Behaviors that are punished will be avoided or extinguished. (Thorndike, 1911) Behaviors are governed by Drive × Habit (and incentives). Behavior is motivated by bodily needs X strong related behavioral patterns strengthened by rewards. (Hull, 1943; Spence, 1956) 128 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING • Motivation is also determined by individual differences(motives). Motive × Expectancy × Value. The motive Fishbein primarily embraced was the need for achievement. • Incentive (value) is conceptualized as an affect, pride in accomplishment (here I consider only approach motivation and positive affect). Thus, affects other than general pleasure/pain were incorporated into the conception. • Incentive (value) is inversely related to expectancy of success so that pride is presumed to be greater given success at a difficult task (low expectancy of success) than at an easy task (high expectancy of success). • Quote from Weiner’s paper 2010 Attribution Theory Develops 129 130 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Ability Determinates of Behavioral Outcomes Effort Task Difficulty Luck Three Causal Dimensions / Consequences of AT Stability Locus of Control (location) (duration – will the situation change, and if so, when?) Controllability (controllable or uncontrollable to the person) 131 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Internal Ability locus Effort Causal Locus Task difficulty External Luck / Higher Being locus • Causal locus related to pride and self‐esteem Mastery Intrinsic Motivation Elevator P ose p r u Au ton om y PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Expectancy Determinates of Action Pride Ability and Effort 132 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING • Stable – the cause of attribution will NOT change over time Causal Stability (duration of the cause) • Unstable – the cause of attribution WILL change over time • Causal stability related to expectancy shifts and the extent of hope, hopelessness, and helplessness. • Within ones own control Causal Controllability • Not within ones own control • Causal control is linked with affects including shame to uncontrollable causality, and guilt and regret to controllable causes. 133 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 134 135 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING LOCUS INTERNAL LOCUS EXTERNAL LOCUS (focus on self) (focus on others / external) Controllable Uncontrollable Controllable Uncontrollable STABILITY Stable Effort – often long term A desired attribution Unstable I can’t ‐ Skills ‐ Knowledge ‐ Strategy ‐ Temporary effort ‐ Temporary situation A desired attribution “I can’t help it and it won’t change” ‐ Aptitude or Ability (considered to be innate and unchangeable) ‐ Most dangerous attribution regardless of positive or negative ‐ Client cannot control ‐ Difficulty of or influence change to process to reach the external causes goal ‐ Task difficulty ‐ “I can’t help it but it WILL change eventually” ‐ Short‐term ‐ Client CAN control or ‐ Chance influence change to ‐ Luck external causes ‐ Deity intervention(?) ‐ Guilt / shame ‐ Weather ‐ PRIDE ‐ ‐ ‐ Injury Health Mood (?) PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING BREAK OUT SESSION • Breakout into groups • Identify examples of how client attribute / blame according to causal • Locus (internal or external) • Stability (stable or unstable) • Controllability (controllable or uncontrollable) Intrapersonal Theory • “People are scientists trying to understand themselves and their environment and then act upon the basis of this knowledge (Weiner, 2000, p. 2).” • Feel / Think / Feel / Act 136 137 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Interpersonal Theory FEEL THINK • “Others are judges determining if others are innocent or guilty (Weiner, 2000, p. 9).” • Feel / Think / Feel / Act ATTRIBUTE / BLAME AFFECT PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 138 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 139 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING (1) self‐directedness Consider Knowles’ Six Assumptions of Andragogy When Developing Strategy (2) accumulated past experiences (3) readiness to learn (4) problem or task‐centered (5) internal motivation (6) the need to know why something should be learned •EFFORT AND STRATEGY CAN BE CONTROLLED and SHOULD BE FOCUSED ON. • PAST OUTCOMES DO NOT HAVE TO BE INDICITIVE OF FUTURE FAILURE OR SUCCESS • BE AWARE OF ATTRIBUTIONS TOWARD STABLE AND UNCONTROLLABLE CIRCUMSTANCES. • FINAL TAKEAWAYS • BE CARFUL WITH CLIENT’S FEELINGS • BE FIRM WITH YOUR FOCUS ON EFFORT AND STRATEGY (& change as needed) • BE DILIGENT WITH YOUR SUPPORT 140 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING QUESTIONS & OPEN DISCUSSION 141 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Appendix C6 Workshop Handout 142 143 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING LOCUS INTERNAL LOCUS Controllable Uncontrollable EXTERNAL LOCUS Controllable Uncontrollable STABILITY Stable Effort – often long term Aptitude or Ability (considered by many to be innate and unchangeable) Unstable ‐ Skills ‐ Knowledge ‐ Strategy ‐ Temporary effort ‐ Short‐term ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ Injury Health Mood (?) Weather ‐ Client cannot control Difficulty of process to or influence change to reach goal the external causes ‐ Client CAN control or ‐ Chance ‐ Luck influence change to external causes ‐ Deity intervention(?) ‐ Guilt / shame ‐ PRIDE What are barriers to fitness-related success? Identify examples of how client attribute / blame according to: • Locus Internal External 144 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING • Stability Stable Unstable • Controllability Controllable Uncontrollable PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 145 • 1.) Causal search activation: ask clients write down what they attribute causes for failure of exercise adherence in the past. • 2.) Attributional induction stage: tell the client a story about a hypothetical person that does not exercise. Have the client discuss why they think this person does not exercise regularly. Trainer summarize attributions and focus on controllable causes. Use the following sheet to come up with three hypothetical stories that provide different causal reasons for not exercising (locus, stability, control). • 3.) Consolidation phase: have the clients write summary of the theoretical story and provide their attributions as to why the person in the story does not exercise. Ask them to apply the main points to their own lives focusing on what barriers they can control. • 4.) Supportive phase: The certified personal trainer should use client feedback to help develop a strategy to best support the client while in and outside of the training sessions together. The trainer should then provide written support to the client. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Come up with three hypothetical stories that provide different causal reasons for not exercising (locus, stability, control). What are strategies that certified personal trainers (CPT) can implement during the supportive phase to help their clients adhere to exercise when not in sessions together? 146 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 147 • EFFORT AND STRATEGY CAN BE CONTROLLED and SHOULD BE FOCUSED ON. • PAST OUTCOMES DO NOT HAVE TO BE INDICITIVE OF FUTURE FAILURE OR SUCCESS • BE AWARE OF ATTRIBUTIONS TOWARD STABLE AND UNCONTROLLABLE CIRCUMSTANCES. • FINAL TAKEAWAYS • BE CARFUL WITH CLIENT’S FEELINGS • BE FIRM WITH YOUR FOCUS ON EFFORT AND STRATEGY (change as needed) • BE DILIGENT WITH YOUR SUPPORT PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Appendix C7 Email Request - Trainer Documentation 148 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 149 Subject Line: Attributional Retraining – Request for Documentation Dear ____________, I want to again thank you for participating in this research project. I am sending this email to request documentation from you so that I can gather more information about you, your training, and how you work with clients to help them reach their fitness-based goals. Please send any or all the following. - Your Personal Training Website URL A Statement of Your Training Philosophy Training Vision Any pertinent information about you as a certified personal trainer It is fine if do not have a fitness website. However, if you do not have any of the other documents already prepared, please spent a short amount of time to prepare a training philosophy, training vision, and information about why you are a personal trainer and how you plan to help motivate clients to reach their fitness-based goals. Please respond promptly so I can learn more about you prior to the attributional retraining observation session. Rick Richey, MS, LMT richey@calu.edu PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Appendix C8 Email Request – Scheduling of Observation Session 150 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 151 Dear ______________, Thank you for sending your training documentation. It is now time to schedule my observation session. In this session, you will spend 15-20 with a client that you have taking through attributional retraining. I will be present and silently observe your time together and take notes on your conversation, implementation of attributional retraining, and how you engage with your client. Please let me know what day/time options are available to your so we can schedule our appointment. Rick Richey, MS, LMT Richey@calu.edu PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Appendix C9 Certified Personal Trainer’s Client Consent for Observation 152 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 153 Dear personal training client, My name is Rick Richey and I am a candidate for a doctorate in health science working on my dissertation. Your certified personal trainer (CPT) attended a workshop on attribution theory and attributional retraining a few months ago. They are going to spend 10-15 minutes applying some of the concepts while I observe their process. Your responses and feedback will not be written down or noted for this project. I am only here to observe how your CPT applies techniques and training we engaged in a few months prior. Do you agree allow me to observe how your CPT works with you during this 10-15minute attributional retraining session? Client Name: _________________________________ Client Signature: ______________________________ Date: _______________________________________ PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Appendix C10 Post-Observation Interview Questions 154 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 155 1. What are your perceptions of attribution theory and attributional retraining based on your experience implementing it over the past three months? 2. Do you believe that you have explained and implemented attributional retraining well with your clients? Why or why not? What could you have done differently? 3. Why (or why not) do you think your clients benefited from the attributional retraining you implemented? 4. What do you think is your client’s perception of attributional retraining? 5. Would a well-executed attributional retraining program benefit other certified personal trainers’ in motivating their clients? How so? 6. Causal dimension – Stability: do you think your clients expect the reasons they do not exercise on their own throughout the week will change? Why or why not? 7. Causal dimension – Controllability: do your clients exhibit more control over their ability to exercise on their own since you started AR? 8. Causal dimension – Locus: Do you think your clients are more motivated by others (husband/wife, friends, social media, etc. [external motivation]) or by self (internal motivation)? Why or why not? 9. Causal antecedent - Hedonic bias: Do your clients blame themselves or some external reason for their failure to exercise on their own? 10. Causal ascriptions - When they do exercise on their own do they attribute that success to ability, effort, strategy, or ease or difficulty of the task, or luck? PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 156 References Abildso, C. G., Zizzi, S. J., & Reger-Nash, B. (2010). 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(1999). Enhancing the quality of case studies in health services research. Health Services Research, 34, 1209–1224. Retrieved from www.hrs.org Yin, R. K. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). London: Sage Publication. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Supporting Material 166 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 167 Rick Richey 360 7th Ave. 4th Floor NY, NY 10001 646-883-2316 richey@calu.edu A combination of Southern charm and a passion for health and fitness education has made Rick an entertaining personality in the fitness industry. Rick has been in the fitness industry since 2002 as a certified personal trainer, training manager, educator, orthopedic massage therapist, college and university professor, fitness industry presenter, as well as a subject matter expert and talent for fitness industry educational videos and written content. He is co-host of the Omnia Fitness Podcast with Rick and Drogo – powered by Everlast. Rick is regularly used by media outlets for quotes and content regarding fitness and wellness. He has also written chapters in the National Academy of Sports Medicine (NASM) Essentials of Personal Training textbook. He is currently a doctoral candidate in the dissertation phase in the Health Science and Exercise Leadership program at California University of Pennsylvania. He has fought competitively in the World Kickboxing and Karate Association (WKA) in kickboxing and Muay Thai and has served as a course educator for the NASM MMA Conditioning Specialist and the Everlast FIT certifications. Rick is the owner of Independent Training Spot, personal training gyms located NYC, and co-owner of Omnia RēCOVER, wellness and stress management facility in NYC. Other fitness brands Rick is associated with creating are The Daily Move Challenge, Human Movement Science (HMS) Resources, and Omnia Wellness. Rick also works with Fusionetics and has offered fitness assessments for professional athletes, the NBA Players Association in NYC, and the Mets organization. ACADEMIC HISTORY 2016- present, California University of Pennsylvania (CalU) 250 University Ave, California, PA. 15419 Doctoral Candidate – Doctor of Health Science and Exercise Leadership 2010, Swedish Institute of Health Sciences 226 W 26 St. 5th FL, New York, NY 10001 Massage Therapy Program GPA 3.8 2006, California University of Pennsylvania (CalU) 250 University Ave, California, PA. 15419 Master of Science in Exercise Science – Performance Enhancement and Injury Prevention – GPA 4.0 1995-1999, University of North Alabama (UNA) Florence, AL 35630 Majors: Communications and Theater Minors: Biology and Business Administration GPA – 3.1 1998-1999 Alpha Tau Omega – Marty R. Abrams Scholarship Award PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 168 1991-1995, Bradshaw High School 1201 Bradshaw Dr. Florence, AL 35630 Advanced Diploma WORK HISTORY RēCOVER Principal and Co-Founder • Developed and built out a centralized, accessible environment focused on physical, mental, and emotional restoration and stress reduction. • RēCOVER opened in 3/5/18 to a financial break even because the need for numerous types of recovery. • RēCOVER is the only multi-modality recovery facility in NYC that uses technologies such as compression, infrared saunas, CVAC, e-stim, and NuCalm therapies to address multiple types of stresses. Omnia Wellness Principal and Co-Founder • Omnia Wellness is a corporate wellness program that uses the tools from RēCOVER to provide physical and cognitive stress relief to employees on-site. • DBA as RēCOVER On-Site, Omnia Wellness provided its first on-site to media giant Viacom in NYC within the first quarter of concept inception. INDPENDENT TRAINING SPOT Principal and Founder • Independent Training Spot (ITS) is a personal training, physical therapy, corrective exercise and sport performance facility in Midtown/NoMad Manhattan designed to help independent (non-corporate) personal trainers become fitness in fitness industry entrepreneurs. • ITS is a hub for fitness industry education. ITS provides bi-monthly complementary education to trainers, as well as a weekend host to fitness education companies such as CPR, NASM, and Everlast. Omnia Fitness Podcast with Rick and Drogo Co-Host • With co-host Aaron Drogoszewski, this EVERLAST produced podcast focuses on provided entertaining and educational stories, insights, and research on personal training, fitness, fighting, recovery, and overall health and wellness related topics. Buzzer3 LLC Principal and Co-Founder - Omnia Fitness (dba) • Omnia Fitness provides talent, sports and model management and agents with a system of fitness solutions, executed by highly educated and experienced health and fitness professionals, to ensure optimal, time-sensitive, results. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING • • 169 Omnia provides in home and residential services which include personal training, massage therapy, nutritional counseling, and wellness coaching. Omnia App (in development) HMS Resources (dba) Principal • Human Movement Science Resources is an evidence-based hands-on education company that provides continuing education credits to personal trainers in anatomy, flexibility, corrective exercise, and sports performance. CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA Exercise Science & Sports Studies Department 2010 – Present, Adjunct Faculty • FIT 400: Program Design Course – This undergraduate course provides a comprehensive view of sport performance training with a focus on assessment and developing customized sport training programs. The course aligns sport performance training components to the revolutionary exercise programming strategies of the Optimum Performance Training™ model. • PRF 720: Essentials of Human Movement Science – a graduate level course introduces a scientific approach to the essentials of human movement science. Detailed insights are given into the independent and interdependent function of the muscular, articular and nervous systems during human force production, stabilization and force reduction. • PRF 751: Sports Performance Program Design – a graduate level course that provides a deeper understanding and advanced implementation of the sports performance programming that focuses on assessment and the development of customized sports training programs. The Swedish Institute of Health Science Advanced Personal Training degree program 2015 – 2017, Adjunct Faculty • APT 214: Motor Learning - This lecture course discusses basic concepts of motor learning. Students apply these concepts to assessment of clients and designing exercise programs for pre-habilitation and post-habilitation clients. Motor learning is presented as it relates to skill acquisition in sports and job settings, so students can integrate complex movements and movement techniques appropriately into client’s programs. Students also analyze complex motor skills required in sports or job applications to apply appropriate techniques and progressions in training for their acquisition. THE WRIGHT FIT (TWF) 15 CPW New York, NY 10023 2007 – 2014, Personal Trainer Formerly, DIRECTOR OF PERSONAL TRAINING • Focus on helping clients through standard to advanced individual assessments to garner a clear understanding of current fitness status, potential contraindications, static, PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING • • • 170 transitional, and dynamic postural assessments, along with finding out what the clients enjoys about exercise. Sports Specific and “Functional” Training - Performance Enhancement and Injury Prevention. Corrective Exercise Specialist – focus is spent on pain reduction and increasing activities of daily living (ADL’s) for clients with postural deviations and movement dysfunction. Mui Thai Kickboxing and Boxing Training. NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SPORTS MEDICINE (NASM) 1750 E. Northrop Blvd., Suite 200. Chandler, AZ 85286 2006 – Present, MASTER INSTRUCTOR / FACULTY • Presenter – Essentials of Personal Training Course • Presenter – Corrective Exercise (CEx) Specialist Course • Presenter – Performance Enhancement Specialist Course • Presenter – Mixed Martial Arts Conditioning Specialist Course • Presenter – NASM in house Public Speaking Course • Master Instructor presenting nation-wide with this prestigious and nationally accredited (NCCA) organization with over 100,000 trainers certified worldwide. • Monthly content developer for online education platforms – Health and Fitness Provider Network (HFPN – formerly FitCoachPro.com and FitCoach.com) • Content Developer for NASM’s Instructor Network Training Program o Public Speaking Course and Workshop o New Instructor On-boarding Education Course and Workshop o LifeTime Academy Faculty Training Course o National Personal Training Institute Faculty Training Course POWER PLATE NORTH AMERICA, INC. 17900 VON KARMAN, SUITE 125, IRVINE, CA 92614 2009 – 2011, EDUCATOR FOR POWER PLATE ACADEMIES I AND II • Academy I “Foundations” course developed to allow Personal Trainers, Strength and Conditioning Coaches, Therapists, Medical Practitioners and consumers to understand the science and application of Acceleration Training. • Academy II “Integrated” program is designed to further develop the theoretical and applied knowledge of advanced neurophysiology, ATP methodology and integrated program design. Students will become skilled in applying Power Plate for the optimal health and performance using advanced training protocols such as strength, hypertrophy, and power training. TOWN SPORTS INTERNATIONAL (TSI), 30 WALL ST. NEW YORK, NY 10005 2003 – 2009, Training and Development Department, SENIOR FACULTY Educate trainers and fitness instructor staff within TSI’s four regions of health clubs (Philadelphia, Boston, Washington, and New York). Courses range from two to six days of instruction; eight hours a day, with a group size ranging from 10-50+. Teaching Highlights include: PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING • • • • • • 171 NASM Certified Personal Trainer Course: A training package to provide TSI employees all the instructional, reference, and hands-on information required to successfully pass the NASM-CPT certification by focusing on the “OPT Model” of periodization of strength and flexibility training. NASM Corrective Exercise Workshop: This one day course is designed to help trainers recognize postural distortions (static, dynamic, and transitional), and provide specific and individualized corrective strategies for clients that exhibit altered alignment. NASM Neuromuscular Stretch Techniques: This four (4) hour course is designed to help personal trainers recognize movement compensations, overactive muscles that pull the joint into compensatory patterns, recognize optimum ROM, and learn hands on techniques of Neuromuscular Stretching to achieve optimum ROM. Gray Cook’s Functional Movement Screen: This one-day course is designed to break down Reebok University’s and Gray Cook’s 5 Point Functional Movement Screens to help trainers assess and provide corrective strategies for clients with altered movement patterns. Personal Training Business Course: TSI’s required internal 3-day training course to help trainers learn how to look beyond fitness as a job and toward an occupation. Training includes sales planning, personal business plans (annually designed), and how to optimize customer service. Foundations of Programs and Services: TSI’s required internal 3-6-day training course, which covers customer service, anatomy, anatomical planes, directions and actions, principles of movement, core training, flexibility, and progression. Also included are training principles specific to TSI’s current programs and services. NEW YORK SPORTS CLUBS (NYSC) 61 W62 ST. NEW YORK, NY 10023 2002-2005 AND 2006-2009, MASTER TRAINER • Work with clientele through individual exercise prescription and behavioral changes to achieve their personal health and fitness goals. Specialize in corrective exercise, post-rehab, sports specific conditioning, flexibility training. 2005-2006, EQUINOX FITNESS CLUBS 10 Columbus Cir. New York, NY / 520 Collins Ave. South Beach, FL PERSONAL TRAINING MANAGER Drive sales and usage of sessions by personal training staff. Responsibilities include: • Educator and faculty: Lead trainings through the Equinox Fitness Training Institute • Encourage member interaction, client solutions, and explaining the benefits of personal training and/or general fitness to all members, potential members, sales staff, training staff and personal training clients. NEW YORK SPORTS CLUBS 61 W62 St. New York, NY 10023 2002 – 2004, PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 172 FITNESS PROGRAM MANAGER Manage all aspects of the fitness department, including customer service, facility maintenance and repair, supervision, and management of all fitness staff. Administrative work included staff scheduling and payroll, business planning and revenue building. HEALTH AND FITNESS PRESENTIONS / WORKSHOPS / LECTURES / WEBINARS / PANELS National and International • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • “Fitness and Mental Health from a Medical Perspective” Panel discussion. Strong New York conference. November 2018. Solace. New York, NY. “Biohacking: Panel Discussion” Balance and Beyond. November 2018. Primary – FiDi. New York, NY. “Partner Assisted Stretching” NASM Optima Conference. October 2018. Phoenix, AZ. “From Clinical to Practical – This is What Activation Looks Like” NASM Optima Conference. October 2018. Phoenix, AZ. “The Overhead Squat and Other Movement Assessments” Asia Fitness Conference. October 2018. Bangkok, Thailand. “Pathology and Corrective Exercise for the Ageing Clientele” Asia Fitness Conference. October 2018. Bangkok, Thailand. “Fitness Fables, Fantasy, and Folklore Debunked” Asia Fitness Conference. October 2018. Bangkok, Thailand. “Where’s the Gym? Workouts You Can Do Anywhere” Asia Fitness Conference. October 2018. Bangkok, Thailand. “’How to Crush Your Marathon Goals’ Expert Panel” Sponsored by Rhone and Jack Rabbit. October 2018. New York, NY. “NASM: Isolated Strength Assessments Using Manual Muscle Testing” IDEA WORLD. June 2018. San Diego, CA. “NASM: Strength Training for Optimal Results” IDEA WORLD. June 2018. San Diego, CA “Panel Discussion – Fitness and Recovery” Balance & Beyond. June 2018. Primary – FiDi. New York, NY. “Lowering the Barriers to Entry for Healthy Living” Webinar. Medical Fitness Network. Tuesday, February 13, 2018 “Practical Applications for Corrective Exercise” ACSM New York chapter annual conference. November 2017. New York, NY. “Pathology and Corrective Exercise for Aging Clientele” NASM OPTIMA Conference 2017. Phoenix, AZ “How to Cue: Proper Exercise Technique” NASM OPTIMA Conference. October 2017. Phoenix, AZ “Fitness Fables, Fantasy, and Folklore and the Scientific Rationale to Overcome Them” NASM OPTIMA Conference. October 2017. Phoenix, AZ “Corrective Exercise Deep Dive” NASM OPTIMA Pre-conference Event. October 2017. Phoenix, AZ. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 173 “Coffee Talk with Tony Ambler-Wright and Friends” NASM OPTIMA Conference. October 2017. Phoenix, AZ “Training Adults: Evidence-Based Educational Techniques Applied to Training” GOIFEX August 2017. Jakarta Convention Center, Indonesia. “Interactive Anatomy Review” GOIFEX August 2017. Jakarta Convention Center, Indonesia. “Where’s the Gym? Workouts You Can Do Anywhere” GOIFEX August 2017. Jakarta Convention Center, Indonesia. “Excelling at Group Personal Training” GOIFEX August 2017. Jakarta Convention Center, Indonesia. “AFAA: How to Use Group Fitness to Build Your One-on-One Training Business” IDEA WORLD 2017. Los Angeles, CA. “Morning Jumpstart Workout” IDEA WORLD 2017. Los Angeles, CA “NASM: Corrective Exercise Model – Essentials and Beyond” Pre-Conference Event - IDEA WORLD 2017. Los Angeles, CA. “NASM: Corrective Exercise Model – Essentials and Beyond” Pre-Conference Event. IDEA Personal Training Institute East 2017. Bethesda, MD. “NASM: Corrective Exercise Model – Essentials and Beyond” Pre-Conference Event. IDEA Personal Training Institute West 2017. Seattle, WA. “Training Adults: Evidence-based Educational Techniques Applied to Training” OPTIMA 2017. Phoenix, AZ. “Manual Muscle Testing” FITME Conference November 10, 2017. Dubai, UAE “Excelling at Group Training” FITME Conference November 11, 2017. Dubai, UAE “Fitness Fables, Fantasy, and Folklore” FITME Conference November 11, 2017. Dubai, UAE “NASM: How to Mix Up the Model” OPTIMA 2016. Phoenix, AZ. “Partner-assisted Stretching” OPTIMA 2016. Phoenix, AZ. “Strength Training for Optimal Results” IDEA Personal Training Institute West 2017. Seattle, WA. “Strength Training for Optimal Results” IDEA Personal Training Institute East 2017. Bethesda, MD. “NASM: Excelling at Group Personal Training” Pre-Conference Event IDEA World 2016. Los Angeles, CA. July 13, 2016. “NASM: Isolated Strength Assessments Using Manual Muscle Testing” IDEA World 2016. Los Angeles, CA. “NASM: Isolated Strength Assessments Using Manual Muscle Testing” IDEA Personal Training Institute East 2016. Seattle, WA. “NASM: Isolated Strength Assessments Using Manual Muscle Testing” IDEA Personal Training Institute East 2016. Alexandria, VA. “Morning Jumpstart Workout” IDEA World 2016. Los Angeles, CA. July 14, 2016. “Where’s the Gym? Workouts You Can Do Anywhere” IDEA World 2016. Los Angeles, CA. July 14, 2016. “NASM: Interactive Anatomy Review” IDEA Personal Trainer Institute East 2016. Alexandria, VA. “NASM: Interactive Anatomy Review” IDEA Personal Trainer Institute West 2016. Seattle, WA. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 174 “Exercise and the Brain” NASM Optima 2015. Chandler, AZ. August 23, 2015 “Smart Programming for Group Personal Training: NASM Optima 2015. Chandler, AZ. August 23, 2015 “Interactive Anatomy Review” IDEA World 2015. Los Angeles, CA. July 17, 2015 “Systematic Stretching for Neuromuscular Efficiency” IDEA World 2015. Los Angeles, CA. July 16, 2015 “Smart Programming for Group Personal Training” IDEA World 2015, Los Angeles, CA. July 16, 2015 “Interactive Anatomy Review” National Academy of Sports Medicine’s Advanced 2-Day Workshop Series. Muscle Pharm. Denver, CO. April 18, 2015 “Muscle Length Testing: Getting Specific with Goniometry” National Academy of Sports Medicine’s 2-Day Advanced Workshop Series. Muscle Pharm HQ. Denver, CO. April 18, 2015 “Interactive Anatomy Review” The Arnold Classic. Columbus, OH. March 7, 2015 “Smart Programming for Group Personal Training” The Arnold Classic. Columbus, OH. March 7, 2015 “Corrective Exercise for Baby Boomers” The Arnold Classic. Columbus, OH. March 6, 2015 “Corrective Exercise Quick Fixes” The Arnold Classic. Columbus, OH. March 6, 2015 “NASM: The New Group Fitness is Here!” IDEA World. Los Angeles, CA. August, 2013. “NASM: Small Group Training Video Course” AFFA HQ Los Angeles, CA. June, 2013. “NASM: Corrective Exercise eTeach Video Course” NASM HQ – Phoenix, AZ. February 2013. “Movement Prep: The New Warm Up” IDEA World. July 6, 2012. San Diego Convention Center. San Diego, CA. “NASM: Fitness and Public Speaking Workshop” National Personal Training Institute (PT Vocational School). March 2012. “Corrective Exercise Specialist” NASM course content for the PT/AT staff of the BOSTON CELTICS. March 2012. “NASM: Fitness and Public Speaking Workshop” LifeTime Academy (PT Vocational School) Faculty Education course, Minneapolis, MN. February 24-25, 2012. “Corrective Exercise for Baby Boomers” IDEA Personal Training Institute. February 17, 2012. Hilton Mark Center. Alexandria, VA. “From the Table to the Gym” Webinar for the Benjamin Institute Continuing Education Series on Functional Fitness and Massage Therapy. November 2011. “Movement Prep: The New Warm Up” TSI Summit November 5, 2011, Marriot Marque NYC. “Drills! Perform and Practice Sports-Based Drills” TSI Summit November 5, 2011, Marriot Marque NYC. “Metabolic Training: Progressions & Periodization” TSI Summit November 5, 2001. Marriot Marque NYC. “Innovative Programming Strategies for Weight Loss” IDEA World August 2011 in LA. “Teaching Through Movement: The Art of Live Instruction” This five-day workshop was developed me and two colleagues and piloted by NASM’s at their headquarters in Mesa, AZ to their new instructors. The purpose of the workshop is to help presenters in the fitness industry (and others) to hone their public speaking skills with close attention to art of PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 175 rhetoric, pedagogy, andragogy, vivid speech, gestures, verbal and non-verbal communication, etc. NASM, Mesa, AZ. September 2010. “Advanced Program Design: OPT Alternative” TSI Summit October 2008, Hilton New York, NY. “Bigger by Volume” ACDC Conference, Hilton Houston, TX. April 2008 “Common Obstacles Adversely Affecting Today’s Clients” ACDC, Hilton Houston, TX. April 2008 “Bigger by Volume” TSI Summit 2007, Hilton, Brooklyn, NY. October 2007 “The Science Behind Exercise” Chenni (Madras), INDIA. July 2007. “Linking Fitness Assessment to Functional Fitness Programming” Fitness First, Tulsa and Oklahoma City, OK April 2006. “Personal Training VS. Wellness Coaching: Fighting The Same Fight From Different Fronts” TSI Summit 2006, Marriott Marquis Hotel, NY, NY September 2006. “How’s That Workout Working Out?” 440 W57th St. in Manhattan. New York, NY January 15th, 2005. “How’s That Workout Working Out?” Crystal Cruise Lines Featured Presenter November 2005 “Personal Training as a Career” TSI Summit 2004, Marriott Marquis Hotel. September 1012, 2004. “Workouts Made Simple” TIAA-CREF New York, NY 2003 “Career Pains: Identifying and Correcting Common Postural Distortions in the Workplace” The Princeton Club. New York, New York 2003. “Perform Better: The Art of Weight Lifting” Juilliard School, 60 Lincoln Center Plaza, New York, New York. October 2002. “Career Pains: Identifying and Correcting Common Postural Distortions in the Workplace” Fordham University, 113 W60th St. New York, New York. September 2002. PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATIONS • Licensed Massage Therapist, 2010 • Certified Wellcoach® through Wellcoaches® December 2004 • Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist (CSCS) through the National Strength and Conditioning Association, 2005 • Certified Personal Trainer through the National Academy of Sports Medicine, 2002 • Sports Fitness Specialist through the National Academy of Sports Medicine, 2004 • Integrated Flexibility Specialist through the National Academy of Sports Medicine, 2005 • Performance Enhancement Specialist through the National Academy of Sports Medicine, 2006 • Corrective Exercise Specialist through the National Academy of Sports Medicine, 2006 • CPR/AED/First Aid for Adult, Child, and Infant • Health and Fitness Instructor through American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM H/FI), 2003 (Lapsed in 2007) PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 176 PUBLICATIONS Contributing Author NASM Essentials of Personal Fitness Training (5th ed. and 6th ed.), 2017 • Chapter - The Human Movement System in Fitness • Chapter – The Optimum Performance Training (OPT) Model: Applying Stabilization Articles • “Heads Up! Try These Hacks to Correct ‘Tech Neck’” American Fitness Magazine. Fall 2018. Blogs • “3 Partner Assisted Stretching Techniques for Personal Trainers” NASM Blog. September 12, 2018. https://blog.nasm.org/exercise-programming/3-partner-assistedstretching-techniques-for-personal-trainers/ • “How to Meet, Sell, and Retain Clients – Part 2” NASM Blog. December 31, 2017. https://blog.nasm.org/uncategorized/meet-sell-retain-clients-part-2/ • “How to Meet, Sell, and Retain Clients – Part 1” NASM Blog. December 30, 2017. https://blog.nasm.org/uncategorized/meet-sell-retain-clients/ • Addressing the Psoas in the NASM Corrective Exercise Model. NASM Blog. July 17, 2014. https://blog.nasm.org/newletter/addressing-psoas-nasm-corrective-exercise-model/ • “Virtual Training – Less Personal, More Training?” NASM Blog. April 30, 2014. https://blog.nasm.org/certified-personal-trainer/virtual-training-less-personal-training/ • “Working with Challenging Clients” 10/3/08. http://www.nasmcertificationhub.com/cpt/personal-trainer-certification/workingchallenging-clients EVENTS • 2014 – Men’s Health NYC URBANATHLON – Lead Event Warm Up at Citi-Field • 2013 – Men’s Health NYC URBANATHLON – Lead Event Warm Up at Citi-Field • 2011 – NYC- Walk Warm Up Leader for American Diabetes Association Walk for Diabetes (3,000 Attendees). • 2010 – NYC - On-Site Massage Therapist at Walk For MS • 2008 – NYC - Walk Warm Up Leader for American Diabetes Association Walk for Diabetes (4,000 Attendees) • 2007 – NYC - Warm Up Leader JP Morgan Chase Central Park 5K (15,000 Attendees) • 2005 – NYC - Warm Up Leader JP Morgan Chase Central Park 5K (17,000 Attendees) PODCASTS • IDEA Empowered Entrepreneur Podcast with Pete McCall – October 2018 • Ali Fitness Podcast – Proven Technologies for Recovery with Aaron Drogoszewski & Rick Richey – EP79 • In Fighting Shape with Phoenix Carnevale – Recovery with Rick and Drogo - EP 58 177 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING Media Highlights Print: New York Times, Wall Street Journal, Washington Post, Well + Good, Fast Company, Coveteur, Training Edge Magazine, Outside Magazine, New York Magazine, Shape Magazine, Shape.com, iVillage, Redbook, Redbook.com, Club Life Magazine, USA Today, The NY Post, MensHealth.com, Exercise for Men Only, Men’s Journal, ABCNews.com, The NY Observer, Daily Gazette (Schenectady,NY), am New York, Metro NY. Television: ABC, MSNBC, ESPN2, FOX’s GoodDay NY, WB11’s NY Morning Show, Club Com, and The View. Radio/Audiocast: CBS National Radio, and 102.7, The Mix with Len & Greg, “From the Table to the Gym” webinar – BenBenjamin.com Video: • “NASM: Strength Training for Optimal Results” continuing education course recorded at IDEA World, 2018. Offered by Ideafit.com https://www.ideafit.com/fitness-expert/rickrichey/videos • “Movement Prep: The New Warm-Up” continuing education course recorded at IDEA World, 2012. Offered by Ideafit.com https://www.ideafit.com/fitness-expert/rickrichey/videos • “Group Personal Training” educational series with AFFA/NASM • “Corrective Exercise Quick Fixes” educational series with NASM • “The Daily Move Challenge” commercial workout series COMPETETIVE SPORTS Kickboxer – World Kickboxing Association (WKA) – K-1 Rules CLIENTS OF NOTE: Common Hugh Jackman Jennifer Lawrence Gee Roberson Grant Hill Graham Phillips Eli Tehari Gee Roberson Sara Blakely Jeffrey Lane Zoe Kravits Lucas Till Jason Sudeikis Nicola Peltz Amar’e Stoudemire Dahntay Jones Lukas Graham Elvish Gashi Oz Garcia Mark Glicini (MLL) Cara Bono Cynthia Erivo Lady Gaga Hillary Duff Sol Kersner Vlad Doronin Brynne Zuccaro Alex Gonzalez Pauletta Washington Joel Grey Katlyn Chookagian Jake Shields AJ Ramos Robert Pattinson Mike Comrie (NHL) Abby Spears (Tennis) Neiman Gracie Penn Badgley Jesse Itzler Alex Gonzalez Peter Shankman Charone Peake Jennifer Dugwen Chieng Kiki VanDeWeghe FILM LOCATION: X-Men First Class (GA Unit) - 2010: Trainer on set for Jennifer Lawrence PERSONAL INTEREST Family, Travel, Alabama Football (ROLL TIDE), Yankees Baseball, Boxing, Kickboxing, MMA, Traveling Rings in Riverside Park (NYC), Anything my kids are interested in. PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING CITI Program Certificates 178 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 179 PERCEIVED VALUE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING 180