DIFFERENCE IN DRUMMING SPEED OF VARIOUS SKILL LEVELS
DEPENDENT UPON WARM-UP PROTOCOLS

A THESIS
Submitted to the Faculty of the School of Graduate Studies
and Research
of
California University of Pennsylvania in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science

by
Micah Joseph Holland

Research Advisor, Dr. Thomas F. West
California, Pennsylvania
2010

ii

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to take this time to thank all the people
who had a part, directly or indirectly, in making this
project a reality.
First off, thank you to my committee, Thomas F. West,
PhD, ATC (Chair), Marty Sharer, PhD, and Jodi Dusi, MPT.
Your time spent in helping me create this unique thesis is
truly appreciated.
Secondly, thank you to all my subjects who were
willing to put in the hours needed for me to complete this
project.

Without your effort I would not have graduated.

I would also like to thank my family.
your constant support and prayer.

Thank you for

Life is full of

surprises!
I also want to say thanks to DreadHeadHQ for their
sponsorship.

It is great to be on your team, thank you for

all the exposure you have given me.
Lastly, thank you to South Hills Bible Chapel for
consistently giving me a place to play percussion and to
Risen Drums for my amazing custom purpleheart snare drum.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
SIGNATURE PAGE

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

AKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

LIST OF FIGURES .
INTRODUCTION
METHODS

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

RESEARCH DESIGN
SUBJECTS

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

PRELIMINARY RESEARCH

. . . . . . . . . . . . 8

INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
PROCEDURES

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

HYPOTHESES

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

DATA ANALYSIS
RESULTS

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
HYPOTHESIS TESTING

. . . . . . . . . .

. 18

. . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
RECOMMENDATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

v
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
APPENDICES .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

APPENDIX A: Review of Literature

. . . . . . . . 32

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Biomechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Warm-up Routines and Performance . . . . . . 38
Warm-up Protocols . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . 41

Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Stretching . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . 42

Rudiments . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . 44

Injuries

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . 45

Warm-up and prevention . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Elbow forearm and wrist

. . . . . . . . . . 46

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

. . . . . .

Performance

. . . . 48

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . 49

Athletics . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . 49

Drumming
Speed

. . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . 52

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
APPENDIX B: The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Basic Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Significance of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . 58

vi
APPENDIX C: Additional Methods . . . . . . . . . 60
Informed Consent Form (C1) . . . . . . . . . . 61
Demographic Information (C2)
Photo Consent Form (C3)

. . . . . . . . . 65

. . . . . . . . . . . 67

Warm-up Protocols (C4) . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Data Collection Sheet (C5) . . . . . . . . . . 73
IRB:

California University of Pennsylvania (C6)

. 75

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
ABSTRACT

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

vii

LIST OF TABLES
Table

Title

Page

1

Results of 3 x 3 Repeated Measures ANOVA

.

22

2

Mean Drumming Scores. . . . . . . . . .

23

3

Strikes Per Minute After Warm-up Protocols.

25

4

Temperature Related Effects of Warm-ups.

.

39

5

Non-Temperature Related Effects of Warm-ups

39

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

Title

Page

1

Drumometer Model II . . . . . . . . . . 12

2

Vic Firth Drumsticks. . . . . . . . . . 13

3

Finger Flexion Stretch . . . . . . . . . 70

4

Wrist Flexion Stretch . . . . . . . . . 70

5

Wrist Extension Stretch

6

Heat Warm-up Protocol . . . . . . . . . 71

. . . . . . . . 71

1

INTRODUCTION

During the past decade, previously unmet medical needs
of performing artists have fostered the rise of a new
medical subspecialty:

performing arts medicine.1

The

increasing number of reported performance-related injuries
plays a part in this as well as the willingness of
musicians to seek medical attention.

As with athletes, the

demands and stress on the performing musician is very high.
The combination of speed, coordination, accuracy,
consistency and timing create a situation in which injuries
impede the successful performance by the musician.
While musicians are becoming more willing to seek
medical attention, there are still several factors that
keep musicians from seeking medical care.1

The first is the

absence of highly visible signs of injury.

Most injuries

of musicians are not as overt as typical athletic injuries,
therefore, musicians do not seek care as readily as
athletes.1

Second, musicians are often told that discomfort

is inevitable.

Third, musicians also often feel that the

injury is their fault due to the stresses they are putting
on their body.

Fourth, musicians fear the risk of loss of

2
employment due to inability to play.

Lastly, musicians can

be reluctant because of the belief that treatment will
change their technique on their instrument.

While these

factors are understandable, they can be associated with a
lack of information or misinformation about performing arts
medicine.

Seeking help from a sports medicine specialist

may help prevent injuries and decrease the amount of time
the musician loses because of an injury.

This is

especially true for percussionists, because their whole
body is involved in playing their instrument.
A number of conclusions can be drawn regarding the
effects of warm-ups on drumming performance.2 First there
are two types of warm-ups, active and passive.

Active

warm-ups involve exercise and are likely to induce greater
metabolic and cardiovascular changes than passive warm-ups.
Passive warm-ups involve raising the muscle temperature or
core temperature by some external means (hot pack, hot
shower, etc.).2

The first conclusion that can be drawn is

that active warm-ups tend to result in slightly larger
improvements in short-term performance (less than 10
seconds) compared to passive heating alone.

However,

short-term performance may be impaired if the warm-up is
too intense or does not allow sufficient recovery and
results in a decreased availability of high energy

3
phosphates before starting the task.3

Active warm-ups have

also been shown to improve both long-term and intermediate
performance (greater than 10 seconds and less than 5
minutes) if it allows the athlete to begin the subsequent
task in a relative non-fatigued state, but with an elevated
VO2. While passive warm-ups have shown to improve immediate
performance, both passive and active warm-ups may have
detrimental effects on endurance performance.2

By

manipulating intensity, duration and recovery, many
different warm-up protocols may be able to achieve similar
physiological and performance changes.2
While a number of physiological effects of a warm-up
have been attributed to temperature-related mechanisms,
other mechanisms have also been proposed (e.g. effects of
acidemia, mobilization of the aerobic system and increased
postactivation potentiation). Despite the above mentioned
mechanisms, it appears that passive warm-up does not
improve isometric force, but may improve short-duration
(<10 seconds) dynamic force. There are improvements in
dynamic short-term performance (e.g. vertical jumping and
sprint cycling) that tend to be less than those reported
for isolated muscles.4 While the mechanisms remain to be
fully elucidated, it also appears that passive warm-up can
improve intermediate performance (~10 seconds to 5

4
minutes). Passive warm-up does not improve, and may have a
detrimental effect on long-term performance (>5 minutes),
possibly via an increase in thermoregulatory strain.4

There

are several protocols that may help improve warm-ups, and
ultimately, performance and possibly reduce injury.
There are conflicting views in regards to what is the
best way to reduce injury.5

A study was performed to see if

a warm-up and stretching can prevent or reduce muscular
injury.

Subjects studied included both male and female and

trained and untrained individuals.

The independent

variable was the warm-up and the dependent variable was the
number of injuries.

The results showed contradictory

evidence to the question above.

In the end, there is not

enough evidence to answer whether or not a warm-up or
stretching can prevent muscular injury in drumming.

If a

drummer chooses to use a warm-up, it should be implemented
prior to physical activity.

Ideally, it should occur about

15 minutes prior to the activity and be tailored to the
individual as well as the activity.
elbow, forearm and wrist.

This includes the

It should produce a mild sweat,

but avoiding fatigue.2
To understand how high levels of skill are developed
and maintained, it is necessary to study elite groups such
as professional athletes or musicians.6

A study was

5
performed in which subjects included musicians and nonmusicians.

The independent variable is the musician

playing at a high level.
cortical activation.

The dependent variable is the

The results showed that being a very

skilled musician can structurally change the motor areas of
the brain.
Philosophy, methodology and techniques are required to
obtain greater performance on the drums with both hands and
feet.7

A study was done that included

drummers who wanted

to gain greater speed with their hands and feet.

The

independent variables were proper biomechanical alignment
of limbs, proper technique and all equipment properly
aligned.

The dependent variable was the speed.

The

results showed that by manipulating the independent
variables, drummers can increase speed with their hands and
feet.

Subsequently, speed of drumming appears to be

impacted by proper body mechanics and techniques,
suggesting that warm-up protocols that impact posture and
drumming technique may significantly improve speed.

The

purpose of this study is to examine the different effects
of warm-up protocols on various skill levels while
performing a single stroke roll.

In the end, there is

insufficient evidence to answer whether or not a warmup/stretching can prevent muscular injury, but there is

6
research that shows the potential for an increase in
performance.

If a warm-up is performed, it should be

implemented prior to physical activity.

Ideally, it should

occur about 15 minutes prior to the activity and be
tailored to the individual as well as the activity.

7

METHODS

The purpose of this study was to examine the
difference in maximal drumming speed of various skill
levels dependent upon warm-up protocols.

The following

areas are discussed in this section: Research Design,
Subjects, Preliminary Research, Instruments, Procedures,
Hypotheses, and Data Analysis.

Research Design

A within subjects quasi-experimental design was used
for this study.

One independent variable of this study was

the warm-up protocols:

heat, stretching and rudiments.

The other independent variable was the skill of the
drummer:

novice, amateur and professional.

The dependent

variable of this study was the amount of strikes on the pad
in one minute.
performed.

On the first day, baseline drum testing was

On the following days, a warm-up protocol was

performed followed by drum testing.

8
Subjects

The subjects (N=15) of this study were male and female
drummers from California University of Pennsylvania.

All

subjects read and signed an informed consent form (Appendix
C1) prior to participating in the study.

Subjects who had

current upper body injuries, or were currently taking
medications that may have affected their ability to strike
the pad were excluded from the study.

Demographic

information was obtained from the Demographic Profile Form
(Appendix C2) that each subject filled out prior to
participation.

A Photo Consent Form was also filled out

prior to participation (Appendix C3).

Preliminary Research

The purpose of the preliminary research was to
familiarize the researcher with the instruments and warm-up
protocols that were used in this study.

This included

familiarization with the Drumometer Model II, warm-up
protocols and the testing protocol.

The preliminary

research also aided the researcher in deciding the amount
of rest time needed in-between each test trial.

In

addition, the preliminary research allowed the researcher

9
to determine the amount of time required for each day of
testing.

The preliminary subject (N=1) was a volunteer

drummer from California University of Pennsylvania.

The

preliminary subject was randomly assigned to one of the
three previously mentioned warm-up protocols.

This allowed

for the researcher to carry out the procedures for each
group, ensuring proper execution of each protocol.

Instruments

The following instruments were used in this study: a
subject demographic profile form (Appendix C2), a heat
warm-up protocol, a stretching warm-up protocol, a rudiment
warm-up protocol (Appendix C4), a Drumometer Model II
strike counter (Figure 1) and a pair of Vic Firth SD1
General drumsticks (Figure 2) and the data collection sheet
(Appendix C5).

Subject Demographic Profile Form
The Subject Demographic Profile Form (Appendix C2) was
created by the researcher.

The demographic profile

included age, years of experience, years of studying,
specialty, hours of practicing a week, and upper body
injury history.

The Demographic Profile Form helped to

10
confirm that subjects did not have any current upper body
injuries, or if there were on any medications that may have
affected their ability to strike a pad.

If volunteers

answered yes to any of the questions on the Demographic
Profile Form, they were excluded from the study.

Heat Warm-up Protocol
Based on the results of the research, thermotherapy
treatment of the upper extremity have effects on the
performance of the hand expressed as reaction time, speed
of movement and tapping speed.8 A study performed by Bishop
showed that a majority of the effects of a warm-up are due
to a temperature-related mechanism.4 For the purpose of this
study, a hot pack from a hydrocollator that is between 160176 degrees Fahrenheit will be applied to the top and
bottom of forearms, wrists and elbows.

The treatment will

be applied for 12 minutes.

Stretching Warm-up Protocol
Common clinical practices suggest that pre-exercise
stretching can enhance performance and prevent injuries by
increasing flexibility.

For the purpose of this study, the

wrist and forearm flexors and extensors were stretched as
well as finger flexors.

Three stretches were performed in

11
each motion.

Stretches were held for thirty seconds each.

They were completed on the left and right hand.

Rudiment Warm-up Protocol
Often called the 'building blocks of drumming' and
equated with the scales played on melodic instruments, drum
rudiments consist of short rhythmic phrases with specific
stickings.9 For the purpose of this study, the 13 essential
rudiments will be used as described by the National
Association of Rudimental Drummers (Appendix C4).

Each

rudiment will be performed for 30 seconds with a rest time
of 5 seconds in between.

This protocol will take 7 minutes

and 35 seconds.

Drumometer Model II
The Drumometer Model II works when the pad that is
being struck sends an electric signal to the Drumometer.
When the pad is struck, the timer will immediately start
counting down and the counter will record each stroke until
the desired time has elapsed (in this study 60 seconds will
be used).

When the timer reaches zero, the Drumometer will

stop and an alarm will sound.

The number of strokes that

has been played in a minute will be displayed and recorded.

12

Figure 1.

Drumometer Model II

Vic Firth SD1 General Drumsticks
The Vic Firth SD1 General drumsticks are very
versatile drumsticks.
width of .635”.
while testing.

They have a length of 16 3/8” and a

All subjects utilized these drumsticks

13

Figure 2.

Vic Firth SD1 General Drumsticks

Data Collection Sheet
The Data Collection Sheet (Appendix C5), created by
the researcher was used to record all relevant data for the
test using the Drumometer Model II.

This included the

subject identification number, group assignment, date,
warm-up protocol, and the results of the three trials from
day one, two, three and day four of testing.

Procedures

The following steps were taken for this study:
approval to carry out the study was acquired from the
California University of Pennsylvania Institutional Review

14
Board (Appendix C6).

Once the study was approved,

preliminary research was conducted.

After completion of

preliminary research, subjects were sought to participate
in the study.

California University of Pennsylvania

drummers were asked to volunteer to participate in the
study.

Subjects were educated on the details and purpose

of the study.

Prior to participation all volunteers were

given an informed consent form to read and sign.

All

participants then scheduled four testing times: the first
to obtain baseline data and a second through fourth to
carry out their randomly assigned warm-up protocols.
When subjects arrived on the first day they picked a
number out of a box to obtain their randomly assigned
subject number and group designation.

The assigned subject

number replaced the subject’s name once testing began to
maintain subject anonymity.

After receiving their subject

number, the subjects completed the previously mentioned
demographic profile form.

Volunteers who revealed any

current injuries or contraindications were not allowed to
participate in the study.

Subjects then completed one

practice trial using the Drumometer Model II strike counter
before they performed their actual test. The practice trial
was carried out to allow the subject to familiarize
themselves with the Drumometer Model II.

After the

15
practice trial was completed, the subject completed the
actual test.

The actual test consists of three attempts

with the Drumometer Model II in which the highest score was
recorded.

Based on observations from the preliminary

research, subjects were allowed a three minute rest period
between trials.

The result from the official test was

considered their baseline data.

Results were recorded in

the data collection sheet.
After a minimum of one day and a maximum of seven days
passed and to minimize a possible learning affect, the
subjects returned for day two of testing.

When subjects

arrived on the second day they were instructed on how to
perform the warm-up protocol assigned to them.

They then

completed their designated warm-up protocol: heat,
stretching or rudiments.

Once the subjects completed their

appointed warm-up, they completed their three tests on the
Drumometer Model II and the best result was recorded.
After a minimum of one day and a maximum of seven days
passed, the subjects returned for day three of testing.
When subjects arrived on the second day they were
instructed on how to perform the warm-up protocol that was
randomly assigned to them.

They then completed their

designated warm-up protocol: heat, stretching or rudiments.
Once the subjects completed their appointed warm-up, they

16
completed their tests on the Drumometer Model II.

Results

of the official test were recorded.
After a minimum of one day and a maximum of seven
days passed, the subjects returned for day four of testing.
When subjects arrived on the second day they were
instructed on how to perform the warm-up protocol assigned
to them.

They then completed their designated warm-up

protocol: heat, stretching or rudiments.

Once the subjects

completed their appointed warm-up, they completed their
test on the Drumometer Model II.

Results of the official

test were recorded.

Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were generated based on the
literature review and the clinical intuition of the
researcher.
1. There will be a difference in maximal drumming speed
dependent upon warm-up protocols.
2. There will be a difference in maximal drumming speed
dependent upon skill level.
3. There will be an interactive effect between warm-up
protocol and skill level upon maximal drumming speed.

17
Data Analysis

A 3 x 3 factorial ANOVA (analysis of variance) was
used to determine the effect of the independent variables
(type of warm-up protocol and skill level) on the dependent
variable (strikes per minute).

This will examine both the

main effects and the interaction.

If a difference is

found, post hoc testing was to be conducted to analyze the
patterns.

The dependent variable, strikes per minute, was

used to calculate a difference in the warm-up protocols.
This was calculated by subtracting the day 1 baseline test
from the day 2, day 3 and day 4 test score.

An alpha level

of P < 0.05 was used to determine statistical significance.
SPSS 17.0 was used for this statistical analysis.

18

RESULTS

The purpose of this study was to examine the
difference in maximal drumming speed of various skill
levels dependent upon warm-up protocols.

The following

section contains the data collected through the study and
is divided into three subsections:

Demographic

Information, Hypotheses Testing and Additional Findings.

Demographic Information

Subjects included volunteer drummers who were students at
California University of Pennsylvania.

There were 3

beginners, 4 intermediate and 8 advanced drummers.
Participants indicated three main areas of focus; 6 were
specialized in drum set, 8 were specialized in drumline and
1 was specialized in the hammered dulcimer.

19

Hypothesis Testing

Mean drumming speed of the three participant skill
levels under the three warm-up conditions can be found in
table 2.

The following hypotheses were tested in this

study and determined if the main effect of skill level and
warm-up had a significant effect on performance.

All

hypotheses were tested with a level of significance set at
α ≤ 0.05.

Differences were examined utilizing one 3 x 3

factorial ANOVA with repeated measures for the effect of
various warm-ups on maximal drumming speed of various skill
levels.

Interactions between the independent variables of

warm-up and skill levels were also examined.

Hypothesis 1:

There will be a difference in maximal

drumming speed dependent upon warm-up protocols
Conclusion:

A 3 x 3 repeated measures factorial ANOVA

was calculated to examine the effect of warm-up protocols
on maximal drumming speed.

No significant within subject

main effect of warm-ups was found.

The effect of warm-ups

(F(2,24) = 1.346, p > .2.79) on drumming speed was not
significant.

20
Hypothesis 2:

There will be a difference in maximal

drumming speed dependent upon skill level
Conclusion:

A 3 x 3 repeated measures factorial

ANOVA was calculated to examine the effect of skill levels
on maximal drumming speed.

No significant between subject

main effect of skill level was found.

The skill levels

(F(2,12) = .894, p > .434) on drumming speed was

not

significant.
Hypotheses 3:

There will be an interactive effect

between warm-up protocol and skill level upon maximal
drumming speed.
Conclusion:

A 3 x 3 repeated measures factorial ANOVA

was calculated to examine the interactive effect of warm-up
protocol and skill level on drumming speed.
interactive effect was found.

No significant

The interaction (F(4,24) =

1.689, p > .185) was not significant.

21

DISCUSSION

The general purpose of this study was to examine the
different effects of warm-up protocols on various skill
levels while performing a single stroke roll.

The

following section is divided into three subsections:
Discussion of Results, Conclusions, and Recommendations.

Discussion of Results

Investigations into whether there was a difference in
drumming speed of various skill levels dependent upon warmup protocols showed no significant difference in
performance.

A 3 x 3 repeated measures ANOVA was

calculated to examine the effects of warm-up protocols and
skill levels on maximal drumming speed.

The warm-up

protocol and skill level interaction (F(4,24) = 1.689, p >
.185), warm-up protocol (F(2,24) = 1.346, p > .279), and
skill levels (F(2,12) = .894, p > .434) were not
significant.

22
Table 1.

Results of 3 x 3 Repeated Measures ANOVA
F

Significance
(p > .05)

Warm-up
Protocols

3.012

.108

Skill
Levels

.690

.521

Interactive
Effect

.894

.434

Source

Table 2 shows the mean strikes per minute for each
skill level and warm-up protocol.

The beginner skill level

had a mean between 585.33-596.33 strikes per minute
depending upon the warm-up protocol, while the intermediate
skill level had a mean between 667.50-701.50 strikes per
minute depending upon the warm-up protocol and finally the
advanced skill level had a mean between 716.00-725.75
strikes per minute depending upon warm-up protocol.

This

is consistent with what the researcher hypothesized stating
that there will be a difference in maximal drumming speed
dependent upon skill level.

One thing that needs to be

considered is the standard deviation.

Due to the large

standard deviation, anywhere from 46.446-118.024, there is
an overlapping effect between skill levels.

A possible

conclusion that can be drawn is that while the majority of

23
the subjects fell into the appropriate skill category, a
few subjects caused an overlap of the skill level means.
This shows that the skill levels did not always coincide
with the years of experience playing drums.

Therefore it

may be beneficial to examine a better way to classify skill
levels than years of playing experience.
Table 2.

Mean Drumming Scores

Skill

Beginner

Intermediate

Advanced

Heat
(SD)

Stretching
(SD)

Rudiments
(SD)

593.6
(80.21)

585.3
(69.42)

596.3
(92.87)

667.5
(111.88)

701.5
(108.50)

689.2
(118.02)

717.0
(46.44)

716.0
(50.00)

725.7
(49.56)

It was hypothesized that there would be a difference
in maximal drumming speed dependent upon warm-up protocols.
As the mean drumming scores for heat was examined, a mean
range of 593.6-717.0 with a standard deviation between
46.44-111.88 dependent upon which skill level they were
classified as.

When statistically analyzing the heat score

and performance, it was discovered that there was no
significance.

When stretching was analyzed, the mean was

between 585.3-716.0 with a standard deviation between

24
50.00-108.50.
difference.

This too was shown not to have significant
Finally, rudiments were examined.

The

rudimental mean was between 596.3-725.7 with a standard
deviation between 49.56-92.87.

Once again, no significance

was found.
The researcher hypothesized that there would be an
interactive effect on differing groups dependent upon the
warm-up protocols.

It was thought that all skill levels

would be effected by heat due to the physiological changes
that are caused by heat on the body, such as a decreased
resistance of muscles and joints and an increase in release
of oxygen.2

It was also thought that the beginner skill

level would be most affected by stretching due to the
tendency of beginning drummers to tense up while performing
on the Drumometer Model II.

While all skill levels can

tense up while playing, intermediate and advanced players
have the ability to stay more relaxed than beginners.
Lastly, it was thought that the advanced skill level would
perform better when rudiments where performed because of
the coordination that the rudiments provide.

Advanced

players performed the rudiments more proficiently than the
beginners or intermediate skill levels, so it was thought
that they would benefit the most by possibly striking the
Drumometer Model II in a more efficient manner.

However,

25
after performing the research and statistical analysis, it
was discovered that no significant interactive difference
was found between skill levels and warm-up protocols.
The results are surprising due to the literature that
on performance and warm-ups.

Research has shown that an

active warm-up can possibly improve both long-term and
intermediate performance (longer than 10 seconds and less
than 5 minutes if it allows the athlete to begin the
subsequent task in a relative non-fatigued state.2

In this

study, testing was only 1 minute long so it falls under
this category, it also lets the subjects begin in a nonfatigued state.

Studies have also shown that the majority

of effects of warm-ups have been attributed to temperaturerelated mechanisms, such as decreased stiffness, increased
nerve-conduction rate and an increased anaerobic energy
provisions, which was attempted during this study.4
The results also showed a possible learning effect.
Each day of testing, the subject was given three chances to
strike the Drumometer Model II with as many single strokes
as possible.

The majority of subjects struck the

Drumometer Model II with the most strikes on their third
attempt and had the fewest amount of strikes on their first
attempt.

Table 3 shows this possible learning effect where

H1 (heat first attempt) is generally less than H3 (heat

26
third attempt).

This table does not take into account the

scores that were disqualified due to double strokes.
Table 3.
Subject
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Strikes Per Minute After Warm-up Protocols
H1
H2
H3
R1
R2
R3
S1
S2
703 725 738 686 692 695 696 711
775 772 783 787 784 790 760 801
658 669 671 647 650 662 683 682
804 821 816 805 816 835 815 835
527 554 579 522 533 551 548 584
701 708 714 716 726 731 665 674
479 508 517 413 483 499 462 510
682 678 690 683 699 710 674 676
624 642 651 655 669 677 633 647
628 646 667 641 667 684 524 635
754 766 761 756 766 797 714 762
585 661 635 610 633 659 610 633
718 731 728 728 738 744 702 716
660 724 741 660 712 712 650 728
554 570 606 549 591 606 583 615

S3
716
808
690
843
602
694
506
699
658
646
770
664
732
725
584

There are also various measures of performance such as
speed, timing, accuracy, endurance and coordination that
may be effected by these warm-up protocols.

Rudiments are

designed specifically to increase hand coordination and
this coordination may help improve the accuracy of the
strikes on the Drumometer Model II. The physiological
effects of heat may play a vital role in increasing muscle
endurance while striking the Drumometer Model II.
Stretching may also play a role timing and coordination by
increasing range of motion.

27

Conclusions

The findings of this study show that neither heat,
rudiments or stretching had a significant effect on maximal
drumming speed on drummers of various skill levels.
However, the trends seen in the results showed that further
investigation is needed on this topic.

This may include

testing the effects of warm-ups on factors other than
speed, such as timing, accuracy, endurance, and
coordination.

Nevertheless, research still supports the

use of warm-ups to increase performance.

It was shown that

active warm-ups can possibly result in slightly larger
improvements in short-term performance (less than 10
seconds) compared to passive heating alone.

However,

short-term performance may be impaired if the warm-up is
too intense or does not allow sufficient recovery and
results in a decreased availability of high energy
phosphates before starting the task.3

Active warm-ups have

also shown to improve both long-term and intermediate
performance (greater than 10 seconds and less than 5
minutes) if it allows the athlete to begin the subsequent
task in a relative non-fatigued state, but with an elevated
VO2. While passive warm-ups have shown to improve immediate

28
performance, both passive and active warm-ups may have
detrimental effects on endurance performance.

By

manipulating intensity, duration and recovery, many
different warm-up protocols may be able to achieve similar
physiological and performance changes.

Recommendations

The findings of this study show that using neither
heat, rudiments or stretching as a warm-up had a
statistically significant effect on maximal drumming speed.
As for future research, it is suggested to work to minimize
the learning effect.

This can be done by having subjects

come in for a drum lesson on the Drumometer Model II before
they start their baseline testing.

This would help them

get acquainted with the equipment and used to playing the
single stroke roll and the 13 essential rudiments.
It is also recommended to find a more sufficient way
to divide up the groups into skill levels.

In this study

people playing up to 4 years were considered beginners.
People playing 5-9 years were considered intermediate
players, and finally, people who have been playing for 10+
years were considered advanced.

This did not necessarily

29
reflect the results that were received as shown by the
overlap in numbers.

30
REFERENCES

1. Branfonbrener AG. Performing arts medicine.
Educators Journal. 1991;77(5):37-41.

Music

2. Bishop D. Warm up II: Performance changes following
active warm up and how to structure a warm up. Sports
Med. 2003;33(7):483-498.
3. Hirvonen J, Rehunen S, Rusko H. Breakdown of highenergy phosphate compounds and lactate accumulation
during short supramaximal exercise. Eur J Appl
Physiol. 1987;56:253-259.
4. Bishop D. Warm up I: Potential mechanisms and the
effects of passive warm up on exercise performance.
Sports Med. 2003;33(6):439-454.
5. Woods K, Bishop P, Jones E. Warm-up and stretching in
the prevention of muscular injury. Sports Med.
2007;37(12):1089-1099.
6. Watson AH. What can studying musicians tell us about
motor control of the hand? J Anat. 2006;208(4):527542.
7. Bowman G. The art and philosophy of speed and how to
apply it to drumming. Canadian Musician.
2005;27(3):28.
8. Kuuranen K, Vunharunta H. Effects of hot and cold
packs on motor performance of normal hands.
Physiotherapy. 1997;83(7):340-344.
9. Mattingly R. Part I performers and performing: 3.
Performing techniques: drum rudiments. Continuum
Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World.
2003;2:129-130.

31

APPENDICES

32

APPENDIX A
Review of Literature

33
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction

During the past decade, previously unmet medical needs
of performing arts have fostered the rise of a new medical
subspecialty:

performing arts medicine.1

The increasing

number of reported performance-related injuries plays a
part in this as well as the musicians willingness to seek
medical attention.

As with athletes, the demands and

stress on the performing musician is very high.

The

combination of speed, coordination, accuracy, consistency
and timing create a situation in which injuries are
prevalent.

Many variables must be considered when

analyzing the potential for injury in artistic performance.
The variables in performing arts medicine can be
broken down into two categories.

The first being the

capabilities and limits of each instrument and the musician
themselves.1 The capabilities and limits of each instrument
are relative constants, and for this reason, generally
predictable.

The musician, on the other hand, is very

unpredictable, because each artist has his or her own
strengths and weaknesses.

A common misconception is that

playing an instrument is a natural action.2 From a

34
physiological standpoint, playing an instrument is not a
natural or automatic behavior for the body.

Due to these

variables, injuries can occur and the need for a medical
professional may be necessary.
While musicians are becoming more willing to seek
medical attention, there are several factors that keep
musicians from seeking medical care.1 The first is the
absence of highly visible signs of injury.

Most injuries

of musicians are not as overt as typical athletic injuries,
therefore, musicians do not seek care as readily as
athletes.1 Second is the fact that musicians are often told
that discomfort is inevitable.

Third, musicians also often

feel that the injury is their fault due to the stresses
they are putting on their body.

Fourth, musicians fear the

risk of loss of employment due to inability to play.
Lastly, musicians can be reluctant because of the belief
that treatment will change their technique on their
instrument.

While these factors are understandable, they

can be associated with a lack of information or
misinformation about performing arts medicine.

Seeking

help from a sports medicine specialist may help prevent
injuries and decrease the amount of time the musician loses
because of an injury.

This is especially true for

35
musicians, such as percussionists, because their whole body
is involved in playing their instrument.
Being a percussionist is a very physically demanding
activity.

Percussionists will spend countless hours

working on increasing speed, endurance, power, timing,
consistency and accuracy.

Beyond just playing, one must

take into account the factor of travelling, the number of
shows and rehearsals being performed, the weight of the
gear being transported, little sleep and poor nutrition.
Even with great technique, these demands can lead to
fatigue and injury.

Biomechanics

Drumstick grip is the first technique that should be
discussed.

There are three main types of grips:

grip, traditional grip, and the French grip.

the match

This study

will be done using the match grip due to its high
prevalence among drummers.
hands mirror each other.

While using match grip, both

The key to remember is that the

drummer must remember to stay relaxed as tension and
drumming do not mix at all.

Shoulders and upper arms

should always be in a natural position.

The elbow should

36
be very relaxed, but not laying against the body.

Once the

hands are loose, speed and power will follow.
The first step in the match grip is to leave an inch
and a half of the stick out of the back of the hand.
re-set the “fulcrum point.”

Next,

The point between the thumb

and first finger is known as the “fulcrum” or balancing
point.

Now, picture a line splitting the stick in half

horizontally.

The thumb can sit on top of the imaginary

line or in the middle of it.

The three back fingers lay

relaxed wrapped around the stick.

There is a tendency to

leave the pinky and ring finger off the stick when they
play.

If this happens; it can hinder future advanced

control capabilities.
discussed.

Once this is done, the wrist must be

Some teachers like it parallel to the ground,

some like the thumb straight up, and some like it in
between.

The final step is to setup the left hand exactly

like the right hand.
Before the drum is struck, the drumsticks should form
the letter “V” above the drumhead.
should be about an inch apart.
inches above the drumhead.

The tips of the sticks

Hold the drumsticks 3

Starting with your right hand,

move your wrist (not your arm) to raise the stick 6-8
inches above the drumhead (this is known as the up
position).

Strike the drumhead lightly just forward of the

37
center with a quick down-up motion and let the wrist return
the stick to the up position.

Repeat with the left hand,

and make sure that you strike each stick with equal force.
Knowledge of anatomy and biomechanics of the hand are
important to have a successful hand examination and
assessment.3 A study was performed to examine the truth of
this.

The only restriction to be a subject in this study

was that you had to experience trauma to the hand.
ages and races were included in this study.

All

The

independent variable was the special tests used during the
hand examination while the dependent variable was the
injuries that were missed due to bad examinations.

The

results showed that the better the examinations are, the
fewer amounts of injuries you miss.

It is imperative to

have a great understanding of anatomy to perform a
successful hand examination. To better understand this, the
human rate limit for voluntary rhythmic movement must be
examined.
As the human rate limit for voluntary rhythmic
movement was examined, it was assumed that the movement was
between 5-7Hz, but there has been recent report that a
drummer won a contest by moving his wrists at a rate of
10Hz.4 The subjects of this study included drummers, nondrummers and the world’s fastest drummer.

The independent

38
variable was the skill of the drummer and the dependent
variable was the taps per minute that the drummers
performed.

The results showed that a greater skill level

can produce a movement greater than 7Hz.

To accomplish

this one must keep the wrist compliant and not stiff.

The

question here is whether or not a warm-up routine can help
increase your speed.

Warm-up Routines and Performance

While there is a scarcity of well controlled studies
with large subject numbers and appropriate statistical
analysis, a number of conclusions can be drawn regarding
the effects of warm-ups on drumming performance.5 First
there are two types of warm-ups, active and passive.
Active warm-ups involve exercise and are likely to induce
greater metabolic and cardiovascular changes than passive
warm-ups.

Passive warm-ups involve raising the muscle

temperature or core temperature by some external means (hot
pack, hot shower, etc.).

The first conclusion that can be

drawn is that active warm-ups tend to result in slightly
larger improvements in short-term performance (less than 10
seconds) compared to passive heating alone.5 However, shortterm performance may be impaired if the warm-up is too

39
intense or does not allow sufficient recovery and results
in a decreased availability of high energy phosphates
before starting the task.

Active warm-ups have also shown

to improve both long-term and intermediate performance
(greater than 10 seconds and less than 5 minutes) if it
allows the athlete to begin the subsequent task in a
relative non-fatigued state, but with an elevated VO2.6
While passive warm-ups have shown to improve immediate
performance, both passive and active warm-ups may have
detrimental effects on endurance performance.

By

manipulating intensity, duration and recovery, many
different warm-up protocols may be able to achieve similar
physiological and performance changes.
A study performed by Bishop showed that a majority of
the effects of a warm-up are due to a temperature-related
mechanism.

The subjects were both male and female and

trained and untrained individuals.
variable was a warm-up.

The independent

The dependent variable was the

measured results of the performance.

The results showed

that the warm-up effects can be due to a temperaturerelated mechanism.

While it has been hypothesized that

warm-ups may have a number of effects, the majority of the
effects of warm-up have been attributed to temperaturerelated mechanisms as shown in Table 4 and 5.6

40

Table 6. Temperature Related Effects of Warm-ups
Temperature Related Effects
Decreased resistance to muscles and joint
Greater release of oxygen from hemoglobin and myoglobin
Speeding of metabolic reactions
Increased nerve conduction rate
Increased thermoregulatory strain

Table 7. Non-Temperature Related Effects of Warm-ups
Increased blood flow to muscles
Elevation of baseline oxygen consumption
Postactivation potentiation
Psychological effects and increased preparedness

However, other mechanisms have also been proposed
(e.g. effects of acidemia, mobilization of the aerobic
system and increased postactivation potentiation). Despite
the above mentioned mechanisms, it appears that passive
warm-up does not improve isometric force, but may improve
short-duration (<10 seconds) dynamic force. There are
improvements in dynamic short-term performance (e.g.
vertical jumping and sprint cycling) that tend to be less
than those reported for isolated muscles. While the
mechanisms remain to be fully elucidated, it also appears
that passive warm-up can improve intermediate performance
(~10 seconds to 5 minutes).6 Passive warm-up does not

41
improve, and may have a detrimental effect on, long-term
performance (>5 minutes), possibly via an increase in
thermoregulatory strain.

There are several protocols that

may help improve warm-ups, and ultimately, performance.

Warm-up Protocols

Heat
The first study of the effects of hot and cold pack
treatments on the motor performance of the upper extremity
showed that hot and cold pack treatments had an effect on
the motor performance of the hand indicated by reaction
time, speed of movement and tapping speed.

Both hot and

cold pack treatments delayed simple reaction time. With
cold packs this was an expected reaction because of
decreasing performance of the extension muscles of the
forearm. However, with hot pack treatment the same
phenomenon was a surprise, because warming can decreases
joint stiffness and increases blood flow and collagen
extensibility.
Based on the results of the research, hot and cold
treatment of the upper extremity have effects on the
performance of the hand expressed as reaction time, speed
of movement and tapping speed.7 Although hot and cold packs

42
affect motor performance, cold packs negatively affect
speed of movement and tapping speed while hot packs
significantly improved taking speed.

Moreover, hot packs

increased tapping speed immediately and 30 minutes later.
These changes were emphasized on fine motor movements of
the finger performed with fast back-and-forth movement of
antagonistic muscles. On the other hand, reduction in fine
hand function may be insignificant when dealing with gross
musculoskeletal function and the need to reduce pain, which
stretching may help with.

Stretching
It is a common practice to use pre-exercise stretching
to enhance performance and prevent injuries by increasing
flexibility. However, a recent review article does not
support this notion.9

Research was done where the

different types of stretching performed before performance
were looked at and their results on performance.

The

results state there is limited scientific data to support
the suggested benefits of stretching. Despite stretching
commonly being performed before exercise to enhance
performance and reduce the risk of injury, there is limited
scientific data to support the suggested benefits of
stretching.

43
Static and ballistic stretching have been shown to
have detrimental effects on muscle strength and functional
performances such as jumping, and to have inconclusive
effects on the incidence of injury, and no effects on the
severity of muscle damage. Even though research has
indicated that stretching is an effective treatment to
increase static flexibility (range of motion), the effects
on dynamic flexibility (muscle stiffness) are inconclusive
given the variation of the length of hold and the number of
repetitions used in studies.
In the world of sports, stretching has recently
undergone a transformation from a generally assumed aspect
of training to a more scrutinized contributor that may or
may not be supported by the outcome of enhanced sport
performance.9

The aim of stretching is to increase

flexibility, but the question of whether flexibility helps
to enhance performance has not been answered. The ideal
flexibility for the performance of each sports activity is
different. Compliant muscle fibers might be beneficial to
eccentric contraction while stiffer muscle fibers might be
more suitable for concentric and isometric contractions.10
Does flexibility help to reduce the rate of injury? The
majority of research does not support this statement.
Stretching can also affect strength performance.

44
Many activities rely heavily on strength, but strength
performance may be diminished by a preceding stretching
routine; therefore, it is important to understand the
phenomenon when prescribing physical exercise programs.11
There appears to be substantial evidence suggesting a
decrease in strength following stretching.

Studies used

different stretching techniques, duration and targeted
different muscle groups, and were tested with isotonic,
isometric and isokinetic devices.

However, the number of

exercises, duration of each exercise and number of sets was
much longer than the ranges normally used in practice.
Another protocol that may increase speed is the use of
rudiments.

Rudiments
Often called the 'building blocks of drumming' and
equated with the scales played on melodic instruments, drum
rudiments consist of short rhythmic phrases with specific
stickings.12
The first set of standardized drum rudiments was
created by the National Association of Rudimental Drummers
(NARD) in 1933 and consisted of 26 rudiments that were
considered essential by its members. The Percussive Arts
Society (PAS) expanded this set in 1984 by compiling a list

45
of 40 International Drum Rudiments, which included the
original 26 NARD rudiments, along with drum corps,
European, orchestral and contemporary snare drum rudiments
that had become popular.

Many drum set players use

rudiments for technique development and adapt rudiments to
other styles of music. Jazz drummers such as Buddy Rich and
Joe Morello often displayed a rudimental influence; rock
drummer Spencer Dryden played a rudimental-style
snare drum introduction on Jefferson Airplane's 1960s hit
'White Rabbit'; and Steve Gadd's drum part on Paul Simon's
1970s hit '50 Ways to Leave Your Lover' was rudimentally
based.12

Injuries

Warm-up and prevention
Muscular injury is one of the major problems facing
today’s athletes and musicians, both recreational and
professional. Injuries to skeletal muscle represent greater
than 30% of the injuries seen in sports medicine clinics.13
As a result, it is imperative to utilize the most effective
means to aid in deterring these injuries. However, there
are conflicting opinions regarding methods of reducing
muscular injury through warm-up and stretching techniques.

46
There are conflicting views in regards to what is the
best way to reduce injury.14 This study was done to see if a
warm-up or stretching can prevent or reduce muscular
injury.

Subjects studied included both male and female and

trained and untrained individuals.

The results showed

contradictory evidence to the question above.

In the end,

there is not enough evidence to answer whether or not a
warm-up/stretching can prevent muscular injury.

If a

drummer chooses to use a warm-up, it should be implemented
prior to physical activity.

Ideally, it should occur about

15 minutes prior to the activity and be tailored to the
individual as well as the activity.
elbow, forearm and wrist.

This includes the

It should produce a mild sweat,

but avoiding fatigue.

Elbow forearm and wrist
Competitive and recreational athletes sustain a wide
variety of soft tissue, bone, ligament, tendon and nerve
damage to their upper extremities.15 Most such injuries are
related to direct trauma or repetitive stress, and account
for a significant amount of ‘down time’ for athletes
participating in a wide range of sports, particularly those
in which the arm is utilized for throwing, catching or
swinging. Overuse injuries to the elbow include

47
musculotendinous injuries, ulnar nerve injuries and
ligamentous injuries.15 Osteochondrol lesions of the
capitullum and posterior impingement injuries in the joint
are frequently seen in athletes as well.

Acute traumatic

injuries to the elbow include tendon ruptures, elbow
dislocations and intra-articular fractures.

Forearm

overuse injuries in athletes include fracture of the carpal
scaphoid, fracture of the hook of the hamate, Kienbock’s
syndrome and pisoquetral syndromes.

Ligamentous injuries

include scapholunate, lunotriquetral and midcarpal
instability injuries. Injuries to the distal radio-ulnar
joint and triangular fibrocartilage are also quite common
in athletes, and require careful evaluation and treatment.
Epicondylar injuries are another common elbow injury
that has been studied.16 The subjects studied were athletes
mostly from golf, tennis and baseball.

The independent

variable was the treatment received (NSAIDs,
corticosteroids, massage, laser therapy, acupuncture,
strengthening, shockwave therapy and mobilizations).

The

results showed controversy as to what was the best
treatment, and further research needs to be done to
demonstrate the best treatment for epicondylar injuries.
Further distally, hand and wrist injuries need to be
discussed.

48
Evaluating hand and wrist injuries depends on
knowledge of basic anatomy and biomechanics of the hand and
wrist.17 The wrist is composed of two rows of carpal bones.
Flexor and extensor tendons cross the wrist to allow
function of the hand and digits.

The ulnar, median, and

radial nerves provide innervation of the hand and wrist. A
systematic primary and secondary examination of the hand
and wrist includes assessment of active and passive range
of motion of the wrist and digits, and dynamic stability
testing.

The most commonly fractured bone of the wrist is

the scaphoid, and the most common ligamentous instability
involves the scaphoid and lunate.

An example of a common

wrist injury would be carpal tunnel syndrome.

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
It is very important to assess the value of a history
and physical exam findings in diagnosing carpal tunnel
syndrome.18

Subjects studied included males and females

with wrist pain and/or neurological symptoms.

The

independent variable was the diagnostic tests that were
used in the study.
each test was.

The dependent variable was how accurate

The results showed that a Tinnel’s sign

with a positive hand pain diagram was the best predictors
of carpal tunnel syndrome.

It was also found that Phalen’s

49
was the worst predictor of carpal tunnel syndrome and age
may play an issue in carpal tunnel syndrome.
Carpal tunnel syndrome has an increased rate among
people whose occupation involves repeated flexion and
extension.19 A study was done to see how prevalent carpal
tunnel syndrome (CTS) is in the presence of wrist flexion
and absence of repetitive movements.

The subjects were

males and females who did not have a history of CTS.

The

independent variable is the tests that were used to help
diagnose CTS.

The dependent variable is how effective each

test was on diagnosing CTS.

The results showed that the

positioning of the wrist in flexion, in the absence of
repetitive movement in the hand, can cause CTS.

This is

presumably due to an increase in intracarpal pressure
during prolonged position of flexion of the wrist or due to
compression by the proximal edge of transverse carpal
ligament.

Performance

Athletics
The wrist joint and how humans control their wrists
have been studied extensively.
baboons were studied.

In this study humans and

Knowledge of the periphery, from

50
biomechanics, muscle properties and motor unit recruitment,
is quite sufficient to allow us to understand movement of
the forearm.

Knowledge of the central control, including

the spinal cord circuitry and the supraspinal centers, is,
by contrast far from adequate.

Some peripheral diseases,

such as occupational dystonia, have frequently been
suggested to arise from excessive use of forearm muscles
and joints.

This also relates to the art of drumming.

Drumming
To understand how high levels of skill are developed
and maintained, it is necessary to study elite groups such
as professional athletes or musicians.20 This can lead to
the rediscovery of arcane knowledge that has fallen into
neglect through a lack of appreciation of its significance.
A study was done in which subjects included were musicians
and non-musicians.

The independent variable is the

musician playing at a high level.
is the cortical activation.

The dependent variable

The results showed that being

a very skilled musician can structurally change your motor
areas of the brain.

In the end, the combination of

functional MRI with its high spatial resolution and
magnetoencephalography (which provides excellent temporal
resolution) has made investigation of the effects of

51
training on cortical activity patterns a realistic
proposition. As we have seen, by comparing instrumentalists
of a professional standard with amateurs and with nonmusicians, it has been possible with these techniques to
observe the effects of hand training on activity patterns
within the regions of the cortex devoted to motor control.
Philosophy, methodology and techniques are required to
obtain greater speed on the drums with both hands and
feet.21 Subjects included drummers who wanted to gain
greater speed with their hands and feet.

The independent

variables were proper biomechanical alignment of limbs,
proper technique and all equipment properly aligned.

The

dependent variable was the speed and how much it increased
with the independent variables.

The results showed that if

all the independent variables are used, you can increase
your speed with your hands and feet.

Being able to develop

incredible speed is complicated but can be understood and
natural in its practice and application.
The dynamic motor ability of individual fingers was
also investigated under four different finger tapping
conditions.22 These were:

maximum speed tapping with one

finger (single-finger tapping), alternate movement of two
fingers (double-finger tapping), double-finger tapping in
an unsupported condition, and submaximal constant speed

52
tapping with one finger in a passive manner.

Subjects

included 12 healthy male individuals ranging in age from
18-32.

The independent variable was when the finger

movement was accompanied by an alternate movement of
another finger.
the finger(s).

The dependent variable was the speed of
The results showed that when accompanied by

an alternate movement of another finger, the fingers were
slower than if there was just a single finger movement.

In

conclusion, it was found that the index finger attained the
fastest cadence and greatest movement velocity, followed by
the middle, little and ring fingers, respectively.

Speed
A study was done to investigate tapping speed
asymmetry in 13 right-handed drummers and 13 right-handed
non-drummers.23 The subjects included 13 right-handed
drummers and 12 right-handed non-drummers.

The independent

variable was the level of the drummers (experience versus
no experience).

The dependent variable was the speed.

The

results showed no difference in the drummers versus non
drummers in the right hand, but showed a significant
difference in speed in the left hand (drummers had a higher
speed).

In conclusion, these results suggest that the

tapping speed of the non-preferred hand progressed nearly

53
to the level of the preferred hand through daily drum
training.

Conclusion

During the past decade, previously unmet medical needs
of performing artists have fostered the rise of a new
medical subspecialty:

performing arts medicine.1

The

increasing number of reported performance-related injuries
plays a part in this as well as the musicians willingness
to seek medical attention.

As with sports athletes, the

physical demands and stresses on the performing musician
are very high.

The combination of speed, coordination,

accuracy, consistency and timing create a situation in
which injuries are prevalent.
There are conflicting views in regards to what is the
best way to reduce injury and increase performance.14 In the
end, there is insufficient evidence to answer whether or
not a warm-up or stretching can prevent muscular injury,
but there is some research that shows the potential for a
relationship between warm-up and performance.

If one

chooses to use a warm-up, it should be implemented prior to
physical activity.

Ideally, it should occur about 15

54
minutes prior to the activity and be tailored to the
individual as well as the activity.

55

APPENDIX B
The Problem

56
THE PROBLEM

Statement of the Problem
Seeking help from a sports medicine specialist may
help prevent injuries and decrease the amount of time the
musician loses because of an injury.

This is especially

true for musicians, such as percussionists, because their
whole body is involved in playing their instrument.

One of

the issues that presents itself is the lack of information
on warm-ups and their effects on performance and injury
prevention.

If this is combined with the contradictory

evidence found in studies, a problem presents itself.
The purpose of the study is to examine the difference
in maximal drumming speed of various skill levels dependent
upon warm-up protocols.

It is important to examine this

relationship so athletic trainers working in the performing
arts can decide what warm-up can possibly increase speed on
a single stroke roll.

Additionally, it would be beneficial

for drummers to know which types of warm-up can increases
their speed.

57

Definition of Terms
The following definitions of terms will be defined for
this study:
1)

Rudiment – a basic drum patterns which are the basic
building blocks of drumming.

2)

Single Stroke Roll - the most basic rudiment which
alternates R and L hits.

3)

Sticking – a series of R’s and L’s combined to make a
pattern where R stands for Right and L stands for
Left.

Basic Assumptions
The following are basic assumptions of this study:
1)

The subjects will be honest when they complete their
demographic sheets.

2)

The subjects will perform to the best of their ability
during testing sessions.

3)

The Drumometer Model II will be calibrated correctly.

58

Limitations of the Study
The following are possible limitations of the study:
1)

The validity of the single stroke roll test has not
been established as a measure of drumming competence.

2)

Subjects can be inconsistent in their effort during
testing.

Significance of the Study
Since the rise of performing arts medicine, musicians
are becoming more willing to seek medical attention.

With

the lack of studies on the subject of warm-ups on the
single stroke roll and the contradictory results, this
study is designed to help bring clarity as to whether or
not a warm-up, and which warm-up,
of a single stroke roll.

will increase the speed

Since single stroke rolls are

one of the basic building blocks of drumming, this is an
important concept.
The results of this study will mean that
percussionists will know whether heating, stretching or
rudiments can possibly be used as a warm-up to increase
their speed on a single stroke roll.

It will also show how

much each warm-up protocol increased their speed.

The

question of what warm-up protocol will have a positive

59
effect on various skill levels is important so
percussionists can have a time efficient and beneficial
warm-up.

What this means is that the same warm-up protocol

may not have the same benefits between different skill
levels.

This study is designed to show what warm-up

protocol, if any, is beneficial at each skill level and by
how much speed is increased.

If a subject at a certain

skill level has been using an ineffective warm-up, the goal
of this study is to present them with an idea of how they
can increase their speed by changing their warm-up
protocol.

60

APPENDIX C
Additional Methods

61

APPENDIX C1
Informed Consent Form

62

Informed Consent Form
1. Micah Holland, who is a Graduate Athletic Training
Student at California University of Pennsylvania, has
requested my participation in a research study at
California University of Pennsylvania. The title of the
research is, “The difference in drumming speed of various
skill levels dependent upon warm-up protocols.”
2. I have been informed that the purpose of this study is
to discover the difference in drumming speed of various
drummer skill levels following 3 different warm-up
protocols. I understand that I must be 18 years of age or
older to participate. I understand that I have been asked
to participate along with other drummers because I have had
no shoulder, arm, elbow, forearm, wrist or hand injuries
within the last 6 months nor am I taking any medication
that may affect my ability to strike the Drumometer Model
II such as Sudafed for a cold or Benadryl for allergies.
3. I have been invited to participate in this research
project. My participation is voluntary and I can choose to
discontinue my participation at any time without penalty or
loss of benefits. My participation will involve performing
a single stroke roll test using the Drumometer Model II for
60 seconds after performing a warm-up protocol. I will be
tested immediately after the warm-up protocol is finished.
My participation in this study will consist of four days of
participation starting with an orientation meeting and
baseline testing on day one. Day’s 2-4 will consists of
different warm-up protocols, which will include heat,
stretching and rudiments. Heat will be applied to the top
and bottom of forearms, wrists and elbows. It will be
applied for 12 minutes before performing the single stroke
roll test. Stretching will include the fingers, wrists and
forearms and will be done for 30 seconds each. The 13
essentials rudiments will be performed for 30 seconds each
with a rest time of 5 seconds in between. Each day will
take approximately 30 minutes for a total of 2 hours.
4. I understand there are foreseeable risks or discomforts
to me if I agree to participate in the study. With
participation in a research program such as this there is

63
always the potential for unforeseeable risks as well. The
possible risks and/or discomforts include possible soreness
from stretching, and discomfort from a hot pack. The
researcher will stand by closely during the warm-up and
testing in case I need help.
5. I understand that, in case of injury, I can expect to
receive treatment or care in Hamer Hall’s Athletic Training
Facility. This treatment will be provided by the
researcher, Micah Holland, under the supervision of the
CalU athletic training faculty, all of which can administer
emergency care. Additional services needed for prolonged
care will be referred to the attending staff at the Downey
Garofola Health Services located on campus.
6. There are no feasible alternative procedures available
for this study.
7. I understand that the possible benefits of my
participation in the research is to help discover the
difference in drumming speed of various skill levels
dependent upon warm-up protocols. This study can help
athletic trainers in the performing arts decide what is the
best warm-up to increase speed of the single stroke roll.
8. I understand that the results of the research study may
be published but my name or identity will not be revealed.
Only aggregate data will be reported. In order to maintain
confidentially of my records, Micah Holland will maintain
all documents in a secure location on campus and password
protect all electronic files so that only the student
researcher and research advisor can access the data. Each
subject will be given a specific subject number to
represent his or her name so as to protect the anonymity of
each subject.
9. I have been informed that I will not be compensated for
my participation.
10. I have been informed that any questions I have
concerning the research study or my participation in it,
before or after my consent, will be answered by:
MICAH HOLLAND, ATC, PES
STUDENT/PRIMARY RESEARCHER
HOL3820@CalU.EDU
815-222-1339

64

THOMAS F. WEST, PhD, ATC
RESEARCH ADVISOR
WEST_T@CalU.EDU
724-938-5933
11. I understand that written responses may be used in
quotations for publication but my identity will remain
anonymous.
12. I have read the above information and am electing to
participate in this study. The nature, demands, risks, and
benefits of the project have been explained to me. I
knowingly assume the risks involved, and understand that I
may withdraw my consent and discontinue participation at
any time without penalty or loss of benefit to myself. In
signing this consent form, I am not waiving any legal
claims, rights, or remedies. A copy of this consent form
will be given to me upon request.
13. This study has been approved by the California
University of Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board.
14. The IRB approval dates for this project are from:
01/28/2010 to 01/28/2010.

Subject's signature:___________________________________

Date:____________________

Witness signature:___________________________________

Date:____________________

65

APPENDIX C2
Demographic Information

66
Demographic Profile Form
“Difference in drumming speed of various skill levels
dependent upon warm-up protocols”

Subject ID #:

______________ Group Assignment: _________

Subject Name:

______________________________
(last, first)

Academic Year in School: Freshman

Sophomore

Senior
Age:

Junior

Graduate

__________

Years of playing experience:
__________________________________
Years of studying:
_____________________________________________
Specialty (Drumline, orchestral, Drum
set):_____________________
Hours of practice a week:
_____________________________________

Are you currently receiving treatment for any shoulder,
elbow, forearm, wrist or hand injuries?
Yes

No

Are you currently taking any medications that may affect
your ability to strike the Drumometer Model II such as
Sudafed for a cold or Benadryl for allergies:
Yes

No

If yes, please explain: ___________________________________
___________________________________________________________

67

Appendix C3
Photo Consent Form

68

Photo Release Form
Difference in Drumming Speed of Various Skill Levels Dependent Upon Warm-up
Protocols
Proposal Number: 09-033
Micah Joseph Holland, ATC, PES

Photo Release
I request the use of (photographic) material as part of my study. I specifically ask your
consent to use this material as I deem proper. The material will be used for the research
project as I have described in it the informed consent document you have signed. These
materials may be used for news releases, professional publications, professional
conferences, websites and pictorial exhibits related to my study.
I also emphasize that the appearance of these materials on certain media (websites,
professional publications, news releases) may require the transfer of copyright of the
images. This means that other individuals may use your image. Regarding the use of
your likeness in photographs, please check one of the following:

________

I do……

________

I do not……
Give unconditional permission for the investigator to utilize photographs

of me.

_________________________________
Signature

_______________
Date

Note: Even should you chose not to allow your image to be used, I can still benefit from
your inclusion as a research study participant.

69

Appendix C3
Warm-up Protocols

70
Rudiment Warm-up Protocol

71

Stretching Warm-up Protocol
Stretch 1:

Finger flexion stretch

Stretch 2:

Wrist flexion stretch

72
Stretch 3:

Wrist extension stretch

Heat Warm-up Protocol

73

Appendix C5
Data Collection Sheet

74

Subject Base
ScoreH ScoreR
ScoreS
Skill
1
687
738
695
716
2
774
783
790
808
3
631
671
662
690
4
838
821
835
843
5
497
554
551
602
6
678
714
731
694
7
472
508
499
506
8
654
682
710
676
9
650
651
677
658
10
573
667
684
635
11
705
766
797
770
12
607
635
659
633
13
708
731
744
716
14
623
660
712
728
15
559
606
606
615

3
3
3
2
2
3
1
3
3
1
3
2
3
2
1

75

Appendix C6
Institutional Review Board –
California University of Pennsylvania

76
Institutional Review Board
California University of Pennsylvania
Psychology Department LRC, Room 310
250 University Avenue
California, PA 15419
instreviewboard@cup.edu
instreviewboard@calu.edu
Robert Skwarecki, Ph.D., CCC-SLP,Chair

Dear Micah,
Please consider this email as official notification that your proposal titled
“Difference in drumming speed of various skill levels dependent upon
warm-up protocols” (Proposal #09-033) has been approved by the
California University of Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board as submitted.
The effective date of the approval is 01-28-2010 and the expiration date is
01-28-2011. These dates must appear on the consent form .
Please note that Federal Policy requires that you notify the IRB promptly regarding
any of the following:
(1) Any additions or changes in procedures you might wish for your study
(additions or changes must be approved by the IRB before they are
implemented)
(2) Any events that affect the safety or well-being of subjects
(3) Any modifications of your study or other responses that are necessitated
by any events reported in (2).
(4) To continue your research beyond the approval expiration date of 01-282011 you must file additional information to be considered for
continuing review. Please contact instreviewboard@calu.edu

Please notify the Board when data collection is complete.
Regards,
Robert Skwarecki, Ph.D., CCC-SLP
Chair, Institutional Review Board

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91
REFERENCES
1.

Branfonbrener AG. Performing arts medicine.
Educators Journal. 1991;77(5):37-41.

Music

2.

Tollinger V. Performing arts medicine and music
education. Music Educators Journal. 2005;92(2):4248.

3.

McKenna D. Hand assessment.
2006;14(6):26-36.

4.

Fujii S, Kudo K, Ohtsuki T, Oda S. Tapping
performance and underlying wrist muscle activity of
non-drummers, drummers, and the world’s fastest
drummer. Neurosci Lett. 2009;459(2):69-73.

5.

Bishop D. Warm up II: Performance changes following
active warm up and how to structure a warm up. Sports
Med. 2003;33(7):483-498.

6.

Bishop D. Warm up I: Potential mechanisms and the
effects of passive warm up on exercise performance.
Sports Med. 2003;33(6):439-454.

7.

Kuuranen K, Vunharunta H. Effects of hot and cold
packs on motor performance of normal hands.
Physiotherapy. 1997;83(7):340-4.

8.

Johansson P, Lindstrom L, Sundelin G, Lindstrom B.
The effects of preexercise stretching on muscular
soreness, tenderness and force loss following heavy
eccentric exercise. Scand J Med Sci Spor.
1999;9:219-225.

9.

McNeal JR, Sands WA. Stretching for performance
enhancement. Current Sports Medicine Reports.
2006;5:141-146.

10.

Weerapong P, Hume PA, Kolt GS. Stretching:
mechanisms and benefits for sport performance and

Emergency Nurse.

92
injury prevention.
2004;9:189-206.

Physical Therapy Reviews.

11.

Rubini EC, Costa AL, Gomes PS. The effects of
stretching on strength performance. Sports Med.
2007;37(3):213-224.

12.

Mattingly R. Part I performers and performing: 3.
performing techniques: drum rudiments. Continuum
Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World.
2003;2:129-130.

13.

Kirkendall DT, Garrett Jr WE. Clinical perspectives
regarding eccentric muscle injury. Clin Orthop Relat
R. 2002;403:81-89.

14.

Woods K, Bishop P, Jones E. Warm-up and stretching in
the prevention of muscular injury. Sports Med.
2007;37(12):1089-1099.

15.

Rettig AC. Elbow, forearm and wrist injuries in the
athlete. Sports Med. 1998;25(2):115-130.

16.

Hume PA, Reid D, Edwards T. Epicondylar injury in
sport: Epidemiology, type, mechanism, assessment,
management and prevention. Sports Med.
2006;36(2):151-170.

17.

Daniels JM, Zook EG, Lynch JM. Hand and wrist
injuries: Part I. nonemergent evaluations. Am Fam
Physician. 2004;69(8):1941-1948.

18.

Katz JN, Larson MG, Sabra A. The carpal tunnel
syndrome: diagnostic utility of the history and
physical examination findings. Ann Intern Med.
1990;112(5):321-127.

19.

Kumar R, Gaerlan MS, Burgess T. Carpal tunnel
syndrome in the presence of wrist flexion and absence
of repetitive movements. J Back Musculoskelet.
2000;14:127-131.

93

20.

Watson AH. What can studying musicians tell us about
motor control of the hand? J Anat. 2006;208:527-542.

21.

Bowman G. The art and philosophy of speed and how to
apply it to drumming. Canadian Musician.
2005;27(3):28.

22.

Aoki T, Francis PR, Kinoshita H. Differences of the
abilities of the fingers during the performance of
fast, repetitive tapping movements. Exp Br Res.
2003;152:270-280.

23.

Fujii S, Oda S. Tapping speed asymmetry in drummers
for single-hand tapping with a stick. Percept Motor
Skill. 2006;103(1):265-272.

94
ABSTRACT
Title:

Difference in Drumming Speed of Various
Skill Levels Dependent Upon Warm-up
Protocols

Researcher:

Micah Joseph Holland, ATC, PES

Advisor:

Thomas F. West, PhD, ATC

Date:

May 2010

Research type: Master’s Thesis
Context:

There is a lack of information on warm-ups
and their effects on performance and injury
prevention. If this is combined with the
contradictory evidence found in studies, a
problem presents itself.

Objective:

The purpose of this study is to examine the
difference in maximal drumming speed of
various skill levels dependent upon warm-up
protocols.

Design:

A within subjects, quasi-experimental design

Setting:

Controlled laboratory setting

Participants:

15 volunteering California University of
Pennsylvania students who play drums and
have no upper extremity injuries or are
taking any medications that would affect
their ability to strike the Drumometer Model
II.

Interventions: Subjects were tested on 4 different days.
The first day was a baseline test. The test
included hitting the Drumometer Model II as
fast as they could for 60 seconds. 3
attempts were given with a 3 minute rest in
between. The second day began with a warmup protocol; heat, stretching or rudiments
and then the same testing was completed with
the Drumometer Model II. On the third day,
another warm-up protocol was performed and
then the same drum testing. On the fourth

95
day, the last remaining warm-up protocol was
performed and then the subject was tested
with the Drumometer Model II.
Main Outcome
Measures:

Number of strikes on the Drumometer Model II
during a 60 second period of time.

Results:

The results showed that there was no
significant difference between the warm-up
protocols on maximal drumming speed. There
was also no significant difference between
the warm-up protocols on various skill
levels.

Conclusion:

Drummers who are looking only to improve
their speed should chose a warm-up of their
choice since neither heat, stretching and
rudiments was shown to be significant.

Word Count:

297