THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NUTRITIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND EATING
HABITS OF UNDERGRADUATE ATHLETIC TRAINING AND WELLNESS &
FITNESS MAJORS

A THESIS
Submitted to the Faculty of the School of Graduate Studies
and Research
of
California University of Pennsylvania in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science

by
Amanda Nicole Greco

Research Advisor, Dr. Rebecca Hess
California, Pennsylvania
2010

ii

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to thank my parents
for their constant love, support, and encouragement
throughout my entire education. Both of you have provided
me with opportunity to always pursue my dreams and achieve
my goals. It’s because of you two that I am the person I am
today. I cannot thank you enough for everything, I love you
both.
I would also like to thank my committee members, Dr.
Rebecca Hess, Dr. Ayanna Lyles and Dr. Ellen West. I would
especially like to thank Dr. Hess for her enthusiasm,
patience and support throughout this entire process; I
don’t know how I would have made it to this point without
all of your help. Additionally, I must thank Dr. Thomas F.
West, who has been there throughout the entire process
continually providing guidance and support; I truly
appreciate all of your help.
I must also thank my friends from home for always
being there for me through the rough times and continually
listening to my complaints. I truly appreciate all of your
support throughout this year.

iv
Finally, I would like to thank my fellow classmates
for a great year. We have so many memories and I can’t
thank all of you enough for making this year as enjoyable
as it has been. I don’t know how I would have made it
through this year without all of the fun we had.
Congratulations!

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
SIGNATURE PAGE

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

AKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
INTRODUCTION
METHODS

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

RESEARCH DESIGN
SUBJECTS

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
PROCEDURES

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

HYPOTHESES

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

DATA ANALYSIS
RESULTS

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

DEMOGRAPHIC DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
HYPOTHESIS TESTING

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

ADDITIONAL FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
DISCUSSION .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
CONCLUSIONS .
RECOMMENDATIONS

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

vi
APPENDIX A: Review of Literature

. . . . . . . . . 29

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
General and Sports Nutrition Guidelines . . . . . . 31
Health and Fitness Professional Preparation

. . . . 36

Athletic Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Clinical Education

. . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Wellness and Fitness Professionals . . . . . . . 40
College Students Perception of Diet

. . . . . . . 42

Diet Inadequacies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Gender Differences
Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

APPENDIX B: The Problem

. . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Statement of the Problem.

. . . . . . . . . . 56

Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Basic Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Significance of the Study

. . . . . . . . . . . 59

APPENDIX C: Additional Methods .

. . . . . . . . . 61

Cover Letter (C1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Revised Nutritional Knowledge and
Eating Habits Questionnaire(C2) . . . . . . . . 64
Demographics Information (C3) . . . . . . . . . . 68
IRB California University of Pennsylvania (C4) . . . 70
Old Nutritional Knowledge and Eating Habits

vii
Questionnaire (C5)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Scoring Key: Old Nutritional Knowledge and Eating
Habits Questionnaire (C6). . . . . . . . . . . 90
Scoring Key: Revised Nutritional Knowledge
and Eating Habits Questionnaire . . . . . . . 94
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
ABSTRACT

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

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LIST OF TABLES
Table

Title

1

Descriptive Statistics for Nutritional

Page

Knowledge and Eating Habits scores . . . . 16
2

Correlation between Nutritional Knowledge
and Eating Habits, regardless of group

. . 17

1
INTRODUCTION

Sports nutrition is defined as the application of
nutrition knowledge to a practical daily eating plan
focused on providing fuel for physical activity,
facilitating the repair and rebuilding process following
hard physical work, and optimizing athletic performance in
competitive events, while promoting overall health and
wellness.1(p4) Proper implementation of sports nutrition
principles is essential to achieving optimal athletic
performance.1,2
Optimal athletic performance is a key component in
sports and is promoted by ensuring adequate energy intake.2
Energy is created through ingesting food and beverages,
which consist of six major nutrients vital to growth and
development regulating body process, as well as preventing
deficiency and degenerative diseases.1 These nutrients
include carbohydrates (CHO), fats, proteins, vitamins,
minerals and water.
Essential nutrients cannot be manufactured within the
body and need to be consumed as either micro- or macronutrients.1 Vitamins and minerals fall into the
micronutrient category whereby daily requirements of each
are required in limited amounts. Macronutrients include

2
carbohydrates (CHO), fats and proteins which are required
in larger quantities daily.
The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM)
recommends acceptable macronutrient ranges for active
individuals set at 45-65% of daily calories to be
carbohydrates, 20-35% calories to come from fat sources and
10-35% coming from protein sources.1,2

Carbohydrates are

the main source of fuel for all physical activity as they
are converted into glucose in the body, providing four
calories per gram.1 ACSM recommends athletes consume six-10
g/kg per day during activity to maintain blood glucose
levels and replace muscle glycogen.2 Carbohydrates can be
found in sources such as grains, fruits, vegetables, soy,
rice, and nuts.1,2
Fat is primarily used as a fuel at rest and during
low-to-moderate intensity exercise, as well as being
involved in providing structure to cell membranes, aiding
in the production of hormones, lining of nerves for proper
functioning and facilitating the absorption of fat-soluble
vitamins.1(p.5) Fats provide nine calories of energy per gram
and should be consumed in moderation.1 Fat intake should be
monitored with less than 10% of the calories from sources
of saturated fatty acids.2,3 Most fat intake should come
from polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, such

3
as fish, nuts, and vegetable oils.3 Assumptions that
decreasing fat intake to a minimum increases performance is
not supported. Fat intake of less than 20% or above 35% of
total dietary intake are not recommended for athletes.2
Proteins are involved in the development, growth, and
repair of muscle and other bodily tissues and are critical
for recovery from intense physical training.1(p.5) While
protein can be used for energy, providing four calories per
gram, it is not used efficiently, and not the preferred
energy source.1 Protein sources include meats, beans, nuts,
and soy.1,4 In regards to types of athletes, differences
arise when determining the acceptable protein consumption
range for strength/power and endurance athletes. It has
been determined that the range for protein intake is from
1.2 to 1.7 g/kg per day.2
Water is a key component for temperature regulation,
joint lubrication, and transportation of nutrients to
active tissues. Water and makes up of 55-60% of the human
body.1 Dehydration occurs when a water deficit of more than
of two to three percent of body weight is present , yet a
loss of one to two percent of body weight begins to
compromise physiologic function and negatively influence
performance.2,5 If more than three percent of body weight is
lost through dehydration, physiologic function is further

4
disturbed and the athlete is more at risk for exertional
heat illnesses.5 This is a serious concern for active
individuals, therefore it is important to be knowledgeable
about the proper amount of water consumption before, during
and after exercise. Proper pre-exercise hydration includes
500-600ml (17-20 fl oz) of water or a sports drink two to
three hours before exercise, along with 200-300ml (7-10 fl
oz) 20 minutes before the exercise begins.5 Post-exercise
hydration should be ideally be accomplished within two
hours after the activity has concluded, drinking 450-675ml
(16-24 oz) of fluid for every pound of body weight lost
during exercise, to ensure optimal hydration is achieved
after athletic activities.2
Caloric intake differs for each individual as
variables such as gender, physical activity, and age have
an impact on caloric consumption. Women generally consume
fewer calories per day when compared to men, as well as
consuming less as one ages.6 This is based on the
individual’s weight and how many calories must be consumed
in order to fuel the body properly to perform daily
functions. The American Heart Association (AHA) recommends
that the average sedentary female between the ages of 19
and 30 years old consume about 2000 calories per day; as
males should consume about 2400 calories.6 Caloric intake

5
depends on activity level as well. For someone who is more
active than the average sedentary individual, a larger
amount of calories needs to be consumed to ensure caloric
intake equals caloric expenditure. Also, caloric intake
should be somewhat reduced to take into account for any
decrease in physical activity to avoid an increase in
weight.6
Both certified athletic trainers and wellness &
fitness professionals acquire nutritional knowledge through
the course of their undergraduate courses and need to be
knowledgeable on how to implement the information for their
athletes and clients. Most often, these students only take
one class where nutrition is discussed, even for a sport
period of time within a class, to gain a baseline knowledge
of how certain foods or nutrients interact in the body and
affect sports performance. For athletic training students,
specific competencies have been established by the NATABOC
which focus on nutrition education; however, sports
nutrition is not a required course for these students.
Sports nutrition is sometimes covered for a short period of
time in other classes, but this information may be their
only exposure to the content. However, a more extensive
undergraduate education in nutrition or continuing

6
education courses may be needed to grasp concepts and be
able to give proper nutritional recommendations.
The purpose of this study was to test nutritional
knowledge and eating habits of undergraduate athletic
training and wellness & fitness students. The aims of this
study were to determine if eating habits correlated to
amount of nutritional knowledge acquired, determine if
there was a difference in nutritional knowledge between
each group (athletic training/wellness & fitness students),
and assess nutritional knowledge of these individuals to
determine if knowledge had an effect on eating habits.

7

METHODS

Research Design

A descriptive research design was used for this study.
The dependent variables were nutritional knowledge and
eating habits. The independent variable was major field of
study (athletic training/wellness & fitness).
Participants were asked to complete the Revised
Nutritional Knowledge and Eating Habits Questionnaire
revised by Shepard7 (APPENDIX C1) which was set up through
Surveymonkey.com. Information was then separated by major
and compared independently. The results may be limited to
undergraduate students in the athletic training and
wellness & fitness programs at California University of
Pennsylvania.

Subjects

Subjects were recruited from California University of
Pennsylvania’s undergraduate degree programs in athletic
training (n ~ 30) and wellness & fitness (n ~ 182) through
a list obtained from the program directors.

Subjects

8
included juniors and seniors only, since these students
have already taken a Sports Nutrition course and/or covered
sports nutrition in Physiology of Exercise.
All students were contacted by e-mail (APPENDIX C1)
outlining the purpose of the study and link to the survey.
Once the student decided to partake in the survey, the
results were obtained and all answers were kept strictly
confidential as the results were only available to the
researcher and the researcher’s advisor. Informed consent
was implied since the survey was voluntary. As the wellness
& fitness program is an on-line program offered through
California University of Pennsylvania, all students were
asked to participate through e-mail to ensure equity of
volunteerism. Selection of criteria included individuals in
the health and fitness professions since general nutrition
knowledge is needed to pass on to future clients.

Instruments

The instruments used in this study included the
revised Nutritional Knowledge and Eating Habits
Questionnaire (APPENDIX C2) along with a Demographic
Information (APPENDIX C3) sheet. Demographic information
was completed by each subject prior to filling out the

9
survey and included information on subject’s age, academic
major, year in college (junior/senior), housing assignment
(on- and off- campus), meal plan possession (yes/no, if
yes, frequency), and a list of prior nutrition courses or
courses in which nutrition was addressed (Sports Nutrition,
Physiology of Exercise, Other(s)).
Nutritional knowledge and eating habits were assessed
through the use of the revised version of the two-part
questionnaire. The original questionnaire was developed by
Marino8 in 2001 to study female collegiate gymnasts. The
revised questionnaire was modified by Shepard7 in 2007 to
reflect the current nutritional recommendations set by the
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) at
www.mypyramid.gov. Shepard studied the nutritional
knowledge and eating habits of female swimmers at a
Division II university. Requirements of the questionnaire
were based on female athletes, age 18-25, who participated
in at least 60 minutes of exercise each day. After pilot
research was performed, the study revealed reliability
coefficients of 0.88 and 0.81 for nutrition knowledge and
eating habits respectively.
Part one of the questionnaire contains 22 questions
intended to test the nutritional knowledge of each subject.
Subjects were asked to indicate to what degree they agreed

10
with each statement using a four-point Likert-type scale;
answers ranged from Strongly Agree (4) to Strongly Disagree
(1). Subjects were also asked questions about pre-event
meals, breakfast habits, individual nutrient effect on
performance, vitamin consumption and food group choices
according to www.mypyramid.gov.
All questions in part one (nutritional knowledge
section) were scored by a key according to their value
(APPENDIX C7). Therefore, when the subject answered with a
(4), four points were awarded for the question. Scores
ranged from (22-88) points. A percentage was then
established by dividing each subjects score by (88).
Nutritional knowledge was scored as: excellent (85 – 100%),
good (70 – 84%), fair (55-69%), or poor (54% or below).
Higher scores for this section indicated increased
nutrition knowledge among individuals.8
The second section of the questionnaire contained 10
questions intended to test the quality of eating habits of
each subject. Participants were asked to indicate how often
they consumed particular foods or engaged in certain eating
habits using a four-point Likert-type scale; Answers
included: Always (4), Often (3), Sometimes (2), and Never
(1). Always (4) indicates that a habit occurs 5-7 days per
week, Often (3) indicates a habit that occurs 3-4 days per

11
week, Sometimes (2) indicates a habit which occurs 1-2 days
per week, and Never (1) indicates a habit that does not
occur at all.
In section two, questions 2, 3, and 6 were reverse
scored. Reverse scoring occurred when a subject answers a
question with a 1, but received 4 points. All other
questions were scored according to their value; when the
subject answered with a 4, they were awarded 4 points.
Scores in this section ranged from 10-40 points. Each
subject’s total was divided by 40 and reported as:
excellent (85 – 100%), good (70 – 85%), fair (55 - 69%),
and poor (54% or below). Higher scores on this section
indicated that a subject exhibited increased positive
eating habits.

Procedures

The researcher applied for and received approval from
the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of California
University of Pennsylvania to perform this study (APPENDIX
C4).
Potential volunteers were recruited from California
University of Pennsylvania’s undergraduate athletic
training and wellness & fitness programs. All students were

12
contacted by e-mail, through a list obtained from the
program directors of each major. The e-mail (APPENDIX C1)
outlined the purpose for the study as well as a link to the
survey. The survey was available through the
Surveymonkey.com. Demographic Information (APPENDIX C3) was
also included in the survey. Informed consent was implied
since the survey was voluntary. By completing the survey,
the participant agreed to the terms and conditions and
answers remained anonymous. Once the survey was completed,
the results were available to the researcher, along with
the researcher’s advisor. Results were then analyzed.

Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were assumed:
1. There will be no difference between the groups on
Knowledge of Nutrition and Eating Habits.
2. Eating habits will not correlate with the Knowledge
of Nutrition regardless of group.

Data Analysis

SPSS 17.0 was used for statistical analysis of the
hypotheses assuming a P <.05.

13
1. A MANOVA was used to determine differences between
the groups on Knowledge of Nutrition and Eating Habits.
2. A Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used to
determine any relationship between Eating Habits and
Knowledge of Nutrition regardless of group.

14
RESULTS

Demographic Data

A total of 53 responses (18 athletic training and 35
wellness & fitness) were collected. Out of the 53 responses
collected, 10 were discarded as three completed the
demographic information only and seven failed to answer the
survey in its entirety, leaving a total at 43 responses for
analysis (14 athletic training and 29 wellness & fitness).
All participants were volunteers and students at
California University of Pennsylvania; of these
participants, 15 were male and 28 were female. Academic
year in college revealed 12 in their junior year and 31 in
their senior year. Thirty-seven students had taken a prior
nutrition course (12 athletic training and 25 wellness &
fitness students) while six have not. Also, when asked
about possessing a meal plan, 14 students had one while 29
did not (athletic training- 6 yes, 10 no; wellness &
fitness- 8 yes, 19 no). Results also revealed 24 of the
participants were concerned with their weight while 19 were
not, including 34 individuals that were currently watching
their diet or modifying what was consumed.

15

Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis testing was completed with an alpha level
of ≤ 0.05. Descriptive statistics were computed for
nutritional knowledge (K percent) and eating habits (H
percent) and were then analyzed using inferential
statistics.
Hypothesis 1: There will be no difference between the
groups on knowledge of nutrition and eating habits. A
MANOVA was calculated examining the differences between
groups (majors) for the dependent variables (nutritional
knowledge and eating habits).

Effect size for the MANOVA

was also reported.
Conclusion: No significant effect was found
(Lambda(4,28) = 0.152, P > 0.05). Neither nutritional
knowledge nor eating habits were influenced by major, thus
accepting the null hypothesis. The partial Eta Squared for
effect size was 0.001 (knowledge) and 0.072 (eating
behavior) which represented no true effect due to different
sample size.

16
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for Nutritional Knowledge
and Eating Habits scores.
Std. Deviation N Classification
Major Mean
Kpercent
1
85.714
8.9446
14
Excellent
2
85.149
8.6964
29
Excellent
8.6749
43
Excellent
Total 85.333
Hpercent
1
70.893
5.5128
14
Good
2
75.431
8.6620
29
Good
8.0036
43
Good
Total 73.953
Major: 1= Athletic Training; 2= Wellness & Fitness

Hypothesis 2: Eating habits will not correlate with
the Knowledge, regardless of group. A Pearson correlation
coefficient was calculated for any relationship between
nutritional knowledge and eating habits. A low positive
significant correlation was found (r = .349, P = 0.022).
Subjects who scored higher for nutritional knowledge
exhibited better eating habits, thus rejecting the null
hypothesis.
Conclusion: There was no significant different
difference between nutritional knowledge and eating habits
when comparing the groups. However, there was a significant
low positive correlation between nutritional knowledge and
eating habits regardless of group when compared as a whole
(Table 2). The difference between sample size was not a
factor.

17
Table 2. Correlation between Nutritional Knowledge and
Eating Habits, regardless of group.
Kpercent Hpercent
Kpercent Pearson Correlation
1
.349*
Sig. (2-tailed)
.022
N
43
43
.349*
1
Hpercent Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
.022
N
43
43
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Additional Findings

Additional one-way ANOVA’s were performed to look at
the differences between gender regardless of group (15
male, 28 female) for nutritional knowledge and eating
habits, meal plan (yes or no), and between academic year
(junior or senior). No significant differences were
reported overall for any of the additional variables.

18
DISCUSSION

Discussion of Results

The main findings of this study revealed no
significant difference in nutritional knowledge or eating
habits when comparing group (athletic training and wellness
& fitness).

However, there was a significant low positive

correlation among those who scored higher on the
nutritional knowledge section, as their eating habits were
shown to be better, regardless of group.
Hypothesis one was supported, which stated that there
will be no difference between the groups on knowledge and
habits, and it must be noted that at least one course where
nutrition information is covered is required for each
major. Athletic training students, however, are required
only to take physiology of exercise where wellness &
fitness students are required to take both sports nutrition
and physiology of exercise. Results did however reveal that
the wellness & fitness majors scored better on eating
habits, although the results were not significant. Results
from the demographic information collected revealed that 10
juniors had taken a nutrition course while 27 seniors
completed a nutrition course. Although it was not asked in

19
the demographics information, the year students were
enrolled in the nutrition course may have impacted the
results. It has been shown that nutrition intervention in a
college student’s freshman year would assist in preventing
weight gain during the first 16 months of college.9 Results
from this study9 also demonstrated that these students
yielded improved knowledge of nutrition, energy metabolism,
and physiologic mechanisms of energy balance for those
students who were enrolled in the nutrition courses.9 Also,
as a point of interest, students retained the more complex
concepts one year after the end of the course intervention,
yet the more simple information (such as concepts about the
food guide pyramid, food labels, nutrients and energy
density) were not retained when tested again.9
We wondered if year in college would have a
significant effect on the dependent variables and included
academic year in college in the demographic information
collected. The results revealed 12 juniors and 31 seniors
surveyed in our study. Results showed that senior students
did score slightly higher on the two portions of the
survey, but these results did not present any significant
findings.
There are numerous variables that came into play when
coming to our results. We believe another reason for

20
slightly higher scores recorded for eating habits by
wellness & fitness majors may be due to the fact that they
are “non-traditional” students. Data revealed that ages
ranged from 22 to 49 years old. Although these students may
not have had previous formal nutrition education, many are
working professionals in the field that may have been
taught “good” eating habits through development of their
career, have the means to obtain nutritious foods or more
of an opportunity to engage in these beneficial eating
habits.
Although there is no direct research on athletic
training or wellness and fitness majors’ knowledge or
habits when it comes to nutrition, research does indicate
the poor eating habits of college students. Reasons for
these poor eating habits include environment/atmosphere10
and availability or convenience11. A key point from the
current study which intrigued the researcher was how both
groups scored in the “excellent” range on the nutritional
knowledge portion of the survey, yet scores were “good” in
the eating habits section. It is understood that
individuals in the health and fitness majors have a greater
awareness of nutrition information due to the required
coursework, yet eating habits do not necessarily reflect
how much knowledge has been obtained. A key concept here

21
would be that the importance of eating habits should be
further discussed and instilled for these students. Another
important key issue is that students pursuing a degree in
wellness & fitness from our university have had a formal
four-year education concluding with a certification exam.
For those who choose not to pursue a degree in this field,
there is the option to seek certification through other
methods, such as in a classroom setting for a certain
amount of hours or obtaining materials from the certifying
body, study on their own, and sit for the test.
When comparing gender, it has been observed that
females tend to eat more fatty foods than male students,
although fruit and vegetable consumption trends remain
similar.12 Barr13 tested the general and sports related
nutritional knowledge of female varsity teams with females
who did not participate on any teams.12,13 It was concluded
that athletes on the cross-country/track-and-field teams
scored higher on the nutrition knowledge test than those on
the volleyball team.13 These results, along with results
from other studies, suggests that female runners may be
more knowledgeable about the role of nutrition in sports
performance.12 The results of this study12 indicate that
female varsity athletes had levels of general and sports-

22
related nutrition knowledge that were similar to those of
female university students.12
Additional studies14 attempted to uncover ways in which
female and male college students differed in involvement
concerning food decisions and to address how male students’
food decisions may be driven, partly due to the issues
related to masculinity. Males sometimes feel that “real
men” eat what they want, when they want. Our results show
that there is no significance when comparing the
nutritional knowledge and eating habits between genders.
Both mean scores and standard deviations were similar, with
only a small percentage separating the two. Since there was
no significance when looking at major (athletic training
and wellness & fitness), it is believed that these students
in the health and fitness profession are focused on “good”
eating habits because they are aware of the benefits of a
healthy diet, and the risks of unhealthy eating rituals.
Universities most often offer students the opportunity
to purchase a meal plan by year or semester while at the
institution. Those who choose to have a meal plan are
allowed to eat on-campus without having to pay with cash at
the time they purchase meals. Many institutions have a
”food court” concept where students can choose from a
variety of fast food establishments.15 Sites such as these

23
allow for a greater amount of choices per meal, but the
variety of food is usually more limited15, as well as a
substandard when it comes to quality. Possession of a meal
plan was compared between those who did and did not possess
a meal plan in the current study performed by the
researcher, as past research had been performed to
determine if unhealthy eating may be due to university food
services.15 Findings revealed no significance when comparing
if one who possessed a meal plan ate better/worse than
those who did not acquire a meal plan.

Conclusions

After comparing nutritional knowledge and eating
habits between athletic training and wellness & fitness
majors, it was determined that there is no significant
difference based on major. However, in limited cases,
better knowledge of nutrition coincides with better eating
behavior in undergraduate students majoring in the health
and exercise sciences. Furthermore, health and fitness
majors reported better eating habits overall than the
average college student according to the literature.13 It is
believed to be the case because individuals in these majors
must be able to not only pass along accurate nutrition

24
information to their athletes/clients, but also serve as
healthy role models. Additionally, possessing a meal plan,
gender, nor year in college affects nutritional knowledge
or eating habits.

Recommendations

Throughout the course of undergraduate curriculum,
athletic training education students are required to take
sports nutrition or physiology of exercise to meet specific
competencies established by the NATABOC. Wellness & fitness
students are also required to take both courses. Findings
of this study suggest that although nutritional knowledge
scores were reported as “excellent”, eating habits were
scored as “good”. For undergraduates in these majors
(athletic training and wellness & fitness) it would be
beneficial to provide more emphasis on the importance of
excellent eating habits during these courses.
Future studies may also look at the year the nutrition
course is implemented for these students. Individuals in
these majors must possess nutrition knowledge to pass on to
athletes or clients and retaining information is essential.
It would be interesting to determine if the year the

25
nutrition course is taken has a significant effect on the
results and also on students own health.
Other studies have looked at the effect of the number
of hours spent awake as a predictor of eating habits,
specifically because there are more opportunities to engage
in unhealthy eating rituals. Health and exercise students
may spend countless hours at clinical rotations, studying
or hanging out with friends until all hours of the night.
In situations such as these, unhealthy eating habits are
extremely likely to take place due to time constraints,
stress, or even peer pressure. Further studies may be able
to look at trends in regards to sleeping patterns to
determine if there is correlation between number of hours
sleeping and eating habits.

26
REFERENCES

1.

Fink HH, Burgoon LA. Mikesky AE. Introduction to
Sports Nutrition. In: Fink HH. Burgoon LA. Mikesky AE.
Practical Applications in Sports Nutrition. Sadbury
MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers; 2006:2-24

2.

American College of Sports Medicine, American Dietetic
Association, and Dietitians of Canada. Joint position
statement. Nutrition and athletic performance.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2009;709730

3.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S.
Department of Agriculture. Dietary Guidelines for
Americans, 2005. 6th Edition, Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office, January 2005.

4.

Otten J. Hellwig J. Meyers L. Dietary Reference
Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements.
Washington (DC): The National Academies Press; 2006.

5.

Casa DJ. Armstrong LE. Hillman SK. Montain SJ. Reiff
RV. Rich BSE. Roberts WO. Stone JA. National athletic
trainers position statement: Fluid replacement for
athletes. In: Position, Consensus, Official and
Support Statements, National Athletic Trainers’
Association Reference Series. Canada. National
Athletic Trainers’ Association; 2008. 27-40.

6.

Know How Many Calories You Should Eat. American Heart
Association Wed site. http://www.americanheart.org.
Accessed September 24, 2009.

7.

Shepard MW. A Nutritional Profile of Female NCAA
Division II Swimmers. [master’s thesis]. California,
PA: California University of Pennsylvania; 2007

8.

Marino SA. The Role Nutrition Plays in the Eating
Habits of Female College Gymnasts. [master’s thesis].
California, PA: California University of Pennsylvania;
2001.

9.

Matvienko O. Lewis DS. Schafer E. A college nutrition
science course as an intervention to prevent weight

27
gain in female college freshmen. Journal of Nutrition
Education. 2001;33:95-101.
10.

Makino M. Hashizume M. Yasushi M. Tsubio Y.
Dennerstein L. Factors associated with abnormal eating
attitudes among female college students in Japan.
Archives of Womens Mental Health. 2006;9:203-208.

11.

Horacek TM. Betts NM. Students cluster into 4 groups
according to the factors influencing their dietary
intake. Journal of Marketing Research. 1994;31:14641467.

12.

Deshpande S. Basil MD. Basil DZ. Factors influencing
healthy eating habits among college students: An
application of the health belief model. Health
Marketing Quarterly. 2009;26:145-164.

13.

Barr SI. Nutrition knowledge of female varsity
athletes and university students. Journal of the
American Dietetic Association. 1987;12:1660-1664.

14.

Levi A. Chan KK. Pence D. Real men do not read labels:
The effects of masculinity and involvement on college
students’ food decisions. Journal of American College
Health. 2006;55:91-98.

15.

Boyle JR. LaRose NR. Personal beliefs, the environment
and college students’ exercise and eating behaviors.
American Journal of Health Studies. 2008;23:195-200.

28

APPENDICES

29

APPENDIX A
Review of Literature

30
Introduction

Nutrition is an important aspect of daily living. It
is important for health care professionals to be
knowledgeable about healthy eating habits in order to
maintain a healthy lifestyle. Poor diet and nutrition
combined with inactivity can be linked to cardiovascular
disease, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, osteoporosis, and
certain cancers.1 However, maintaining a healthy diet
assists with preventing obesity, chronic diseases such as
coronary heart disease, non-insulin dependent diabetes
mellitus, some types of cancers, strokes, and osteoporosis.2
Athletic training is a multi-faceted field and
nutrition knowledge is only one aspect in which a certified
athletic trainer must be both knowledgeable and confident
in one’s ability to give advice. Many athletes and coaches
rely on the information provided by these professionals and
therefore, advice needs to be accurate and beneficial for
these individuals to attain optimal sports performance and
engage in healthy eating habits.
Health and wellness professionals, also known as
personal trainers, interact with patients and clients on
daily basis. These qualified individuals must also be

31
informed on ways to maintain a healthy diet and be able to
correctly provide information to clients.
The purpose of this review of the literature is to
present the reader with information on the components of a
healthy diet, enhancing athletic performance and determine
if there is a correlation between nutrition knowledge and
eating habits between these two groups.

General and Sports Nutrition Guidelines

For health professionals such as certified athletic
trainers or personal trainers, it is imperative to be
knowledgeable on the subject of nutrition. Athletes,
coaches and clients rely on these individuals to provide
superior knowledge to achieve maximum performance. These
health professionals must also ensure their own eating
habits are optimal to maintain health as well as be a role
model for the athletes who are in their care.
Diet should be tailored to each individual since
activity has a big impact on caloric intake. Caloric intake
for athletes should be somewhat higher than the average
sedentary individual given that there is a larger amount of
caloric expenditure. According to the American Heart
Association (AHA), the average sedentary female between the

32
ages of 19 and 30 years old should consume about 2000
calories per day, as males between the same age range
should consume about 2400 calories.3 Caloric intake depends
on activity level in addition to age. For someone who is
more active than the average sedentary individual, a larger
amount of calories needs to be consumed to ensure caloric
intake equals equal caloric expenditure.3 This is also true
as individual ages. Caloric intake should be somewhat
reduced to take into account for a decrease in physical
activity.3 If the older individual consumes a greater amount
of calories than needed, the excess builds up and
eventually causes an increase in weight.
It is important for athletes to consume an adequate
amount of calories in the days leading up to and the day of
the event. Optimal athletic performance is promoted through
adequate energy intake5 and it is imperative for these
individuals to ensure they have enough energy to last
throughout the duration of their event in order to maximize
training effects.
Foods and beverages are composed of six major
nutrients which are vital to the human body for producing
energy, contributing to the growth and development of
tissues, regulating body process, and preventing deficiency
and degenerative diseases.6(p4) These nutrients include

33
carbohydrates (CHO), fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals and
water. These essential nutrients cannot be manufactured
within the body and needed to be consumed as either microor macro-nutrients.6 Vitamins and minerals fall into the
micronutrient categories and daily requirements of each are
required in limited amounts. However, macronutrients are
required in greater quantities and included are
carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
Carbohydrates are the main source of fuel for all
physical activity for the body and provide four calories
per gram of CHO.6 The American College of Sports Medicine
(ACSM) recommends athletes consume six-10 g/kg kilogram
body weight per day during activity to maintain blood
glucose levels and replace muscle glycogen.5 This amount
equates to about 45-65% of total caloric intake and grains,
fruits, vegetables, soy, rice, nuts, etc. are good sources
of CHO.5,6
Proteins are critical for the body during times
recovery from intense physical training as they are
involved in the development, growth, and repair of muscle
and other bodily tissues.6 Protein can be used for energy,
providing four calories per gram, yet it is not used
efficiently and is not a good source of preferred energy
for the body.6 It is suggested the acceptable macronutrient

34
distribution range (AMDR) of protein intake for adults over
18 years old is 10-35% of total dietary calories which can
be found in sources such as meats, beans, nuts, soy, etc.6,7
However, there are differences in protein recommendations
when it comes to the type of athlete (strength/power
athletes and endurance athletes).It has been determined
that the range for protein intake is from 1.2 to 1.7 g/kg
body weight per day.5
Fats are a concentrated source of energy and provide
nine calories per gram.6 Fat, commonly referred to as a
lipid, is primarily used as a fuel at rest and during lowto-moderate intensity exercise.6 Other uses for fats include
involvement in providing structure to cell membranes,
aiding in the production of hormones, lining of nerves for
proper functioning, and facilitating the absorption of fatsoluble vitamins.6 Fat intake should range anywhere from 2035% of total energy intake and consumption of less than 20%
does not assist in enhancing athletic performance.5
Conversely, high fat diets above 35% of total dietary
intake are not recommended for athletes, and do not aid in
performance in any way.5 Some concentrated sources of fat
include butter, margarines, salad dressings, oils, as well
as meats, dairy products, nuts, seeds, and avocados.6

35
The human body is made up of 55-60% water, and is key
in temperature regulation, joint lubrication, and
transportation of nutrients to active tissues.6 Dehydration
is classified as a water deficit of more than of two to
three percent body weight.5 Dehydration of one to two
percent of body weight begins to compromise physiologic
function and negatively influence performance.5,8 If more
than three percent of body weight is lost through
dehydration, physiologic function is further disturbed and
the athlete is more at risk for exertional heat illnesses.8
This is a serious concern for active individuals, therefore
it is important to be knowledgeable about the proper amount
of water consumption before, during and after exercise.
Proper pre-exercise hydration includes 500-600 ml (17-20 fl
oz) of water or a sports drink two to three hours before
exercise, along with 200-300 ml (7-10 fl oz) 20 minutes
before the exercise beins.8 Post-exercise hydration should
be ideally be accomplished within two hours after the
activity has concluded, drinking 450-675 ml (16-24 oz) of
fluid for every pound of body weight lost during exercise.5
Although athletes may claim to understand how
important it is to eat properly and hydrate before athletic
practices and events, it is important for health and
fitness professionals to try to monitor those under their

36
care. This will hopefully assist with decreasing the
chances of dehydration and exertional heat illnesses.

Health and Fitness Professional Preparation

The following sections describe the athletic training
and wellness & fitness professions, outlining the ways to
become a member of these fields through education, clinical
rotations and certifications.

Athletic Training
Certified Athletic Trainers are health care
professionals who collaborate with physicians to optimize
activity and participation of patients and clients.9
Athletic training encompasses the prevention, diagnosis,
and intervention of emergency, acute, and chronic medical
conditions involving impairment, functional limitations,
and disabilities.9 Along with these responsibilities,
certified athletic trainers are responsible for providing
information about nutrition as well. Through the course of
an undergraduate athletic training education program
(ATEP), students are required to enroll in at least one
nutrition class to gain a better sense of a healthy diet,

37
as well as a better grasp of information to relay to other
misinformed members.
Athletic training students (ATS) must engage in a
meticulous curriculum throughout the years in the ATEP
program. Each year, the student learns new information and
is expected to execute these skills in the clinical setting
as well as in the classroom. All institutions offering an
ATEP must be accredited by CAATE, the Commission on
Accreditation of Athletic Training Education, in order for
the students to be eligible for the Board of Certification
exam at the completion of the program.
Athletic training is a profession which relies heavily
on hands on knowledge. To ensure that all students are
qualified to take care of athletes, patients, etc., the
National Athletic Trainers Association (NATA) has set
domains which encompass a variety of areas where ATS’s must
be competent. By meeting all criterions, an athletic
training student will be considered “competent” by the
Commission on Accreditation of Athletic Training Education
(CAATE). The domains include prevention; clinical
evaluation and diagnosis; immediate care; treatment,
rehabilitation and reconditioning; organization and
administration; and professional development.9

38
Certified athletic trainers are health care
professionals who specialize in preventing, recognizing,
managing and rehabilitating injuries that result from
physical activity.10 Therefore, the certified athletic
trainer is most often the first responder and the
individual who takes care of the athlete afterwards,
including treatment and rehabilitation/reconditioning the
athlete to return to play. It is important for ATS to gain
a working knowledge of the duties that come along with
these domains. Certified athletic trainers also must be
responsible for conversing with physicians, nurses and
other health care professionals along with documenting
appropriate information (such as SOAP notes, treatment
logs, etc.) on a daily basis. When it comes to professional
responsibility, the athletic trainer or athletic training
student must understand the issues of compliance with
ethical, legal and other professional standards whose
purpose is to protect the public.10 It is imperative for an
athletic trainer to abide by these standards to maximize
the quality of care given to each individual.
All of the previous mentioned domains occur in an
ATC’s daily duties. It is vital for these domains to be met
when performing tasks to ensure that the health care
provided is the most beneficial, legal and professional.

39
Clinical Education
One reason as to why athletic training students may
have inadequacies when it comes to dietary intake because
of the clinical hours which allow students to gain hands on
experience and practice classroom skills.

Athletic

training students spend countless hours developing clinical
skills in the classroom as well as the clinic. While in
these settings, these students integrate, apply and master
these skills during the clinical experiences.11 These
experiences occur within the athletic department at the
college or university, local high schools and clinics and
are intended to provide ATS’s the opportunity to integrate
competencies, proficiencies and foundations of professional
practice into daily clinical hours.11
Clinical rotations also allow students to gain
firsthand experience in the field while under the
supervision of a clinical instructor (CI). The CI’s
supervising the ATS’s must always be within visual and
auditory distance from the students in order for the
program to continually meet the standards of the
accrediting body.
Through the course of the student’s clinical
experience, proficiencies must be completed as well.
Students must be evaluated by an approved clinical

40
instructor (ACI) who has completed the appropriate
training. These proficiencies include material that the
student has been taught in the previous semester, as well
as the current class they are taking. By completing these
proficiencies, students are displaying confidence in the
skills they have been taught and are competent if asked to
perform the tasks individually.

Wellness and Fitness Professionals
The term “wellness and fitness professional” (WFP) is
interchangeable with the terms personal trainer and fitness
instructor. Personal trainers are skilled practitioners who
are able to pursue careers in many settings, including
universities, corporate locations, hospitals, health and
fitness clubs, along with other places around the
community.12 These individuals are able to work with clients
in one-on-one settings as well as small group environments
and are skilled in many different areas including physical
fitness assessments, constructing appropriate exercise
prescriptions, motivating those with medically controlled
diseases as well as other healthy individuals to begin and
maintain healthy lifestyles.12,13
Not just anyone can become a certified WFP, as there
are certain requirements which need to be met. One way to

41
attain these requirements is through the Commission on
Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP).
This is the governing body which establishes, maintains and
promotes appropriate standards of quality for educational
programs for Personal Fitness Training, and to provide
recognition for educational programs that meet or exceed
the minimum standards outlined in the standards for
accreditation.13 The CAAHEP works in conjunction with the
ACSM and for an individual to become certified by this
organization, an associates or bachelors degree in a health
related field from a regionally accredited institution must
be obtained.12 There are numerous options for this person to
choose as their undergraduate major, including exercise
science, kinesiology, exercise physiology, athletic
training, physical education, as well as a copious amount
of others.
There are many other ways for students to achieve the
title of certified fitness trainer. However, another or an
additional way for these students to attain this title is
through the National Academy of Sports Medicine (NASM).
Students must take required classes throughout their
undergraduate curriculum and pass a certification exam at
the end which is given through the NASM. Once the test has
been passed and the degree is completed, the students will

42
be a Certified Personal Trainer (CPT), allowing them to
work in a variety of settings with a wide array of clients.
Professionals are also required to be certified in
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in case of an
emergency.12 Being a first responder is important in this
field in case an emergency were to arise. Acceptable
institutions to be certified by include the American Heart
Association and the American Red Cross.12
Wellness & fitness specialists interact with a diverse
amount of clients in a variety of settings and need to be
able to be role models for clients. It is not likely that a
client will take criticism from a professional who does not
model the lifestyle they are promoting. Personal trainers
who have come from the accredited institutions have
followed a curriculum, which most often encompasses at
least one nutrition class. Knowledge of nutrition is
important for the personal trainer to allow suggestions to
be made specific diets to gain muscle mass, lose fat, etc.

College Students Perception of Diet

The transition to college life is often a difficult
time for students. It is a time where they are forced to
learn how to live on their own, especially when choosing to

43
live away from home. It may even be the first time
individuals must make independent decisions for themselves.
These decisions also consist of choosing acceptable foods
to maintain a healthy diet and lifestyle. Makino et al.14
suggested living environment may play an important role in
maintaining normal eating attitudes. Reasons for this most
likely include individuals having to make difficult choices
without parents present. The decisions may not always
include a variety of foods included in the food guide
pyramid or adequate consumption of each food group may not
occur.
Many studies have shown that college students have
poor eating habits and it is widely known that the diet of
these individuals does not always consist of the healthiest
choices. Horacek and Betts15 concluded that students choose
food based on taste, time sufficiency, convenience, and
budget. The meals are also high in fat, saturated fat,
cholesterol and sodium, while being low in fiber, vitamins
A,C, and E, folate, iron and calcium.16
Haberman and Luffey17 concluded that many college
students have a lack of variety in daily diets, reported by
students who lived on and off campus. Reasons for this may
include lack of cooking experience and perceptions of lowcalorie foods therefore, limiting food choices.17

44
Stress also impacts the choices of students. When
there is a multitude of events occurring in the academic
setting, whether its athletics, examinations,
presentations, or other assignments, students have a
tendency to lean toward foods which may not always be the
best choice. Quick meals to take on the go are always
convenient for a student always on the run; however, quick
meals may not always be the finest choice.
Many students may also believe that going to the gym
will cancel out unhealthy food intake. Although the effects
physical activity (PA) are nothing but positive on the
body, the effects of the unhealthy food are not completely
eliminated. It is imperative that individuals remember that
PA and healthy eating are two important components of a
healthy lifestyle.
Boyle and LaRose18 hypothesized that students who
engage in PA more frequently will have a more positive
personal beliefs and more positive environmental
perceptions than students who engage in PA less frequently.
This hypothesis yielded results that healthy-weight
students exhibited a greater amount of confidence when
creating a PA program on their own.18
Another hypothesis made by Boyle and LaRose18 included
students who reported eating more healthfully would have

45
more positive personal beliefs and environmental
perceptions than students who reported eating less
healthfully. This study was also partially supported as
healthy-weight students with a greater confidence in
choosing nutritious foods were more associated with more
healthful eating. Boyle and LaRose support the reasoning to
include nutrition education as part of core curriculum.18 If
students are educated about nutrition information through
their journey of higher education courses, choices will
more than likely reflect better eating habits and an
overall good feeling about body image.
Eating habits established throughout college have an
impact on how individuals will continue eating after
graduation and continue making food choices on their own.
Habits are easily formed and are hard to break, so the
earlier these healthy choices are initiated, the better
chance of maintaining a healthy diet.

Diet Inadequacies
College students are busy individuals, while athletic
training students are most often busier. Students must meet
the demands of attending classes at different times of the
day, in different buildings or even at different campuses
at the institution. Time constraints such as these may

46
cause students to choose snacks on the go, rather than
ensuring the healthiest choice.
Another reason contributing to unhealthy eating may be
due to university food services.17 Many institutions have a
”food court” concept where students can choose from a
variety of fast food establishments. Sites such as these
allow for a greater amount of choices per meal, but the
variety of food us usually more limited,17 as well as a
substandard when it comes to quality. In regards to the
frequency of eating fast food, Sneed and Holdt19 have noted
that the average male college student eats fast food on
average 2.5 times per week, as females consumed about 1.9
per week.
Makino et al14 suggested the type of living environment
impacts on eating attitude and concluded fewer hours of
sleeping may be associated with abnormal eating habits for
students. Students with fewer hours sleeping have more
opportunities to eat and visit bars and restaurants. Makino
et al14 also concluded that irregular meal habits, such as
skipping meals, were found to be associated with abnormal
eating attitudes and in inversely related to obesity.
Matvienko et al20 performed a study to determine if
nutrition intervention in a college student’s freshman year
to would help prevent weight gain during the first 16

47
months of college. Results of the study yielded improved
knowledge of nutrition, energy metabolism, and physiologic
mechanisms of energy balance for those students who took
the course.20 Interestingly, these students retained the
more complex concepts one year after the end of the course
intervention, yet information about the food guide pyramid,
food labels, nutrients and energy density were not retained
one year later.20 A major finding of this experiment was
that the intervention had an overwhelming effect on the
subgroup of students who were at a greater risk for weight
gain, specifically students with a higher baseline body
mass index (BMI), higher parental BMI, or higher fat
intakes.20 These students may have felt dietary changes
needed to be carried out because they were at a higher
risk.
Another problem with the diet of college students is
the frequency of skipping meals. Researchers have noted
that many college students skip breakfast, approximating
about 21% of all students.21 It has been suggested that the
general failure to meet the recommended amount of serving
of all food groups, with the exception of the meat group,
is due to the percentage of students who skip meals and
consume fast foods often.21

48
Gender Differences
It is apparent that females are more concerned with
body image as Hollywood and the media have portrayed the
image of females who are slender and petite to be
“attractive”. Many young females strive for this “perfect”
look and sacrifice nutritious foods to achieve this image.
Healthy eating habits are important for all
individuals alike, however it is imperative that women
focus on eating a variety of foods. Many females do not
realize the importance of healthy eating and many female
athletes appear to lack the nutritional knowledge, or fail
to comply with recommendations.22 Athletes do however have a
positive attitude toward nutrition, as they may feel that
what gets put into their body affects their athletic
performance, which is true to some extent.
For females, it is important to understand the
reasoning behind the importance of nutrition. Women must
take into account the female athlete triad consisting of
amenorrhea, osteoporosis and disordered eating. Proper
nutrition must be maintained to ensure health not only in
the present, but future as well. Reinking and Alexander’s23
study was performed to determine if college athletes were
more at risk for acquiring eating disorders when compared
to collegiate non-athletes based on the Eating Disorders

49
Inventory test. The findings were not supported, however
the authors did find athletes who participated in lean
sports, such as cross country and gymnastics, showed a
greater amount of disordered-eating symptoms.23
A study completed by Barr24 was performed to test the
general and sports related nutrition knowledge of female
varsity teams with females who did not participate on any
teams. Barr24 has concluded that athletes on the crosscountry/track-and-field teams scored higher on the
nutrition knowledge test than those on the volleyball team.
These results, along with results from other studies,
suggest that runners may be more knowledgeable about the
role of nutrition in sports performance.24 The results of
this study indicate that female varsity athletes had levels
of general and sports-related nutrition knowledge that were
similar to those of female university students.24
It was reported by Deshpande and colleagues25 that
females tend to eat more fatty foods than male students,
although fruit and vegetable consumption trends remain
similar. Also, triglyceride levels and the ratio of total
cholesterol to high-density lipoproteins were elevated in
those who resided off campus.21 Deshpande25 has also
concluded that dietary intake between gender was influenced
by a variety of factors.

50
The goal of Levi, Chan and Pence’s26 study was to
uncover ways in which female and male college students
differed in involvement concerning food decisions and to
address how male students’ food decisions may be driven,
partly due to the issues related to masculinity. The
authors concluded that male and females students did indeed
have different levels of involvement when it comes to food
decisions.26 The involvement level may have to do with the
issue that “real men” do not display feminine
characteristics, such as caring about what types of food
enter the body or other issues related to body issues.
Male students participating in the survey had admitted
to not caring about what type of food enters the body, but
determined what to eat by the cost of the food.26 It was
also apparent, by the responses given by the male subjects,
that they seemed to have a sense of power by being able to
eat what they want, when they chose to. Conversely, female
students taking part in the study were more like to choose
food based on the components, as well as considering the
choices important and relevant to a healthy lifestyle.26
Also, cultural coding of high involvement in food
decisions as feminine actively discourages men from being
highly involved in accessing and acting on nutritional
information, such as reading product labels and recognizing

51
their meaning.26 It is important for men to be involved in
choosing foods for a healthy lifestyle, especially since we
know how some foods impact the body as compared to many
years ago.
The bottom line is for these students to learn about
eating habits and the difficulties associated with breaking
them. Males that do not having a high concern for what goes
into their body’s places them at risk for weight-related
problems in the future.26 Problems such as these can only
add to the prevalence of obesity in the future.

Summary

Poor diet and nutrition combined with inactivity can
be linked to cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes,
hypertension, osteoporosis, and certain cancers.11 However,
maintaining a healthy diet assists with preventing obesity,
chronic diseases such as coronary heart disease, noninsulin dependent diabetes mellitus, some types of cancers,
strokes, and osteoporosis.2
Diet should be tailored to each individual since
activity has a big impact on caloric intake. According to
the AHA, the average sedentary female between the ages of
19 and 30 years old should consume about 2000 calories per

52
day, as males between the same age range should consume
about 2400 calories.3
There are six major nutrient categories that make up
foods and beverages, including carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, vitamins, minerals and water. These nutrients are
vital to the human body as they produce energy, contribute
to the growth and development of tissues, regulate body
process, and prevent deficiency and degenerative diseases.6
The transition to college life is often a difficult time
where students must adjust to maintaining a healthy diet on
their own, without parents to look over them and ensure a
healthy, well rounded diet is consumed. It is important for
these young students to maintain a diet where all food
groups are consumed to confirm a well balanced diet.
There have been a variety of factors proposed as
reasons why college student have these attitudes or
behaviors about foods as they enter this new period in
their lives. Housing assignments have been shown to play an
important role in maintaining normal eating attitudes.14
Studies also reveal students choose food based on taste,
time sufficiency, convenience, and budget. Reasons for
these poor choices include lack of cooking experience and
perceptions of low-calorie foods therefore, limiting food
choices.18 Also, many institutions have a ”food court”

53
concept where students can choose from a variety of fast
food establishments.17 These meals are also high in fat,
saturated fat, cholesterol and sodium, while being low in
fiber, vitamins A,C, and E, folate, iron and calcium.15,16
Finally, another hypothesis as to why these diet
inadequacies occur is due to the amount of sleep a student
gets.14 Since there are less hours sleeping and more hours
awake, students have more of an opportunity to eat
unhealthily.14 Another contributing factor to these
unhealthy eating habits may be due to skipping meals, as
abnormal eating habits have been found to be inversely
proportional to obesity.14
Gender differences also have an impact when it comes
to nutrition and healthy eating habits.

Many females do

not realize the importance of healthy eating and many
female athletes appear to lack the nutritional knowledge,
or fail to comply with recommendations.26 Athletes do
however have a positive attitude toward nutrition, as they
may feel that what gets put into their body affects their
athletic performance. Women must take into account the
female athlete triad consisting of amenorrhea, osteoporosis
and disordered eating. These conditions are unique on their
own, but together can cause detrimental health problems for
women when combined.

54
Authors have shown that men had admitted to not caring
about what type of food enters the body, but determined
what to eat by the cost of the food.26 Conversely, female
students taking part in the study were more like to choose
food based on what the components, as well as considered
the choices important and relevant to a healthy lifestyle.26

55

APPENDIX B
The Problem

56
THE PROBLEM

Statement of the Problem
Nutrition education is an important aspect in any
allied health profession. Athletic trainers and personal
trainers alike are educated on the subject of nutrition, as
sports nutrition classes are incorporated throughout the
curriculum. It is important for these students and
professionals to engage in proper eating behaviors to
ensure adequate energy through the course of the day, as
well as be a role model for athletes, coaches, clients,
etc. Students and professionals must be a guide to
individuals under their care as well as provide correct
information to those who desire to enhance athletic
performance. Although many individuals have been provided
proper nutrition knowledge to achieve these goals, many do
not seem to carry over information into personal lives. The
aim of this study was to examine the relationship between
the nutritional knowledge and eating habits of
undergraduate athletic training and wellness & fitness
majors and determine if there was a relationship between
each of these variables, regardless of group.

57
Definition of Terms
To better understand this specific study, some terms are
operationally defined below.
1. Athlete – in this study, the term athlete refers to
any individual who is regularly active,6 participating
in moderate activity for at least 60 minutes, twothree times per week.
2. National Athletic Trainers’ Association - the
professional membership association for certified
athletic trainers and others who support the athletic
training profession.4 The mission of the National
Athletic Trainers’ Association is to enhance the
quality of health care provided by certified athletic
trainers and to advance the athletic training
profession.4
3. Commission on Accreditation of Athletic Training
Education, (CAATE) - Governing board on accreditation
of and ATEP which sets standards and guidelines to be
followed by the program.
4. Dietary Guidelines - an analysis of new scientific
information providing science-based advice to promote
health and to reduce risk for major chronic diseases
through diet and physical activity. Key nutrient
recommendations are for ages two and older.

58
5. Nutritional Knowledge - reported as a score (%), set
out to measure the quality and background of knowledge
of each participant in the undergraduate athletic
training and wellness & fitness major field of study.27
6. Nutritional habits - reported as a score (%), used to
determine the perceived quality of current eating
habits each participant possesses.27

Basic Assumptions
The following were the basic assumptions for the study:
1. All subjects will participate without persuasion from
another source (teacher, peer, etc.)
2. The Nutritional Knowledge and Eating Habits
Questionnaire22 is a valid and reliable test.
3. It is assumed participants will answer all questions
honestly and to the best of their ability, without
input from other individuals.
4. The use of additional demographic information will be
predictive of predisposing factors or habits that
contribute to unhealthy eating.

59
Limitations of the study
The following was a possible limitation of the study:
Data gathered may not be an appropriate predictor of the
relationship between nutritional knowledge and eating
habits of all undergraduate athletic training and wellness
& fitness majors throughout the United States. There may be
a variation due to the expectations and level of difficulty
of classes within each major or institution.

Significance of the Study
Sports nutrition is a growing field and many athletes
look to members of the health care profession, such as
athletic trainers and personal trainers, for expert
knowledge. It is important for these professionals to know
appropriate sports nutrition to help these athletes obtain
optimal athletic performance. Members of these fields must
partake in a healthy lifestyle to be role models for
athletes, coaches, clients and even family members. By
performing this study, both athletic trainers and wellness
& fitness professionals will be better able to see how
eating habits may not be up to par.
The results of this study will hopefully enlighten
members within these professions on how much of an impact
they have in regards to individuals under their care and

60
how they should utilize the nutritional knowledge obtained
throughout the course of their schooling to benefit
themselves in maintaining a healthy lifestyle.

61

APPENDIX C
Additional Methods

62

APPENDIX C1
Survey Cover Letter

63

March 8, 2010
Dear Undergraduate Student:
My name is Amanda Greco and I am currently a graduate student at California University of
Pennsylvania pursing a Master of Science in Athletic Training. Part of the graduate study
curriculum is to complete a research thesis through conducting research. I am conducting survey
research to determine if there is a correlation between nutritional knowledge and eating habits of
undergraduate athletic training and wellness & fitness majors. This information is being used for
research purposes only and will not be accessed by anyone except the researcher and the
researcher’s advisor.
Undergraduate athletic training and wellness & fitness majors in their junior and senior year are
being asked to participate in the survey; however, your participation is voluntary and you do have
the right to choose not to participate. You also have the right to discontinue participation at any
time during the survey completion process at which time your data will be discarded. The
California University of Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board has reviewed and approved this
project. The approval is effective 02/15/10 and expires 02/15/11.
All survey responses are anonymous and will be kept confidential. Also, by completing this
survey, you give consent to use the data collected. Aggregate survey responses will be housed in
a password protected file on the CalU campus. Minimal risk is posed by participating as a subject
in this study. I ask that you please take this survey within one week from receiving this e-mail as
it will take approximately 20 minutes to complete. If you have any questions regarding this
project, please feel free to contact the primary researcher, Amanda Greco at gre7256@calu.edu.
You can also contact the faculty advisor for this research, Dr. Rebecca Hess, PhD., 724-9384359, hess_ra@calu.edu. Thanks in advance for your participation. Please click the following
link to access the demographics sheet and survey http://www.surveymonkey.com/s/RPDFMDL.
Thank you for taking the time to take part in my thesis research. I greatly appreciate your time
and effort put into this task!
Sincerely,

Amanda Greco, ATC, PES
Primary Researcher
California University of Pennsylvania
250 University Avenue
California, PA 15419
(917) 535-1527
gre7256@calu.edu

64

APPENDIX C2
Revised Nutritional Knowledge and Eating Habits
Questionnaire

65
Revised Nutritional Knowledge and Eating Habits Questionnaire
Section 1: Please circle the number for each statement indicating to
what extent you agree or disagree with each of the following
statements.
4 – Strongly Agree
3 – Agree Somewhat
2 – Disagree Somewhat
1 – Strongly Disagree

1. Skipping breakfast can negatively affect athletic performance.
4
3
2
1
2. Nutrition can affect mental performance.
4
3
2
1
3. Calcium excretion from the body increases with alcohol consumption.
4
3
2
1
4. According to mypyramid.gov, it is recommended that females, age 1825, who engage in more than 60 minutes of exercise per day, should
consume 8 daily ounce equivalents from the grains group.
4
3
2
1
5. According to mypyramid.gov, females age 18-25, who engage in more
than 60 minutes of exercise per day, should consume 2 cups of fruit
daily.
4
3
2
1
6. According to mypyramid.gov, females age 18-25, who engage in more
than 60 minutes of exercise per day, should consume 3 servings from the
dairy group per day.
4
3
2
1
7. According to mypyramid.gov, females ages 18-25, who engage in more
than 60 minutes of exercise per day, should consume 6.5 ounce
equivalents from the meat/bean group every day.
4
3
2
1
8. Eating breakfast can improve concentration.
4
3
2
1
9. Excess vitamin consumption can be toxic.
4
3
2
1
10. Anemia is a deficiency of iron.
4
3
2
1
11. Average percent of body fat in females is 20-25%.
4
3
2
1
12. Cereal, bread, bagels, and pasta are good sources of carbohydrates.
4
3
2
1
13. Tofu, nuts, and beans are good sources of protein.
4
3
2
1

66
14. Athletes tend to consume twice as much protein as recommended.
4
3
2
1
15. The best sources of iron come from animal products and fish.
4
3
2
1
16. Eating cereals or breads enriched with iron should be eaten with a
source of vitamin C to enhance absorption of iron.
4
3
2
1
17. Proteins act to repair and build muscle tissue and make hormones to
boost the immune system.
4
3
2
1
18. Fats are essential in all diets.
4
3
2
1
19. If a diet is lacking in carbohydrates, proteins are then used for
energy.
4
3
2
1
20. Oatmeal, legumes, and fruits are sources of soluble fiber.
4
3
2
1
21. The recommended amount of iron for females is 18-32 milligrams per
day.
4
3
2
1
22. Vitamin C is also known as ascorbic acid.
4
3
2
1

Section 2: Please circle the number that applied to each of the
following questions. Refer to the scale below to determine the number
of days per week defined in each rating. All of the results will be
kept strictly confidential. Thank you for your cooperation.
4 – Always: Occurs 5-7 days per week
3 – Often: Occurs 3-4 days per week
2 - Sometimes: Occurs 1-2 days per week
1 – Never: Does not occur at all
1. How often do you eat breakfast in the morning?
4
3
2
1
2. How often do you take vitamin supplements?
4
3
2
1
3. How often do you take mineral supplements?
4
3
2
1
4. How often do you eat three base meals per day?
4
3
2
1
5. How often do you record what you eat?
4
3
2
1
6. How often are you on a “diet”?

67
4

3

2

1

7. How often do you eat fruits, such as apples, bananas, or oranges?
4
3
2
1
8. How often do you eat vegetables, such as broccoli, carrots or salad?
4
3
2
1
9. How often do you consume dairy products such as milk, yogurt or
cheese?
4
3
2
1
10. How often do you seek out nutritional information?
4
3
2
1

68

APPENDIX C3
Demographics Information

69
Please DO NOT include your name anywhere in this questionnaire.
Please answer all of the following questions honestly and to the
best of your knowledge. All of your responses and the results of
this study will be kept strictly confidential. Thank you for your
time.

1. Age ______
2. Major
Athletic Training ____

Wellness and Fitness ____

3. Academic year in college
Junior ___

Senior ___

4. Have you ever taken a nutrition course?
Yes* ___

No ___

* If yes, which course were you enrolled?
Sports Nutrition ___ Physiology of Exercise __

Other __

5. What is your housing assignment?
On Campus* ____ Off Campus ____
If on campus, do you currently have a meal plan?
Yes ___
No ___
If yes, how often do you eat meals from the dining hall?
2-3 times per week ___
4-8 times per week ___
8-10 times per week ___
More than 10 times per week ___
6. Are you currently concerned with your weight?
Yes ___
No ___
7. Are you currently watching what you eat/modifying diet or
caloric intake?
Yes ___
No ____

70

APPENDIX C4
Institutional Review Board –
California University of Pennsylvania

71
Institutional Review Board
California University of Pennsylvania
Psychology Department LRC, Room 310
250 University Avenue
California, PA 15419
instreviewboard@cup.edu
instreviewboard@calu.edu
Robert Skwarecki, Ph.D., CCC-SLP,Chair

Amanda,
Please consider this email as official notification that your
proposal titled “The Relationship Between Nutritional Knowledge
and Eating Habits of Undergraduate Athletic Training and Wellness
& Fitness Majors” (Proposal #09-041) has been approved by the
California University of Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board,
with the following stipulation:
The cover letter for the survey must include a statement
that completion of the survey constitutes consent to use
the data.
Once you have you have made this change, you may immediately
begin data collection. You do not need to wait for further IRB
approval. [At your earliest convenience, you must forward a copy
of the revised document for the Board’s records].
The effective date of the approval is 2-15-2010 and the
expiration date is 2-15-2011. These dates must appear on the
consent form.
Please note that Federal Policy requires that you notify the IRB
promptly regarding any of the following:
(1) Any additions or changes in procedures you might wish for your
study (additions or changes must be approved by the IRB before
they are implemented)
(2) Any events that affect the safety or well-being of subjects
(3) Any modifications of your study or other responses that are
necessitated by any events reported in (2).
(4) To continue your research beyond the approval expiration date
of 2-15-2011 you must file additional information to be
considered for continuing review. Please contact
instreviewboard@cup.edu

Please notify the Board when data collection is complete.
Regards,
Robert Skwarecki, Ph.D., CCC-SLP
Chair, Institutional Review Board

72
Proposal Number
Date Received

PROTOCOL for Research
Involving Human Subjects

Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval is required before
beginning any research and/or data collection involving human subjects

(Reference IRB Policies and Procedures for clarification)

Project Title The Relationship Between Nutritional Knowledge and Eating Habits of Undergraduate Athletic
Training and Wellness & Fitness Majors.
Researcher/Project Director

Amanda Greco
E-mail Address gre7256@cup.edu

Phone # (917)535-1527
Faculty Sponsor (if required) Rebecca Hess
Department Health Science

Project Dates January 2010 to December 2010
Sponsoring Agent (if applicable)
Project to be Conducted at California University of Pennsylvania (web-based survey)
Project Purpose:

Thesis

Research

Class Project

Keep a copy of this form for your records.

Other

73
Please attach a typed, detailed summary of your project AND complete items 2
through 6.
1. Provide an overview of your project-proposal describing what you plan to do and how you
will go about doing it. Include any hypothesis(ses)or research questions that might be
involved and explain how the information you gather will be analyzed. For a complete list of
what should be included in your summary, please refer to Appendix B of the IRB Policies and
Procedures Manual.
The purpose of this study will be to determine the relationship between nutritional
knowledge and eating habits of undergraduate athletic training students and undergraduate
wellness & fitness majors. Undergraduate students in their junior and senior years from each
of the aforementioned majors at California University of Pennsylvania are expected to
participate in this survey. These students have been chosen since they have already taken a
course in Sports Nutrition or Physiology of Exercise. Each student who agrees to participate
in this study will be asked to fill out demographic information (see attached) and the two-part
revised Nutritional Knowledge and Eating Habits Questionnaire (see attached). Part one of
the questionnaire is intended to test the nutritional knowledge of each participant, and part
two will be used to test the quality of their eating habits. Each part of the questionnaire will
be scored seperately and the results will be compared to each other. This will allow the
researcher to determine if there is a relationship between nutritional knowledge and eating
habits. The students’ answers will remain confidential throughout the course of the study.
A descriptive research design will be used for this study. Dependent variables in this study
include (1) nutritional knowledge and (2) eating habits. The independent variable would be
major field of study (athletic training/wellness & fitness).
Once students complete the questionnaire, the results will then be separated by major and
compared independently. Once these results have been established, the researcher will
determine if there is a link between nutritional knowledge and eating habits.
Two hypotheses will be tested throughout this study.
1. There will be no difference between the groups on Knowledge of Nutrition and Eating
Habits. To test this hypothesis, a MANOVA will be used to determine if there is a difference
between each of the groups.
2. The second hypothesis is that eating habits will not correlate with the Knowledge of
Nutrition regardless of group. For this hypothesis, a Pearson Product Moment Correlation
will be used to determine if any relationship is present, regardless of group.
2. Section 46.11 of the Federal Regulations state that research proposals involving human
subjects must satisfy certain requirements before the IRB can grant approval. You should
describe in detail how the following requirements will be satisfied. Be sure to address each
area separately.
a. How will you insure that any risks to subjects are minimized? If there are potential
risks, describe what will be done to minimize these risks. If there are risks, describe
why the risks to participants are reasonable in relation to the anticipated benefits.
There are no risks associated with completing this survey. All subject's answers will
be kept confidential. No research will be carried out before the research gains
approval by the IRB.

74
b. How will you insure that the selection of subjects is equitable? Take into account
your purpose(s). Be sure you address research problems involving vulnerable
populations such as children, prisoners, pregnant women, mentally disabled persons,
and economically or educationally disadvantaged persons. If this is an in-class
project describe how you will minimize the possibility that students will feel coerced.
All subjects will be volunteers 18 years or older at California University of
Pennsylvania. All of these volunteers will be recruited from the undergraduate
athletic training (n~30) and wellness & fitness (n~30) majors. E-mails addresses will
be obtained from the program directors of each major and e-mails will be sent to the
students from the researcher. Prior to completing the survey, the participants will
receive an e-mailed coverletter (see attached) explaining the purpose of the study,
along with their cooperation to volunteer.
c. How will you obtain informed consent from each participant or the subject’s legally
authorized representative and ensure that all consent forms are appropriately
documented? Be sure to attach a copy of your consent form to the project summary.
The e-mailed cover letter (see attached) will state that all subjects have the right to
choose not to participate in the survey. Therefore, informed consent is implied upon
completing and returning the survey to the researcher.
d. Show that the research plan makes provisions to monitor the data collected to insure
the safety of all subjects. This includes the privacy of subjects’ responses and
provisions for maintaining the security and confidentiality of the data.
Data will be collected during the spring semester. All students will receive an e-mail
asking for participation in the study. The survey will be accessable through
Surveymonkey.com and upon completion, the subjects identity will remain
anonymous. All results and information containing subject identity will be kept in a
secure location in which only the researcher, Amanda Greco, and research advisor,
Dr. Rebecca Hess, can access the information.
3. Check the appropriate box(es) that describe the subjects you plan to use.

Adult volunteers

Mentally Disabled People

CAL University Students

Economically Disadvantaged People

Other Students

Educationally Disadvantaged People

Prisoners

Fetuses or fetal material

Pregnant Women

Children Under 18

Physically Handicapped People

Neonates

4. Is remuneration involved in your project?
5. Is this project part of a grant?

Yes or

Yes or
No

No. If yes, Explain here.

If yes, provide the following information:

75
Title of the Grant Proposal
Name of the Funding Agency
Dates of the Project Period
6.

Does your project involve the debriefing of those who participated?

Yes or

No

If Yes, explain the debriefing process here.
7. If your project involves a questionnaire interview, ensure that it meets the requirements of
Appendix
in the Policies and Procedures Manual.

76
California University of Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board
Survey/Interview/Questionnaire Consent Checklist (v021209)
This form MUST accompany all IRB review requests
Does your research involve ONLY a survey, interview or questionnaire?
YES—Complete this form
NO—You MUST complete the “Informed Consent Checklist”—skip the remainder
of this form
Does your survey/interview/questionnaire cover letter or explanatory statement include:
(1) Statement about the general nature of the survey and how the data will be
used?
(2) Statement as to who the primary researcher is, including name, phone, and
email address?
(3) FOR ALL STUDENTS: Is the faculty advisor’s name and contact information
provided?
(4) Statement that participation is voluntary?
(5) Statement that participation may be discontinued at any time without penalty
and all data discarded?
(6) Statement that the results are confidential?
(7) Statement that results are anonymous?
(8) Statement as to level of risk anticipated or that minimal risk is anticipated?
(NOTE: If more than minimal risk is anticipated, a full consent form is required—and
the Informed Consent Checklist must be completed)
(9) Statement that returning the survey is an indication of consent to use the data?
(10) Who to contact regarding the project and how to contact this person?
(11) Statement as to where the results will be housed and how maintained? (unless
otherwise approved by the IRB, must be a secure location on University premises)
(12) Is there text equivalent to: “Approved by the California University of
Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board. This approval is effective nn/nn/nn and
expires mm/mm/mm”? (the actual dates will be specified in the approval notice from
the IRB)?

77
(13) FOR ELECTRONIC/WEBSITE SURVEYS: Does the text of the cover letter
or
explanatory statement appear before any data is requested from the participant?
(14) FOR ELECTONIC/WEBSITE SURVEYS: Can the participant discontinue
participation at any point in the process and all data is immediately discarded?

78
California University of Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board
Informed Consent Checklist (v021209)
This form MUST accompany all IRB review requests
Does your research involve ONLY a survey, interview, or questionnaire?
YES—DO NOT complete this form. You MUST complete the
“Survey/Interview/Questionnaire Consent Checklist” instead.
NO—Complete the remainder of this form.
1. Introduction (check each)
(1.1) Is there a statement that the study involves research?
(1.2) Is there an explanation of the purpose of the research?
2. Is the participant. (check each)
(2.1) Given an invitation to participate?
(2.2) Told why he/she was selected.
(2.3) Told the expected duration of the participation.
(2.4) Informed that participation is voluntary?
(2.5) Informed that all records are confidential?
(2.6) Told that he/she may withdraw from the research at any time without
penalty or loss of benefits?
(2.7) 18 years of age or older? (if not, see Section #9, Special Considerations
below)
3. Procedures (check each).
(3.1) Are the procedures identified and explained?
(3.2) Are the procedures that are being investigated clearly identified?
(3.3) Are treatment conditions identified?
4. Risks and discomforts. (check each)
(4.1) Are foreseeable risks or discomforts identified?
(4.2) Is the likelihood of any risks or discomforts identified?
(4.3) Is there a description of the steps that will be taken to minimize any risks or
discomforts?
(4.4) Is there an acknowledgement of potentially unforeseeable risks?
(4.5) Is the participant informed about what treatment or follow up courses of
action are available should there be some physical, emotional, or psychological harm?
(4.6) Is there a description of the benefits, if any, to the participant or to others
that may be reasonably expected from the research and an estimate of the likelihood
of these benefits?
(4.7) Is there a disclosure of any appropriate alternative procedures or courses of
treatment that might be advantageous to the participant?
5. Records and documentation. (check each)

79
(5.1) Is there a statement describing how records will be kept confidential?
(5.2) Is there a statement as to where the records will be kept and that this is a
secure location?
(5.3) Is there a statement as to who will have access to the records?

80
6. For research involving more than minimal risk (check each),
(6.1) Is there an explanation and description of any compensation and other
medical or counseling treatments that are available if the participants are injured
through participation?
(6.2) Is there a statement where further information can be obtained regarding the
treatments?
(6.3) Is there information regarding who to contact in the event of researchrelated injury?
7. Contacts.(check each)
(7.1) Is the participant given a list of contacts for answers to questions about the
research and the participant’s rights?
(7.2) Is the principal researcher identified with name and phone number and
email address?
(7.3) FOR ALL STUDENTS: Is the faculty advisor’s name and contact
information provided?
8. General Considerations (check each)
(8.1) Is there a statement indicating that the participant is making a decision
whether or not to participate, and that his/her signature indicates that he/she has
decided to participate having read and discussed the information in the informed
consent?
(8.2) Are all technical terms fully explained to the participant?
(8.3) Is the informed consent written at a level that the participant can understand?
(8.4) Is there text equivalent to: “Approved by the California University of
Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board. This approval is effective nn/nn/nn and
expires mm/mm/mm”? (the actual dates will be specified in the approval notice from
the IRB)
9. Specific Considerations (check as appropriate)
(9.1) If the participant is or may become pregnant is there a statement that the
particular treatment or procedure may involve risks, foreseeable or currently
unforeseeable, to the participant or to the embryo or fetus?
(9.2) Is there a statement specifying the circumstances in which the participation
may be terminated by the investigator without the participant’s consent?
(9.3) Are any costs to the participant clearly spelled out?
(9.4) If the participant desires to withdraw from the research, are procedures for
orderly termination spelled out?
(9.5) Is there a statement that the Principal Investigator will inform the participant
or any significant new findings developed during the research that may affect them
and influence their willingness to continue participation?
(9.6) Is the participant is less than 18 years of age? If so, a parent or guardian must
sign the consent form and assent must be obtained from the child
Is the consent form written in such a manner that it is clear that the
parent/guardian is giving permission for their child to participate?

81
Is a child assent form being used?
Does the assent form (if used) clearly indicate that the child can freely refuse
to participate or discontinue participation at any time without penalty or coercion?
(9.7) Are all consent and assent forms written at a level that the intended
participant can understand? (generally, 8th grade level for adults, age-appropriate for
children)

82
California University of Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board
Review Request Checklist (v021209)
This form MUST accompany all IRB review requests.
Unless otherwise specified, ALL items must be present in your review request.
Have you:
(1.0) FOR ALL STUDIES: Completed ALL items on the Review Request Form?
Pay particular attention to:
(1.1) Names and email addresses of all investigators
(1.1.1) FOR ALL STUDENTS: use only your CalU email
address)
(1.1.2) FOR ALL STUDENTS: Name and email address of your
faculty research advisor
(1.2) Project dates (must be in the future—no studies will be approved
which have already begun or scheduled to begin before final IRB approval—
NO EXCEPTIONS)
(1.3) Answered completely and in detail, the questions in items 2a through
2d?
2a: NOTE: No studies can have zero risk, the lowest risk is
“minimal risk”. If more than minimal risk is involved you MUST:
i. Delineate all anticipated risks in detail;
ii. Explain in detail how these risks will be minimized;
iii. Detail the procedures for dealing with adverse outcomes
due to these risks.
iv. Cite peer reviewed references in support of your
explanation.
2b. Complete all items.
2c. Describe informed consent procedures in detail.
2d. NOTE: to maintain security and confidentiality of data, all
study records must be housed in a secure (locked) location ON
UNIVERSITY PREMISES. The actual location (department, office,
etc.) must be specified in your explanation and be listed on any
consent forms or cover letters.
(1.4) Checked all appropriate boxes in Section 3? If participants under the
age of 18 years are to be included (regardless of what the study involves) you
MUST:
(1.4.1) Obtain informed consent from the parent or guardian—
consent forms must be written so that it is clear that the
parent/guardian is giving permission for their child to participate.
(1.4.2) Document how you will obtain assent from the child—
This must be done in an age-appropriate manner. Regardless of
whether the parent/guardian has given permission, a child is
completely free to refuse to participate, so the investigator must
document how the child indicated agreement to participate
(“assent”).

83
(1.5) Included all grant information in section 5?
(1.6) Included ALL signatures?
(2.0) FOR STUDIES INVOLVING MORE THAN JUST SURVEYS,
INTERVIEWS, OR QUESTIONNAIRES:
(2.1) Attached a copy of all consent form(s)?
(2.2) FOR STUDIES INVOLVING INDIVIDUALS LESS THAN 18
YEARS OF AGE: attached a copy of all assent forms (if such a form is used)?
(2.3) Completed and attached a copy of the Consent Form Checklist? (as
appropriate—see that checklist for instructions)
(3.0) FOR STUDIES INVOLVING ONLY SURVEYS, INTERVIEWS, OR
QUESTIONNAIRES:
(3.1) Attached a copy of the cover letter/information sheet?
(3.2) Completed and attached a copy of the
Survey/Interview/Questionnaire Consent Checklist? (see that checklist for
instructions)
(3.3) Attached a copy of the actual survey, interview, or questionnaire
questions in their final form?
(4.0) FOR ALL STUDENTS: Has your faculty research advisor:
(4.1) Thoroughly reviewed and approved your study?
(4.2) Thoroughly reviewed and approved your IRB paperwork? including:
(4.2.1) Review request form,
(4.2.2) All consent forms, (if used)
(4.2.3) All assent forms (if used)
(4.2.4) All Survey/Interview/Questionnaire cover letters (if used)
(4.2.5) All checklists
(4.3) IMPORTANT NOTE: Your advisor’s signature on the review request
form indicates that they have thoroughly reviewed your proposal and verified
that it meets all IRB and University requirements.
(5.0) Have you retained a copy of all submitted documentation for your records?

84

Project Director’s Certification
Program Involving HUMAN SUBJECTS
The proposed investigation involves the use of human subjects and I am submitting the complete
application form and project description to the Institutional Review Board for Research Involving
Human Subjects.
I understand that Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval is
required before beginning any research and/or data collection
involving human subjects.

If the Board grants approval of this

application, I agree to:

1. Abide by any conditions or changes in the project required by the Board.
2. Report to the Board any change in the research plan that affects the method of using
human subjects before such change is instituted.
3. Report to the Board any problems that arise in connection with the use of human subjects.
4. Seek advice of the Board whenever I believe such advice is necessary or would be
helpful.
5. Secure the informed, written consent of all human subjects participating in the project.
6. Cooperate with the Board in its effort to provide a continuing review after investigations
have been initiated.
I have reviewed the Federal and State regulations concerning the use of human subjects in
research and training programs and the guidelines. I agree to abide by the regulations and
guidelines aforementioned and will adhere to policies and procedures described in my
application. I understand that changes to the research must be approved by the IRB before they
are implemented.

Professional Research

Project Director’s Signature

Department Chairperson’s Signature

Student or Class Research

Student Researcher’s Signature

Supervising Faculty Member’s
Signature if required

Department Chairperson’s Signature

85

ACTION OF REVIEW BOARD (IRB use only)

The Institutional Review Board for Research Involving Human Subjects has reviewed this application to
ascertain whether or not the proposed project:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

provides adequate safeguards of the rights and welfare of human subjects involved in the
investigations;
uses appropriate methods to obtain informed, written consent;
indicates that the potential benefits of the investigation substantially outweigh the risk involved.
provides adequate debriefing of human participants.
provides adequate follow-up services to participants who may have incurred physical, mental, or
emotional harm.

Approved[_________________________________]

Disapproved

___________________________________________
_________________________
Chairperson, Institutional Review Board

Date

86

Appendix C5
Old Nutritional Knowledge and Eating Habits Questionnaire

87
Old Nutritional Knowledge and Eating Habits Questionnaire
SECTION 1: Please circle the number for each statement indicating to
what extent you agree or disagree with each of the following
statements.
4 – Strongly Agree
3 – Agree Somewhat
2 – Disagree Somewhat
Athlete # _____
1 – Strongly Disagree
1. Skipping breakfast can negatively affect athletic performance.
4
3
2
1
2. Proteins are the best and most efficient source of energy.
4
3
2
1
3. Nutrition affects mental performance.
4
3
2
1
4. The pre-event meal should be eaten 3-4 hours prior to competition.
4
3
2
1
5. Calcium excretion from the body increases with alcohol consumption.
4
3
2
1
6. According to mypyramid.gov, it is recommended that females, age 1825, who engage in more than 60 min. of exercise per day, should consume
8 daily ounce equivalents from the grains group.
4
3
2
1
7. According to mypyramid.gov, it is recommended that females, age 1825, who engage in more than 60 min. of exercise per day, should consume
2 cups of fruit daily.
4
3
2
1
8. According to mypyramid.gov, it is recommended that females, age 1825, who engage in more than 60 min. of exercise per day, should consume
3 servings from the dairy group daily.
4
3
2
1
9. According to mypyramid.gov, it is recommended that females, age 1825, who engage in more than 60 min. of exercise per day, should consume
6.5 ounce equivalents from the meat/bean group every day.
4
3
2
1
10. Eating breakfast can improve concentration.
4
3
2
1
11. Carbohydrates are less fattening than fatty foods.
4
3
2
1
12. At least 60% of total calories should come from carbohydrates.
4
3
2
1
13. Carbohydrates are easier to digest than fats or proteins.
4
3
2
1
14. Excess vitamin consumption can be toxic.
4
3
2
1

88
15. Anemia is a deficiency of iron.
4
3
2
1
16. Average percentage of body fat in females is 20-25%.
4
3
2
1
17. Cereal, bread, bagels, and pasta are good sources of carbohydrates.
4
3
2
1
18. Tofu, nuts, and beans are good sources of proteins.
4
3
2
1
19. Athletes tend to consume twice as much protein as recommended.
4
3
2
1
20. Over-consumption of protein is beneficial for athletes.
4
3
2
1
21. The best sources of iron come from animal products and fish.
4
3
2
1
22. Eating cereals or breads enriched with iron should be eaten with a
source of vitamin C to enhance the absorption of iron.
4
3
2
1
23. Proteins act to repair and build muscle tissue and make hormones to
boost the immune system.
4
3
2
1
24. Fats are essential in all diets.
4
3
2
1
25. If a diet is lacking in carbohydrates, proteins are then used for
energy.
4
3
2
1
26. Oatmeal, legumes, and fruits are sources of soluble fiber.
4
3
2
1
27. The recommended amount of iron for females is 18-23 milligrams per
day.
4
3
2
1
28. Vitamin C is also known as ascorbic acid.
4
3
2
1
29. If you are not thirsty, then you must not be dehydrated.
4
3
2
1
SECTION 2: Please circle the number that applies to the following
questions. Refer to the scale below to determine the number of days per
week defined in each rating. All of the results will be strictly
confidential. Thank you for your cooperation.
4 – Always: Occurs 5-7 days per week.
3 – Often: Occurs 3-4 days per week.
2 – Sometimes: Occurs 1-2 days per week.
1 – Never: Does not occur at all.

89
1. How often do you eat breakfast in the morning?
4
3
2
1
2. Based on three meals per day, how often do you skip at least one
meal per day?
4
3
2
1
3. How often do you take vitamin supplements?
4
3
2
1
4. How often do you take mineral supplements?
4
3
2
1
5. How often do you eat three meals per day?
4
3
2
1
6. How often do you record what you eat?
4
3
2
1
7. How often do you drink water?
4
3
2
1
8. How often do you drink carbonated beverages?
4
3
2
1
9. How often are you on a “diet”?
4
3
2
1
10. How often do you eat breads, cereals, pasta, potatoes or rice?
4
3
2
1
11. How often do you eat fruits, such as apples, bananas, or oranges?
4
3
2
1
12. How often do you eat vegetables, such as broccoli, carrots, or
salad?
4
3
2
1
13. How often do you eat dairy products such as milk, yogurt or cheese?
4
3
2
1
14. How often do you eat berry jams, cookies, candies, or other sweets?
4
3
2
1
15. How often do you snack on foods like potato chips, cakes, candies,
donuts, or soda?
4
3
2
1
16. How often do you snack on foods like bagels, yogurt, popcorn,
pretzels, or fruits?
4
3
2
1
17. How often do you eat fast foods?
4
3
2
1
18. How often do you seek out nutritional information?
4
3
2
1

90

APPENDIX C6
Scoring Key: Old Nutritional Knowledge and Eating Habits
Questionnaire

91
Old Nutritional Knowledge and Eating Habits Questionnaire
SECTION 1: Please circle the number for each statement indicating to
what extent you agree or disagree with each of the following
statements.
4 – Strongly Agree
3 – Agree Somewhat
2 – Disagree Somewhat
Athlete # _____
1 – Strongly Disagree
2.

Skipping breakfast can negatively affect athletic performance.

2. Proteins are the best and most efficient source of energy.
3. Nutrition affects mental performance.

4

1

4

4. The pre-event meal should be eaten 3-4 hours prior to competition. 4
5. Calcium excretion from the body increases with alcohol consumption.4
6. According to mypyramid.gov, it is recommended that females, age 1825, who engage in more than 60 min. of exercise per day, should consume
8 daily ounce equivalents from the grains group. 4
7. According to mypyramid.gov, it is recommended that females, age 1825, who engage in more than 60 min. of exercise per day, should consume
2 cups of fruit daily. 4
8. According to mypyramid.gov, it is recommended that females, age 1825, who engage in more than 60 min. of exercise per day, should consume
3 servings from the dairy group daily. 4
9. According to mypyramid.gov, it is recommended that females, age 1825, who engage in more than 60 min. of exercise per day, should consume
6.5 ounce equivalents from the meat/bean group every day. 4
10. Eating breakfast can improve concentration.

4

11. Carbohydrates are less fattening than fatty foods.

4

12. At least 60% of total calories should come from carbohydrates.
13. Carbohydrates are easier to digest than fats or proteins.
14. Excess vitamin consumption can be toxic.
15. Anemia is a deficiency of iron.

4

4

4

4

16. Average percentage of body fat in females is 20-25%.

4

17. Cereal, bread, bagels, and pasta are good sources of carbohydrates.
4
18. Tofu, nuts, and beans are good sources of proteins.

4

19. Athletes tend to consume twice as much protein as recommended.

4

92
20. Over-consumption of protein is beneficial for athletes.

1

21. The best sources of iron come from animal products and fish.

4

22. Eating cereals or breads enriched with iron should be eaten with a
source of vitamin C to enhance the absorption of iron. 4
23. Proteins act to repair and build muscle tissue and make hormones to
boost the immune system. 4
24. Fats are essential in all diets.

4

25. If a diet is lacking in carbohydrates, proteins are then used for
energy. 4
26. Oatmeal, legumes, and fruits are sources of soluble fiber.

4

27. The recommended amount of iron for females is 18-23 milligrams per
day. 4
28. Vitamin C is also known as ascorbic acid.

4

29. If you are not thirsty, then you must not be dehydrated.

1

RANGE OF SCORES: 29-116

SECTION 2: Please circle the number that applies to the following
questions. Refer to the scale below to determine the number of days
per week defined in each rating. All of the results will be strictly
confidential. Thank you for your cooperation.
4 – Always: Occurs 5-7 days per week.
3 – Often: Occurs 3-4 days per week.
2 – Sometimes: Occurs 1-2 days per week.
1 – Never: Does not occur at all.
1. How often do you eat breakfast in the morning?

4

2. Based on three meals per day, how often do you skip at least one
meal per day? 1
3. How often do you take vitamin supplements?

1

4. How often do you take mineral supplements?

1

5. How often do you eat three meals per day?
6. How often do you record what you eat?
7. How often do you drink water?

4

4

4

8. How often do you drink carbonated beverages?
9. How often are you on a “diet”?

1

1

10. How often do you eat breads, cereals, pasta, potatoes or rice?

4

93

11. How often do you eat fruits, such as apples, bananas, or oranges?
4
12. How often do you eat vegetables, such as broccoli, carrots, or
salad? 4
13. How often do you eat dairy products such as milk, yogurt or cheese?
4
14. How often do you eat berry jams, cookies, candies, or other sweets?
1
15. How often do you snack on foods like potato chips, cakes, candies,
donuts, or soda?
1
16. How often do you snack on foods like bagels, yogurt, popcorn,
pretzels, or fruits? 4
17. How often do you eat fast foods?

1

18. How often do you seek out nutritional information?

RANGE OF SCORES: 18-72
CLASSIFICATIONS:
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor

=
=
=
=

85-100%
70-85%
55-69%
54% or below

4

94

APPENDIX C7
Scoring Key: Revised Nutritional Knowledge and Heating
Habits Questionnaire

95
Revised Nutritional Knowledge and Eating Habits Questionnaire
Section 1: Please circle the number for each statement indicating to
what extent you agree or disagree with each of the following
statements.
4 – Strongly Agree
3 – Agree Somewhat
2 – Disagree Somewhat
1 – Strongly Disagree

1. Skipping breakfast can negatively affect athletic performance.
2. Nutrition can affect mental performance.

4

4

3. Calcium excretion from the body increases with alcohol consumption.
4
4. According to mypyramid.gov, it is recommended that females, age 1825, who engage in more than 60 minutes of exercise per day, should
consume 8 daily ounce equivalents from the grains group. 4
5. According to mypyramid.gov, females age 18-25, who engage in more
than 60 minutes of exercise per day, should consume 2 cups of fruit
daily. 4
6. According to mypyramid.gov, females age 18-25, who engage in more
than 60 minutes of exercise per day, should consume 3 servings from the
dairy group per day.
4
7. According to mypyramid.gov, females ages 18-25, who engage in more
than 60 minutes of exercise per day, should consume 6.5 ounce
equivalents from the meat/bean group every day. 4
8. Eating breakfast can improve concentration.
9. Excess vitamin consumption can be toxic.
10. Anemia is a deficiency of iron.

4

4

4

11. Average percent of body fat in females is 20-25%.

4

12. Cereal, bread, bagels, and pasta are good sources of carbohydrates.
4
13. Tofu, nuts, and beans are good sources of protein.

4

14. Athletes tend to consume twice as much protein as recommended.
15. The best sources of iron come from animal products and fish.

4
4

16. Eating cereals or breads enriched with iron should be eaten with a
source of vitamin C to enhance absorption of iron. 4
17. Proteins act to repair and build muscle tissue and make hormones to
boost the immune system. 4

96
18. Fats are essential in all diets.

4

19. If a diet is lacking in carbohydrates, proteins are then used for
energy. 4
20. Oatmeal, legumes, and fruits are sources of soluble fiber.

4

21. The recommended amount of iron for females is 18-32 milligrams per
day. 4
22. Vitamin C is also known as ascorbic acid.

4

RANGE OF SCORES: 22-88

Section 2: Please circle the number that applied to each of the
following questions. Refer to the scale below to determine the number
of days per week defined in each rating. All of the results will be
kept strictly confidential. Thank you for your cooperation.
4 – Always: Occurs 5-7 days per week
3 – Often: Occurs 3-4 days per week
2 - Sometimes: Occurs 1-2 days per week
1 – Never: Does not occur at all
1. How often do you eat breakfast in the morning?
2. How often do you take vitamin supplements?

1

3. How often do you take mineral supplements?

1

4. How often do you eat three base meals per day?
5. How often do you record what you eat?
6. How often are you on a “diet”?

4

4

4

1

7. How often do you eat fruits, such as apples, bananas, or oranges?

4

8. How often do you eat vegetables, such as broccoli, carrots or salad?
4
9. How often do you consume dairy products such as milk, yogurt or
cheese? 4
10. How often do you seek out nutritional information?

RANGE OF SCORES: 10-40
CLASSIFICATIONS:
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor

=
=
=
=

85-100%
70-85%
55-69%
54% or below

4

97
REFERENCES

1.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S.
Department of Agriculture. Dietary Guidelines for
Americans, 2005. 6th Edition, Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office, January 2005.

2.

U.S Department of Health and Human Services. The
Surgeon General’s Report on Nutrition and Health.
2008. Public Health Service. DHHS (PHS) Publication
No. 88-50210.

3.

Know How Many Calories You Should Eat. American Heart
Association Wed site. http://www.americanheart.org.
Accessed September 24, 2009.

4.

National Athletic Trainer’s Association. What is an
Athletic Trainer? 2009. Available at nata.org.
Accessed September 22, 2009.

5.

American College of Sports Medicine, American Dietetic
Association, and Dietitians of Canada. Joint position
statement. Nutrition and athletic performance.
Official Journal of the American College of Sports
Medicine. 2009;709-730.

6.

Fink HH, Burgoon LA. Mikesky AE. Introduction to
Sports Nutrition. In: Fink HH. Burgoon LA. Mikesky AE.
Practical Applications in Sports Nutrition. Sadbury
MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers; 2006:2-24.

7.

Otten J. Hellwig J. Meyers L. Dietary Reference
Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements.
Washington (DC): The National Academies Press; 2006.

8.

Casa DJ. Armstrong LE. Hillman SK. Montain SJ. Reiff
RV. Rich BSE. Roberts WO. Stone JA. National Athletic
Trainers Position Statement: Fluid replacement for
athletes. In: Position, Consensus, Official and
Support Statements, National Athletic Trainers’
Association Reference Series. Canada. National
Athletic Trainers’ Association; 2008:27-40.

9.

National Athletic Trainers’ Association Board of
Certification. Role Delineation Study. Fifth Edition.
Nebraska. Board of Certification, Inc. 2004

98

10.

Perrin DH. Athletic Training: From physical education
to allied health. Quest. 2007;59:111-132.

11.

Weidner TG. Noble GL. Pipkin JB. Athletic training
students in the college/university setting and the
scope of clinical education. Journal of Athletic
Training. 2006;41:422-426.

12.

American College of Sports Medicine. Become an ACSM
certified health fitness specialist. Available at:
www.acsm.org. Accessed October 15, 2009.

13.

Standards and Guidelines for the Accreditation of
Educational Programs for Personal Fitness Training.
Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education
Programs Web site.
(http://www.caahep.org/index?.)Accessed November 30,
2009.

14.

Makino M. Hashizume M. Yasushi M. Tsubio Y.
Dennerstein L. Factors associated with abnormal eating
attitudes among female college students in Japan.
Archives of Womens Mental Health. 2006;9:203-208.

15.

Horacek TM. Betts NM. Students cluster into 4 groups
according to the factors influencing their dietary
intake. Journal of Marketing Research. 1994;31:14641467.

16.

Ha EJ. Caine-Bish N. Effect of nutrition intervention
using a general nutrition course for promoting fruit
and vegetable consumption among college students.
Journal of Nutrition Education Behavior. 2009;41:103109.

17.

Haberman S. Luffey D. Weighing in college students’
diets and exercise behaviors. Journal of American
College Health. 1998;46.

18.

Boyle JR. LaRose NR. Personal beliefs, the environment
and college students’ exercise and eating behaviors.
American Journal of Health Studies. 2008;23:195-200.

19.

Sneed J. Holdt CS. Many factors influence college
students’ eating patterns. American Journal of College
Health. 1991;91:1380.

99

20.

Matvienko O. Lewis DS. Schafer E. A college nutrition
science course as an intervention to prevent weight
gain in female college freshmen. Journal of Nutrition
Education. 2001;33:95-101.

21.

Huang Y. Song WO. Shemmel RA. Hoerr SM. What do
college students eat? Food selection and meal
patterns. Nutritional Research. 1994;14:1143-1153.

22.

Zawila LG. Steib CSM. Hoogenboom B. The female
collegiate cross-country runner: Nutritional knowledge
and attitudes. Journal of Athletic Training.
2003;38:67-74.

23.

Reinking MF. Alexander LE. Prevalence of disordereating behaviors in undergraduate female collegiate
athletes and nonathletes. Journal of Athletic
Training. 2005;40:47-51.

24.

Barr SI. Nutrition knowledge of female varsity
athletes and university students. Journal of the
American Dietetic Association. 1987;12:1660-1664.

25.

Deshpande S. Basil MD. Basil DZ. Factors influencing
healthy eating habits among college students: An
application of the health belief model. Health
Marketing Quarterly. 2009;26:145-164.

26.

Levi A. Chan KK. Pence D. Real men do not read labels:
The effects of masculinity and involvement on college
students’ food decisions. Journal of American College
Health. 2006;55:91-98.

27.

Shepard MW. A Nutritional Profile of Female NCAA
Division II Swimmers. [master’s thesis]. California,
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100
ABSTRACT
TITLE:

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NUTRITIONAL
KNOWLEDGE AND EATING HABITS OF UNDERGRADUATE
ATHLETIC TRAINING AND WELLNESS & FITNESS
MAJORS

Researcher:

Amanda Nicole Greco

Advisor:

Dr. Rebecca Hess

Date:

April 2010

Research Type: Master’s Thesis
Context:

There is no previous research comparing the
nutritional knowledge and eating habits of
undergraduate athletic training and wellness
& fitness majors.

Objective:

The purpose of this study was to examine any
differences in nutritional knowledge and
eating habits of undergraduate athletic
training and wellness & fitness students as
well as determine if there was a correlation
between two variables regardless of group.

Design:

Descriptive research study.

Setting:

California University of Pennsylvania’s
undergraduate athletic training and wellness
& fitness majors. All participants completed
the study through the use of
Surveymonkey.com.

Participants:

A total of 53 responses were collected (18
athletic training and 35 wellness &
fitness). Of these, 10 responses were
discarded, leaving a total of 43 responses
for data analysis (14 athletic training and
29 wellness & fitness). All of the
participants were students from California
University of Pennsylvania.

Interventions: The researcher obtained e-mail addresses of
the undergraduate students after receiving
approval from the program directors. An e-

101
mailed cover letter was sent explaining the
study and link to the survey. It was clearly
explained in the cover letter that the
survey was voluntary and the participant had
the opportunity to discontinue the survey at
any time, at which the results would be
discarded. By completing the survey, consent
was given for use of data.
Main Outcome
Measures:

Nutrition knowledge and eating habits scores
were obtained through the use of a two part
survey, the Revised Nutritional Knowledge
and Eating Habits Questionnaire.

Results:

Neither nutritional knowledge nor eating
habits were influenced by major (athletic
training and wellness & fitness). However, a
significant low positive correlation was
reported between nutritional knowledge and
eating habits regardless of group.

Conclusion:

Health and fitness majors have a higher
content of nutrition knowledge and eating
habits than the average college student
according to the literature.

Word count:

300