THESIS HURS 1998 H459k c.2 Heeter, Lonnie L. Knowledge of nonpharmacological 1998. Knowledge of Nonpharmacological Treatments for Hypertension and Blood Pressure Control in Hypertensive Older Adults. By Lonnie L. Heeter Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Masters of Science in Nursing Degree Approved by: 2/^7/// Ma^LouKeller, CRNP.PhD Committee Chaiiperson Edinboro University of Pennsylvania __ OaAaJ/______ A^J^'et Geisel, PhD, RN // ^Committee Member Edinboro University of Pennsylvania A?A Date 7 Dati (J Judith Schilling, CRNP,^hD Committee Member Edinboro University of Pennsylvania >- ii Acknowledgments I would like to thank Dr. Mary Lou Keller for her support, and assistance as chairperson during this project. I would like to thank Dr. Schilling and Dr. Geisel for their assistance as members of my committee. A special thanks to my wife for the daily emotional support that enabled me to complete this project. Additionally, I must acknowledge my unborn child as perhaps my greatest motivation to complete this project and my degree as a Family Nurse Practitioner. iii Abstract Knowledge of nonpharmacological treatments for hypertension and blood pressure control in hypertensive older adults Approximately 50 million adults in the United States either have elevated blood pressure or are taking antihypertensive medications. Unfortunately only 21% of hypertensive patients are being properly treated in the United States. After reviewing the literature the researcher found no studies that compare knowledge level of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension and actual blood pressures in older adults. The propose of the research was to assess the relationship between knowledge level about nonpharmacological treatments for hypertension and blood pressure control in older hypertensive adults. Knowledge of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension was evaluated with the use of a survey. After the subjects completed the survey the researcher measured their blood pressures with a sphygmomanometer. Mean blood pressures were calculated for all the various knowledge levels. The Pearson r test was utilized to test for a correlation between knowledge level of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension and blood pressure in the subjects. The targeted convenience sample was approximately 34 middle aged adults ages 45 years and older that can read English. The setting was in the lobby of a iv northwest Pennsylvania pharmacy. The subjects were responding to a free blood pressure screening and were asked to participate in the study. The research hypothesis was that persons with an increased knowledge level of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension will have lower blood pressures. The study found a negative correlation between blood pressure and nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension, but they were not found to be statistically significant. V Table of Contents Content Page Acknowledgment.. ii Abstract. iii List of Tables vii Chapter I: Introduction. Background of the Problem. 1 1 Statement of the Purpose Theoretical Framework. .4 Research Question. .7 Assumptions. .7 Definitions of Terms 7 Limitations. 8 Summary... 8 Chapter II: Review of Literature. 10 Dietary Modifications Sodium Reduction. Alcohol Consumption. 12 High Potassium... High Magnesium Calcium Supplementation. 16 vi Weight Control Physical Activity, 17 19 Stress Management. .21 Summary, .22 Chapter III: Methodology, 23 Hypothesis, .23 Operational Definitions, .23 Research Design, .23 Setting and Procedures Sample Informed Consent. 24 Instrumentation. .25 Pilot Survey, .25 Data Analysis, 26 Summary Chapter IV: Results Demographics Blood Pressure Results Correlations.... Summary Chapter V: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendation 32 vii Summary of the Research and Discussion. 34 Conclusions .35 Recommendations. 36 Summary. 37 References 38 Appendixes .44 A: Survey Tool .45 B: Permission for Data Collection. .47 C: Oral Introduction. .48 D: Introduction Script. 49 E: Consent from Internal Review Board. 50 viii List of Tables Tables Page Table 1. Demographic Data. .28 Table 2. Blood Pressure Readings. .29 Table 3. Average Blood Pressure vs. Survey Score. .29 Table 4. Percentage of Correct Answers 30 Table 5. Pearson r Correlation of Knowledge VS Blood Pressure. 31 Table 6. Blood Pressures. 33 1 Chapter I Introduction This chapter provides a brief overview of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension and how patient education may affect blood pressure control. Benefits of controlling blood pressure are discussed, including reducing risks of myocardial infarction, stroke, kidney failure, and blindness. Dorthea Orem’s (1995) self-care deficit theory of nursing is utilized as a theoretical frame work for this study and is described. Assumption, definition of terms, and limitations of the study are also provided. Background of the problem Approximately 50 million, or one in every four adults in the United States, either have elevated blood pressure or are taking antihypertensive medication (Blake, 1994). Approximately 2 million adults in the United States develop hypertension each year (The Sixth Report of the Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure, ([JNC VI], 1997). Estimates based on the 1988 through 1991 survey by Joint National Committee (1997) found that prevalence of hypertension increased throughout the life span. Additionally, prevalence was approximately 4% in the 18 to 29 year old age group and up to 65% m the 80 years old and above age group. Age-related progressive rise in hypertension is isolated to economically developed countries. In third world societies, age-related hypertensive progression is uncommon. Thus age-related increases in blood pressure are not 2 merely a biological product of aging (JNC VI, 1997). Population based research has identified the following environmental exposures as being among the most influential contributors to age-related increases in hypertension and increased incidence in high blood pressure, a high sodium chloride intake beyond physiological needs, obesity, physical inactivity, excessive alcohol intake, and decreased potassium intake. All of the environmental exposures are preventable with knowledge and understanding of how to avoid them (JNC VI, 1997). Unfortunately, in the United States, public understanding and effective treatment of hypertension need improvement. The Joint National Committee (1997) survey found that the percentage of Americans that were aware they have high blood pressure had increased from 51% to 73% in the last 15 years. Also increasing from 10% to 21% was the number of patients on antihypertensive medications who had their blood pressures controlled at less than 140/90 mmHg (Oparil, 1993). A contributing factor was that just 64% of patients were compliant with treatment (Dunbar-Jacob, Dwyer, & Dunning, 1991).These figures demonstrated that a minority of hypertensive patients had effective blood pressure control. The goal in hypertensive treatment is to reduce blood pressure thereby minimizing complications and reducing morbidity and mortality (Oparil, 1993). These goals are accomplished by maintaining systolic blood pressure under 140 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure under 90 mmHg, and controlling or modifying risk factors (JNC VI, 1997). Hypertension is associated with an increased risk of 3 developing coronary heart disease, stroke, congestive heart failure, renal insufficiency, and peripheral vascular disease. This increased risk has been shown in both sexes throughout the life span. Increases in diastolic blood pressure by 7.5 mmHg are associated with a 46% increase in strokes (Aiderman, 1993). Similarly, an increase of 5 mmHg in diastolic blood pressure correlates with a 16% increase in myocardial infarctions. It is important to note that lowering blood pressure does not confer total protection against cardiovascular events. In fact more than one-half of all heart attacks (57%) and almost one-half of strokes (46%) occur in the normotensive population (Aiderman, 1993). Lowering blood pressure limits a cardiovascular risk factor and will reduce cardiovascular events in a population, but may not in an individual. Current therapy for hypertension consists of life style changes and antihypertensive medications (Lenient, 1996). Life style changes that have shown real promise in treating hypertension include low sodium chloride intake, alcohol reduction, exercise, increased potassium intake, and weight loss. The evidence is less convincing for calcium supplements, magnesium supplements, fish oils, and dietary fiber (INC VI, 1997). Life style changes alone may not effectively control hypertension but may reduce the amount of blood pressure medication needed. Pharmacological therapy to control hypertension has been show in clinical trials to effectively reduce mortality and morbidity (Goldsmith. 1993). Additionally, anti- 4 hypertensive medication has been shown t0 reduce stroke, heart disease, and target organ damage. Hypertension is clearly a serious risk factor for the development of cardiovascular diseases, but still only 21% of the known hypertensive patients are adequately treated (Oparil, 1993). The Knowledge-Assembly theory states that knowledge representation and processing change are qualitative, as the degree of learning increases (Hayes-Roth, 1977). Therefore, in order for hypertensive patients to maintain a multifaceted treatment plan they must be educated about the disease and its treatment. Statement of the Purpose Fifty million American adults have hypertension which can lead to significant increases in morbidity and mortality (Blake, 1994). There are pharmacological and nonpharmacological treatments that have been effective in clinical trials for the treatment of hypertension (JNC VI, 1997). The purpose of this research is to assess the relationship between knowledge about nonpharmacological treatments for hypertension and blood pressure in older adults with hypertension. Theoretical Framework Dorthea Orem’s theory of self-care began to evolve as early as 1949. Orem (1995) builds her theory on beliefs that adult individuals have the ability to meet their own needs (self-care), and <he needs of their dependents (dependent care). Self-care is the learned ability to regulate factors that affect one’s own development and 5 functioning in the interest of life, health, or well-being. An individual’s ability to engage in self-care is termed self-care agency. The total requirement a person has to regulate factors of development and function is self-care demand. If the individual’s self-care agency is not equal to their self-care demands then they will be unable to properly perform self-care without assistance. In other words, the self-care agent, or the provider of self-care, requires assistance to meet his or her need for normal functioning, health promotion, and maintenance of normal growth and development. The self-care provider performs actions that have either internal or external orientation (Orem, 1995). Four types of external orientation are: knowing and seeking knowledge, assistance and resource seeking action sequences, expressive interpersonal actions, and action sequences to control external factors. The two internal factors are: resource-using action sequences to control internal factors and action sequences to control oneself. According to Orem, knowledge level in hypertensive adults will affect their ability to make life style changes, or to take actions controlling external factors. Knowledge deficit is a self-care demand. If hypertensive persons do not have adequate knowledge of nonpharmacological treatments they will be unable to perform self-care. A health care provider would then be needed in a supportive-educative capacity. He health care provider assists individuals to meet their self-care demands. This is accomplished in five ways: (a) acting for or doing for another, (b) guiding, (c) 6 providing physical or emotional support, (d) providing and maintaining an enviroment that supports development, and (e) teaching. For the middle aged hypertensive adult, the health care provider must adapt the care provided to meet the individual’s self-care demands (Orem, 1995). With hypertensive adults the provider must formulate a plan that particularizes for the person by age, gender, developmental stages, pattern of living and environmental conditions, and other circumstances. Orem’s self-care systems result from the use of the knowledge and skill, to treat and control an individual’s own blood pressure (Hartweg, 1991). Knowledge level of nonpharmacological treatment of hypertension provides a framework for patients to practice self-care. If the patient’s knowledge level is inadequate (self-care agency) to meet the patient’s self-care demand, then a health care provider is needed to meet this deficit and educate the patient, thus providing them with the tools to practice self-care (Orem, 1995). Nurse practitioners are in a unique position to evaluate hypertensive patients’ knowledge levels and the effectiveness of treatment. When there is a deficit in a patients’ self-care agency, nurse practitioners can provide patient teaching. Patients that are armed with adequate information may be able to practice self-care effectively and may have better hypertensive control. 7 Research Question Does knowledge level of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension affect blood pressure in older hypertensive adults? Assumptions The assumptions of this study were that: 1. Participants in the survey will answer the questions honestly. 2. Participants in the study can read and understand the survey. 3. Knowledge and skill promotes behavioral change. Definitions of terms The terms utilized in this study were defined as follows: 1. Hypertension is any systolic blood pressure greater than 140 mmHg and /or diastolic blood pressure greater than 90 mmHg (Devine & Reifschneider, 1995). 2. Older adults are 45 years old and older. 3. Nonpharmacological treatments are life style modifications to reduce blood pressure. 4. The formula for mean blood pressure is l/3(systolic - diastolic) + diastolic pressure (Halpenny, Sivarajan Froelicher, Underhill & Woods, 1989). 8 Limitations The limitations of this study were that: 1. No previous study was found that evaluated the relationship between patient knowledge level of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension and blood pressure. 2. Convenience sampling method is used and may affect the generalizability of this study. 3. The survey tool used to evaluate knowledge level was researcher-developed for the purpose of this study. Summary Hypertension is endemic in the economically developed world (JNC VI, 1997). Environmental factors that foster the occurrence of hypertension may include a sodium chloride intake many times higher than physiological needs, obesity, inactivity, excessive alcohol intake, poor stress management, and inadequate potassium intake (Lenient, 1995). Additionally, reductions in these factors have been shown to treat and prevent hypertension. Joint National Committee survey (1997) found that only 73% of persons with high blood pressures were aware of the diagnosis of hypertension. This may contribute to the finding that only 29% of patients taking anti-hypertensive medications are maintaining their blood pressures at less than 140/90 mmHg (Dunbar-Jacob, et al., 1991). 9 Dorthea Orem’s (1995) self care-deficit theory of nursing was used as a theoretical framework for this study. The framework defines patients’ health care deficits and defines the need for nursing agency. The stated purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between knowledge about nonpharmacological treatment of hypertension and blood pressure control in older hypertensive adults. The assumptions, definitions of terms, and limitations of this study were also discussed. 10 Chapter II Review of Literature This chapter provides a review of the current literature on nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension. This review of the literature will cover the most commonly practiced nonpharmacological treatments that may have an effect on hypertension. These treatments are categorized into dietary modifications, weight control, physical activity, and stress management. There are other life style modifications that have been suggested to be helpful in controlling hypertension, however, for this study they were not considered. Dietary modifications Dietary modifications that will be discussed for the purpose of this research are sodium reduction, decreased alcohol consumption, high potassium, high magnesium, and high calcium intake. There are other dietary modifications that have been suggested to be helpful in treatment and prevention of hypertension, however they will not be included in the study. Sodium Reduction. The relationship between sodium chloride intake and blood pressure is no news to the food industry, nor to expert committees in the United States and elsewhere (Thelle, 1996). Expert committees have recommended reductions in daily sodium intake to 100 mmol or less daily (Thelle, 1996). This is the equivalent of a 2.3 gram sodium diet. However, Thelle (1996) points out that b«ause 75% of the salt we consume is hidden in processed food, it is difficult to limit sodium 11 intake. Despite the recommendations made by expert panels, the average sodium consumption by adults in the United States is between 100 and 200 mmol daily (JNC VI, 1997). The Joint National Committee VI says this is far beyond our physiologic needs and appears to be substantially more salt than our ancestors consumed. More than 70 published studies have reported the effect of sodium on blood pressure (JNC VI, 1997). A recent study by Denton, Mundy, & Weisinger (1995) on chimpanzees showed that adding 100 mmol of sodium a day to their food increased their systolic blood pressures by an average 12 mmHg. Blood pressure rose further when sodium intake was increased and fell when excess sodium intake was discontinued. A human study of 24 communities, with data from 47,000 individuals, found that an increase in sodium intake of 100 mmol per day was associated with an increase in systolic blood pressure that ranged from 5 mmHg at ages 15 to 19 years to 10 mmHg at ages 60 to 69 (Frost, Law, & Wald, 1991). The differences were much larger for those individuals with baseline systolic blood pressures greater than 140 mmHg. Another large international study evaluated the relationship between 24-hour urine sodium excretion in 10,079 (5,045 men, and 5,034 women) subjects and their blood pressure (Intersalt, 19SS). The subjects ranged from 20 to 59 years of age, and were from 52 countries around the world. Sodium excretion ranged from 0.2 mmol per 24 hours (Yanomano Indians, Brazil)to 242 mmol per 24 hours (north China). There were positive and significant relationships between median sodium excretion 12 and median systolic blood pressure across the 52 counties in both age and sex standardized regression analyses. Median systolic blood pressure was found to be 109 mmHg in subjects with 24-hour sodium excretion of 25 mmol/24h. However, the subjects with 200 mmol of sodium excretion per 24 hours had median systolic blood pressures of 122 mmHg (Intersalt, 1988). Medical authorities agree that appropriate sodium intake ranges from 70 to 100 meq per day (Blake, 1994). An 87 meq (2 gram) sodium diet requires the omission of foods naturally high in sodium, as well as limiting of the amount of salt used in food preparation. Blake (1994) also noted that patients should be given examples of low sodium diets that can be palatable. Alcohol Consumption. From cross sectional studies it has been estimated that as much as 5% to 7% of the overall prevalence of hypertension can be attributed to an alcohol intake of three or more drinks per day (Friedman, Klatsky, & Siegelaub, 1982). The estimates for men alone are as high as 11%. Prospective studies have found consistent evidence of a strong relationship between baseline alcohol intake and blood pressure (Gordon, & Kannel, 1983). The Framingham Study evaluated the relationship between alcohol consumption and the mean blood pressure in 5,209 subjects (Gordon & Kannel, 1983). The study looked at average blood pressures in relationship to the ounces of alcohol consumed monthly by the subjects. The increase in systolic blood pressure between a nondrinker and individuals drinking more than 80 os per month was 9 13 mmHg for men and 16 mmHg for women. Also important K note is lha, male nondrinkers’ systolic blood pressures were 2 mmHg higher than those who drank 1 to 9 oz of alcohol per month. Female nondrinkers’ blood pressures were found to be 8 mmHg higher than those females that consumed 1 to 9 oz of alcohol per month (Gordon & Kannel, 1983). A study of 44 hypertensive men in a randomized, controlled, crossover study looked at the effects of reducing alcohol consumption by giving participants low alcohol beer for 6 weeks. (Beilin, Puddley, & Vandongen, 1987). Alcohol consumption was reduced from an average of 30 oz per week to 8 oz per week per subject with the reduced alcohol beer. The study found a reduction of systolic and diastolic blood pressure as early as 2 weeks among the men drinking reduced alcohol beer. The average adjusted systolic blood pressure dropped 5.0 mmHg supine and 5.9 mmHg standing at 6 weeks. The corresponding adjusted reduction in diastolic blood pressure was 3.0 mmHg supine and 2.9 mmHg standing in the same time period. Weight change itself contributed independently to the fall in systolic blood pressure. The study found falls in 1.8 mmHg and 2.3 mmHg for supine and standing reading, respectively, for each kilogram reduction in body weight. Excessive alcohol intake can raise blood pressure and cause resistance to antihypertensive therapy. Beevers, Davies, Gill, and Maheswaran (1991) found that significant hypertension may develop during withdrawal from alcohol, but the effect 14 of alcohol withdrawal is reversed within a few days, sho^ng a net redaction in Hood pressure. High Potassium. A high dietary intake of potassium may be protective against developing hypertension or helpful in treating hypertension (Lianas, 1991). Currently there are not any recommended daily allowances for potassium, but unofficially adults should get 3500 milligrams daily (Kasher, 1996). Unfortunately Kasher’s (1996) survey found the average United States adult only consumes 2,000 milligrams daily. A meta-analysis of six randomized controlled studies of potassium supplementation was conducted in normotensive subjects. In all the trials, potassium supplementation was achieved by administration of pills rather than dietary changes. In five of the six trials, the systolic and diastolic blood pressures were reduced, but the reduction was statistically significant in only three instances (National High Blood Pressure Education Working Group [NHBPWG], 1993). The Hypertension Prevention Trial Research Group (1990) studied 195 healthy men and women, aged 25 to 49 years, with diastolic blood pressures of 78 to 89 mmHg. The study goal was to reduce individual sodium excretion to less than 70 mmol per day and increase potassium excretion to greater than 100 mmol per day. Researchers evaiuated the subjects evcy 6 months for 3 years. The control group had equal reduction goals for sodium, but not for potassium. The study results revealed no 15 added effect on blood pressure for increased podium intake over that achieved by sodium reduction alone. In a trial of 100 randomized subjects, common sodium salt was replaced with a low sodium, high potassium, high magnesium mineral salt. Systolic blood pressure measurements at 8, 16, and 24 weeks fell a combined average of 7.6 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure fell a total of 3.3 mmHg in the mineral salt group compared to the control group. Twenty-five weeks after the subjects stopped substituting with the mineral salts, blood pressure differences between the two groups were no longer detectable (Bak, Den-Breeijen, Geleijnse, Grobbee, & Witteman, 1994). Decreases in blood pressure were of the same magnitude in both sexes and were not modified by age. There were no side effects from the intervention, unlike some pharmacological treatments. Joint National Committee VI (1997) says that hypokalemia may increase blood pressure, therefore they recommend approximately 90 mmol per day, from fresh fruits and vegetables high in potassium, in prevention and treatment of hypertension. High Magnesium. A magnesium deficit is thought to occur in 20% to 80% of the population, and the mineral is especially important therapy for patients with cardiovascular disease (Brodsky, 1992). Magnesium is believed to work much like a calcium channel blocker, theoretically reducing blood pressure by limiting the amount of calcium that the vascular smooth muscle can take up. Limiting intracellular calcium in the smooth muscle reduces vasoconstriction (Brodsky, 1992). 16 Seventy-one subjects with mild essential hypertension were entered into a double blind random crossover study of 1 month treatment with 15 mmol magnesium daily. Despite a significant increase in plasma magnesium, there was no decrease in blood pressures compared to a control group. These results provided evidence that magnesium plays no role in blood pressure regulation (Beynon, et al., 1985). These findings are consistent with JNC VI (1997) conclusions, no convincing data currently justifies recommending the increased magnesium consumption for treatment of hypertension. Calcium Supplementation. Intracellular calcium is involved in the regulation of vascular tone (Hamet, Lambert, & Mongeau, 1991). Calcium deficiency is associated with an increased prevalence of hypertension, and low calcium intake may amplify the effects of high sodium intake on blood pressure control (Hamet, et al., 1991). A meta-analysis of 25 randomized clinical trials of increased calcium intake have been reported (NHBPWG, 1993). Six of the twenty-five clinical trials failed to find a significant effect of calcium supplementation on blood pressure. Only two of the trials documented a significant reduction in both systolic and diastolic blood pressures. Also important is that the two trials that had the largest sample size and longest duration were among the studies that found no relationship between calcium intake and blood pressure. 17 A randomized, double-blind, plaeebo-controlled trial was conducted to examine the effects of calcium supplementation on normotensive adult men (Edmondson, et al., 1987). The 75 men were randomly assigned to a treatment (calcium 1500 mg per day) or to a placebo group for 12 weeks. Multiple blood pressures were taken every 2 weeks seated and supine. At the end of the 12 week trial, subjects in the treatment group were determined to have modest but significantly lower diastolic and systolic blood pressures. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure reductions averaged a 2 to 3 mmHg greater in African-Americans than in European Americans, which was not statistically significant. While an increase in dietary calcium intake may have hypotensive effects, the results of clinical trials with the use of pill supplements have not been persuasive (NHBPWG, 1993). In the absence of more compelling results, it would not be prudent to recommend a high of dose calcium for hypertensive control. JNC VI (1997) agrees that there is no rationale for recommending calcium supplements to lower blood pressure. However, calcium intake should remam at the recommended dietary allowance of 800 mg to 1200 mg per day for the general population, and 1500 mg per day for women over age 50 (NHBPWG, 1993). Weight Control Cross-sectional and prospective studies identity . stntng relationship between body weight and blood pressure (Van Itallie, 1935). This relationship has been noted in both sexes, all age groups, and in a wide variety of ethnic groups. In most of the 18 studies, being overweight was associated with a tw< ro-fold to six-old increased risk of developing hypertension (NHBPWG, 1993). With the use of the NHANES II criteria (body mass index greater than 27.8 i m men and greater than 27.3 in women), the prevalence of the overweight adult population in the United States varies from less than 20% in younger white men to more than 60% in older black women (Blacket, Hall, Macdonald, & MacMahon, 1988). In 1994 there were approximately 32 million overweight Americans, an increase from 28.8 million in 1976 (U. S. Public Health Service Staff, 1994). Not only does weight correlate with increased blood pressure but deposition of excess fat in the upper part of the body (truncal or abdominal) has been correlated with hypertension as well as other cardiovascular diseases (JNC VI, 1997). This can be assessed by measuring the waist to hip ratio; above 0.85 for women and 0.95 in men is considered a disproportionately large amount of fat reserve on the trunk or abdomen. Schotte and Stunkard (1990) did a study on the effects of weight reduction on the blood pressure of 301 obese patients. Weight reduction was achieved by behavior modification, medication (fenfluramine hydrochloride), or a combination of both. Subjects started the study at least 20% above their ideal body weights. Blood pressure reduction was noted in many of the participants after a weight loss of only 10 pounds. After a weight loss of 20 to 22.2 pounds over a 6 month period, subjects experienced average reductions of blood pressure of 26 mmHg in systolic blood pressure and 20 19 mmHg in diastolic blood pressure. On average the subjects’ systolic and diastolic blood pressures dropped 2.3 and 1.8 mmHg, respectively, per kilogram of weight lost. The blood pressure reductions in this study from weigh, loss compare favorably with that of pharmacological monotherapy. Current recommendations by JNC VI (1997) are to attempt to reduce stage I hypertension with weight loss and other lifestyle modifications for 3 to 6 months. If pharmacological treatment then is needed, the weight reduction program should continue to be vigorously pursued. Physical Activity Regular physical acitivity to achieve a moderate level of physical fitness may be helpful in both treatment and prevention of hypertension (JNC VI, 1997). In addition to exercise reducing hypertension, it is also associated with weight loss, which will further reduce hypertension. Sedentary persons are found to have a 20% to 50% higher lifetime risk of hypertension (JNC VI, 1997). Additionally NHBPWG (1993) also reported this association in both sexes, whites and blacks, and for all age groups. Exercise is also known to reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, osteoporosis, diabetes mellitus, and falls (Blake, 1994). A 32 - year longitudinal study of exercise tolerance and its effect on blood pressure found that systolic blood pressure was 10 mmHg lower in individuals identified as physically fit (Anderson, Blackbum, Gillman, & Taylor, 1981). Physical 20 fitness was determined in this study by evaluating the subjects' response to tread mill exercise testing. A longitudinal 12-year study of 6,039 men and women measured physical fitness and its relationship to blood pressure (Blair, et al., 1984). Physical fitness was defined by physical work capacity as measured by the treadmill exercise test. After adjustments for body mass index, the relative risk of hypertension for the low fitness group was 1.52. The incidence of hypertension was 18 per 1,000 in the high fitness group and 32 per 1,000 in the low fitness group. A special report by NHBPWG (1993) reviewed 30 studies that evaluated the impact of increased physical activity on blood pressure. They found statistically significant reductions in blood pressure in subjects that had higher levels of physical fitness. Overall, the average reduction in blood pressure for the 30 trials was 6 to 7 mmHg in systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Additionally, blood pressure was reduced in normotensive as well as in hypertensive patients. JNC VI (1997) recommended that hypertensive patients exercise aerobically at least three times weekly, for 20 to 45 minutes every session. Overweight patients may benefit from more frequent low intensity workouts. Also noted by JNC VI (1997) was that exercise should be proceeded by warm-up sessions and finished with cool-down sessions. 21 Stress Management Stress 011 has been oeen associated associated with wtth the the ri rise in circulating levels of catecholamines, vasopressin, cortisol, and aldosterone and the reduction of urinary sodium secretion (NHBPWG, 1993). Knowing that all of these changes could play a part in regulating blood pressure, speculation has been that long-term control of stress would decrease blood pressure. A clinical trial of 192 men and women aged 35 to 64 evaluated the relationship between relaxation and blood pressure (Carruthers, et al., 1985). The treatment group had group sessions of 1 hour weekly for 8 weeks in which they were taught breathing exercises, relaxation techniques, meditation, and managing stress. Blood pressures were measured in the treatment and the control groups at the initial visit, and at 8 weeks, 8 months, and 4 years. The treatment group was found to have significantly reduced blood pressures at all measurements 8 weeks and beyond. Average treatment group’s blood pressure at 8 weeks was 132/80.5 mmHg verses 140.2/86.6 mmHg in the control group. Reductions were maintained in the treatment group verses the control group after 4 years, 139/85.2 mmHg and 145.7/92.4 mmHg, respectively. Cross-sectional, prospective studies in many different populations have found that there is an association between increased stress and the development of hypertension (House, Metzner, Robbins, & Strecher, 1986). Job stress and social support seemed to play a role in how subjects managed stress, an 22 their blood pressures were affected. The Joint National Committee VI (1997) does not support the use of relaxation therapies for the treatment or prevention of hypertension. However based on this literature review it is believed that stress does play a role in treatment and prevention of hypertension. Summary This chapter has provided a review of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension. There is a multitude of potential nonpharmacological treatments for control of hypertension and the purpose of this chapter is to review the most commonly practiced nonpharmacological treatments. Nonpharmacological modifications that have been shown to be effective in the treatment of hypertension were reviewed: including decreased sodium and alcohol intake, increased potassium consumption, weight loss, physical activity, and stress management. High intake of magnesium, and calcium were also reviewed, however their benefit on blood pressure could not be demonstrated. Dietary changes, weight control, physical activity, and stress management have been shown in clinical trails to effectively treat hypertension. If the practitioner educates the patient about nonpharmacological treatment of hype perhaps more than 21% of known hypertensive patients will have blood pressures under 140/90 mmHg. Additionally, better blood pressure control may allow decreased use of medication. 23 Chapter III Methodology This chapter describes the methodology utilized to determine the relationship between knowledge level of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension and blood pressure in older hypertensive adults. Included in this chapter are the research design, sample and setting, data analysis, and the procedure utilized for this study. Hypothesis There is an inverse correlation between knowledge level of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension and blood pressure in older adults. Operational Definitions Blood pressure measurements were done by a registered nurse and were measured with a single zero sphygmomanometer. All measurements (first and last Korotkoff sounds) were the average of two readings. The first measurement was taken five minutes or longer after the patient was seated. The second measurement immediately followed the first in the opposite arm, again while the subject was seated. Research Design This study utilized a nonexperimental descriptive research design. Data was collected by administering a dichotomous survey tool (Appendix A) and measuring blood pressure. The goal of the study was to evaluate the relationship between 24 knowledge level of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension and blood pressure. Setting and Procedures The setting was in the lobby of a pharmacy in northwestern Pennsylvania. Permission was confirmed by a written and signed agreement between the owner and operator of the pharmacy and the researcher (Appendix B). The pharmacy offers free blood pressure screenings to the public one day monthly. Individuals that arrived for the free blood pressure screening were introduced to the research and its purpose. Upon answering their questions, the researcher asked them to participate in the study. Sample The targeted convenience sample consisted of older adults that had been diagnosed with hypertension and could read and understand English. The researcherdesigned survey was administered to subjects presenting at a free blood pressure screening at a northwestern Pennsylvania pharmacy. Those that agreed to participate in the study were first asked to complete the survey. After completion of the survey they remained seated and blood pressures were taken as described in the operational definitions. Informed consent An oral (Appendix C) and a written introduction (Appendix D) accompanied the survey to enhance the subjects understanding of the study. The completion and return of the survey to the researcher was deemed as informed consent. All the data 25 collected remained confidential, the surveys were placed in a security box, there were no names or other identifying information, and only grouped data has been reported. The study was reviewed by the Edinboro University Internal Review Board (IRB) and was given an exempt review prior to being instituted (see Appendix E). Instrumentation A survey was utilized to evaluate knowledge level of nonpharmacological treatments for high blood pressure. Due to the lack of a previous research study in this area, the tool was researcher-designed. The survey consisted of two sections. A cover page provided subjects with information about the study, its purpose, and directions for completing the survey. The first section of the survey elicited demographic information and history of diagnosed hypertension. Demographic information obtained was age, use of antihypertensive medication and whether they perceived high blood pressure to be harmful. The second section of the survey included 12 dichotomous true and false questions. The questions elicited knowledge level of dietary modifications, weight control, physical activity and stress reduction. Respondents answered the questions as either true or false. Pilot Survey The pilot survey was conducted with five subjects that met the inclusion requirements for the study. There were no questions on the survey that needed clarification. All the participants in the pilot study completed the survey in less than three minutes. 26 Data Analysis The study included 34 subjects that met all the research criteria. The Pearson r test was utilized to test for a correlation between knowledge level of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension and mean arterial blood pressure in older hypertensive adults. Additional evaluation of the data analysis included lists of whole numbers, means and percentages. Summary The goal of this study was to determine the relationship between knowledge of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension and blood pressure in older hypertensive adults. The study was a nonexperimental correlational research design. Analysis of the data compared blood pressure of those subjects that scored high on the survey with subjects that showed little knowledge of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension. 27 Chapter IV Results This chapter provides the results of the study relating to knowledge level of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension and blood pressure in older adults. Data on blood pressure, knowledge level and correlations between the two is included within the results. The researcher conducted this study in the lobby of a northwestern Pennsylvania pharmacy in February 1998. The subjects were responding to a free blood pressure screening at the pharmacy and were asked to participate in the study. Forty-seven surveys were completed by the subjects; 34 subjects met all of the inclusion criteria. After the surveys were completed the subjects’ blood pressures were measured as described in the operational definitions. Demographics There was an equal representation of males and females, with 17 of each included within the study (Table 1). All of the participants of the study were 45 years old or older with a history of hypertension. Twenty-one of the 34 participants were on antihypertensive medications at the time of the study. All but one of the participants were aware that hypertension is unhealthy. Blood pressure results The average mean blood pressure for all the subjects was 101.7 mmHg. The average systolic and diastolic blood pressures for all the subjects was 139.9 mmHg 28 and 81.1 mmHg, respectively (Table 2). Table 3 demonstrates the average mean, systolic and diastolic blood pressures for the subjects in relationship to their survey scores. Table 1 Demographic Data n % Male 17 50% Female 17 50% Yes 34 100% No 0 na Yes 33 97% No 1 3% Yes 21 62% No 13 38% Gender History of hypertension High blood pressure is unhealthy Antihypertensive medication Note, Percentages rounded to the nearest whole number, na means not applicable 29 Table 2 Blood Pressure Readings n BP Average mean blood pressure 34 101.7 mmHg Average systolic blood pressure 34 139.9 mmHg Average diastolic blood pressure 34 81.1 mmHg Note. Blood pressures are rounded to the nearest tenth. Table 3 Survey Score vs. Average Blood Pressure Survey scores Average means Average systolic Average diastolic n 12 107 148 87 1 11 100.8 142.2 79.9 18 10 100 139.3 80.3 3 9 105 145.5 84.8 4 8 100.4 139.6 80.6 7 4 114 165 87 1 Note, All blood pressures were recorded in mmHg. 30 On average the respondents were knowledgeable about nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension, answering 9.9 questions correctly out of twelve (82.4%). Table 4 contains the percentage of correct answers for each of the nonpharmacological treatments that were evaluated by the survey. Table 4 Percentage of Correct Answers Nonpharmacological treatment % of correct answers Sodium reduction 87% Alcohol reduction 82% Frequent exercise 89% Obesity’s effect 93% Stress reduction 90% Increased potassium 50% Note. Percentages rounded to the nearest whole number. Correlations The Pearson r test was utilized to test for a correlation between knowledge level of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension and blood pressure. The Pearson i test was run on the mean blood pressures versus total scores on the survey. The correlational coefficient was -0.115 which fails to demonstrate a significant 31 correlation (Table 5). Additional correlations were run to evaluate any correlation between blood pressures and knowledge level for each of the nonpharmacological treatments for hypertension. None of the correlations were found to be statistically significant with a 0.05 alpha level. However knowledge level concerning alcohol and stress demonstrated the highest correlation in predicting blood pressures. Table 5 Pearson r Correlation of Knowledge Vs Blood Pressure Nonpharmicological treatment Correlational coefficient n Total knowledge score -0.115 34 Sodium -0.059 34 Exercise 0.165 34 Obesity 0.195 34 Alcohol -0.289 34 Stress -0.284 34 Potassium -0.044 34 Note. With 34 degrees of freedom and an alpha of 0.05 the correlational coefficient of + or - 0.330 is needed to be significant. 32 Subjects who understood alcohol’s effect on blood pressure had an average mean blood pressure of 99.5 mmHg verses blood pressures of 107.1 mmHg for those who did not understand alcohol’s effect on blood pressure (Table 6). Knowledge level concerning stress also showed a inverse relationship to blood pressure. Subjects answering the stress questions correctly had average mean blood pressures of 100 mmHg verses 108.1 mmHg for the subjects answering one or both of the stress questions incorrectly. Despite the rather large variation in the blood pressures for both the alcohol and the stress groups, they fail to show a statistical difference at a 0.05 alpha level. Summary The subjects answered 82.4% of the questions correctly, demonstrating a good knowledge base about nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension. Despite a positive trend in the alcohol and the stress groups there were no statistically significant correlations found between knowledge level of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension and blood pressure in older adults. 33 Table 6 Blood Pressures Nonpharmacological treatment Average mean blood pressure n Alcohol Group answering correctly 99.5 mmHg 24 Group answering incorrectly 107.1 mmHg 10 Group answering correctly 100 mmHg 27 Group answering incorrectly 108.1 mmHg 7 Group answering correctly 97.6 mmHg 27 Group answering incorrectly 103.7 mmHg 7 Group answering correctly 102 mmHg 30 Group answering incorrectly 99.3 mmHg 4 Group answering correctly 102.6 mmHg 29 Group answering incorrectly 106 mmHg 5 103.2 mmHg 6 101.4 mmHg 28 Stress Sodium Obesity Exercise Potassium Group answering correctly Group answering incorrectly Note, Blood pressures were rounded of to the nearest tenth. 34 Chapter V Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations This chapter summarizes the results of the correlational study between knowledge level of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension and blood pressure in older adults. Conclusions are discussed and recommendations are made for future research. Summary of the Research and Discussion The purpose of the research was to assess the relationship between knowledge of nonpharmacological treatments for hypertension and blood pressure control in older hypertensive adults. The review of literature evaluated the current knowledge of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension. The treatments that were found to be effective in treating hypertension were categorized into dietary modifications, weight control, physical activity, and stress management. The Joint National Committee VI (1997) found all of the above nonpharmacological treatments effective in decreasing blood pressure, except stress reduction. However, based on this literature review stress reduction was included in the study. Forty-seven surveys were completed by the subjects and 34 met all of the inclusion criteria. The survey was designed to assess basic knowledge level of nonpharmacological treatments for hypertension. After the survey was completed, the subjects’ blood pressures’ were taken by the researcher. The data did not show any statistically significant correlation between blood pressures and scores on the survey. 35 However, the data did demonstrate nonsignificant blood pressure reductions in those subjects with greater knowledge concerning sodium, alcohol, stress and potassium. Blood pressure reductions as knowledge scores increase demonstrated an inverse correlation. Knowledge of alcohol consumption’s and stress reduction’s effect on blood pressure showed the most promise. Those answering correctly on alcohol’s effect on blood pressure had an average mean blood pressure of 7.6 mmHg lower than those that answered incorrectly. The subjects that answered the stress questions correctly also had average mean blood pressures of 8.1 mmHg lower than those that answered the stress questions incorrectly. This study did not substantiate Orem’s self-care theory of nursing. Orem’s self-care systems theory (1995) suggests that as knowledge of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension improves, persons should demonstrate an enhanced ability to practice self-care. Therefore as knowledge goes up, blood pressure should go down. Noncompliance with a nonpharmacological treatment regimen could explain the lack of support for Orem’s theory of self-care. Conclusions Results from the study demonstrate that these hypertensive patients had good understanding of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension. This is demonstrated by 82.4 % of the questions being answered correctly on the survey. When survey scores and blood pressures were evaluated for a correlation with the Pearson r test, no statistically significant difference was found. There are several 36 potential explanations for the lack of significant correlation. The survey did not elicit any information about whether the subjects actually practiced the nonpharmacological treatments. It was certainly possible that the subjects understood the potential benefits from nonpharmacological treatments but still choose not to incorporate them into their lives. Additionally, with 32 of 34 subjects scoring between 8 and 11 on the survey, there may not have been enough variance in the score to demonstrate any correlation. Such a narrow range of score limits the ability of correlational tests (Gallo, Linton, 1975). Recommendations There have been numerous studies that evaluated the effectiveness of various nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension, however, none were found that assess outcomes based on knowledge level of these treatments. Additional research needs to focus on actual blood pressure control in relationship to knowledge of nonpharmacological treatments. It is important to remember, although controlled trials demonstrate benefits, this may not equate to real life blood pressure control. Additional research related to knowledge level of nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension should include a survey that will demonstrate a wider range of knowledge level scores. Additional questions that elicit more specific information related to the nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension maybe helpful. This would enhance the ability of correlational statistics to demonstrate a statistically significant correlation. 37 The most promising data from this study was the correlation between knowledge level of alcohol and stress, and its inverse correlation with blood pressure. Although this study failed to demonstrate statistically significant correlations with a 0.05 alpha level, the actual blood pressure variance was substantial and further study would be considered. Additional studies may consider using surveys that focus on the roles of stress and alcohol in treatment of hypertension. Additional research needs to be done to evaluate compliance with nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension. Knowledge level regarding nonpharmacological treatments of hypertension will have no effect on blood pressure unless subjects actively incorporate appropriate strategies into their daily routine. Summary This chapter has provided a summary of the research project. 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Health implications of overweight and obesity in the United States. Annuals of Internal Medicine, 103, 983-988. U. S. Public Health Service, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion: (1994) The Clinician’s handbook of prevention services: put prevention into practice, McLean, VA: International Medical Publishing, Inc. 44 Appendixes 45 Appendix A Survey 1. What is your age? 2. Male? Under 45 45 or over Female? 3. Have you ever been told you have high blood pressure? Yes No 4. Are you currently taking blood pressure medications? Yes No 5. High blood pressure is bad for you. True False The following questions are true or false. Please circle the correct response. 6. High blood pressure is not effected by sodium (salt) intake. True False 7. Drinking large amounts of alcohol increases your blood pressure. True False 8. Being overweight does not effect your blood pressure. True False 9. Regular exercise increases your blood pressure. True False 10. Reducing your stress level will reduce your blood pressure. True False 11. Eating foods high in potassium may decrease your blood pressure. True False True False True False 12. Eating foods containing high sodium (salt) will increase your blood pressure. 13. Drinking alcohol has no effect on your blood pressure. 46 14. Being overweight decreases your blood pressure. True False 15. Frequent exercise has no effect on your blood pressure. True Flase 16. Reducing stress in your life increases your blood pressure. True False True False 17. Eating foods low in potassium may increase your blood pressure. 47 Appendix B Permission for Data Collection The setting of the data collection was in the lobby of The Medicine Shoppe, a pharmacy in northwestern Pennsylvania. The pharmacy offers the public free blood pressure screening one day monthly. Individuals that arrived for the free blood pressure screening were introduced to the research and its purpose. Upon answering any questions, the researcher asked them to participate in the study. Permission for data collection at this pharmacy was granted by Anthony Stellato, R.PIL, the owner and operator of the pharmacy. I would like to thank Anthony Stellato for allowing me to collect the data for my thesis at his pharmacy. 'Z'-'V-v\yVt Researcher: Lonnie Fleeter RN, BSN. Permission GrarffecL^y: Anthony Stellato, R.PH. ... / 48 Appendix C Verbal Introduction Hello, my name is Lonnie Heeter. I am a student enrolled in the master’s program for Family Nurse Practitioner at Edinboro University of Pennsylvania. I am doing research to evaluate the relationship between knowledge level of nonpharmacological treatments of high blood pressure and actual blood pressures. If you choose to participate in the study there is a short survey to fill out. The survey is 17 true and false questions that takes about two or three minutes to complete. After you complete the survey I will check your blood pressure in both arms. Your participation in the study is completely voluntary. If you decide to participate please do not put your name on the survey. Your answers on the survey will remain anonymous and confidential. Completion and return of this survey to the researcher will be deemed as informed concent. 49 Appendix D Introduction Script The purpose of this study is to find out if there is a relationship between knowledge about nonpharmacological treatments for high blood pressure, and blood pressure in adults who are 45 years old and older with a history of high blood pressure. The survey consists of 17 true and false questions and takes two or three minutes to complete. I am doing this study as part of my masters degree as a Nurse Practitioner at Edinboro University of Pennsylvania. It is important that you answer all the questions and that you do not have assistance in answering the questions. Upon completing the survey I will take your blood pressure in both arms while you are sitting. The completion and the return of this survey to the researcher will be deemed as informed consent. All the information collected will remain confidential, the surveys will remain in a security box, and there will be no names or other identifying information (please do not put your name on the survey). Please complete the survey by circling the correct answer. Thank you for your help! Edinboro University of Pennsylvania Nurse Practitioner Student Lonnie Heeter 50 EDINBORO UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA Appendix E Consent from Internal Review Board To: Department of Special Education and School Psychology Edinboro, PA 16444 (814) 732-2200 L. iZZlegTzU___ j zxzi// zuLxiJ________ has been Your research proposal -___ reviewed and has received an “exempt level* rating of a] Iprovai because the research design met one or more of the following requirements: research in common educational settings where the students are not identified. research using educational tests with no identifiers of subjects. research using surveys or interviews where respondents are not identified. research involving observations of public behavior. research involving collection, study, and use of existing data where subjects are not identified. lL Dr. Sondra L. Dastoli, Chairperson Human Subjects Review Soard ~r A member of the Slate System of Htfter Education Date